hist 11 midterm

What technological innovations spurred industrialization?

5 innovations spurred industrialization (occurred first in Britain): Mass production through the division of labor; ex: Josiah Wedgwood started his own pottery business and subdivided work New machines and mechanization; banned importation of cotton cloth and instead imported cotton fiber to make cloth domestically with laborsaving machines; Mechanization offered two advantages: increased productivity for the manufacturer and lower prices for the consumer Great increase in the manufacture of iron; Availability of cheap iron made mass production of objects such as guns, hardware, and tools appealing. However, fitting together the parts of these products required a great deal of labor so manufacturers like Eli Whitney (firearms) and Eli Terry (clocks) contributed to the development of standardized interchangeable parts Steam engine; First machine to transform fossil fuel into mechanical energy (most important because use of coal is more efficient) Electric telegraph; The first practical electric telegraph systems were developed almost simultaneously in England and America; in 1837 in England, Charles Wheatstone and William Cooke introduced a five wire telegraph, while the American Samuel Morse introduced a code of dots and dashes that could be transmitted with a single wire

compare laissez faire and mercantilism

Adam Smith, a Scottish economist; in the Wealth of Nations, he argued that if individuals were allowed to seek personal gain, the effect would be to increase the general welfare; the government should refrain from interfering in business, except to protect private property Government not allowed to interfere Mercantilism: prevailing economic doctrine which argued that governments should regulate trade in order to maximize their hoard of precious metals

Why is the history of the Indian ocean commonly partial?

Historical accounts commonly partial because mostly Western (European) interaction is discussed; was largely treated as an arena to demonstrate the "rise of the west" Should focus on 622-1750 according to K.N. Chaudhuri because it includes both western involvement and other aspects of history of the Indian ocean Spread of Islam and economic unity important Indian ocean witnessed four phases of expansionary movements: o Outward projection of Islam o Projection of Imperial China o Migration of Turko-Mongol warlike communities toward the settled land in the Middle East, China, and India o Maritime expansion of Christian Europe

How does Curtin's argument of political environment in the periphery and "man on the spotism" (curtin p. 42) support and advance the theory of Gallagher and Robinson?How does Curtin's argument of political environment in the periphery and "man on the spotism" (curtin p. 42) support and advance the theory of Gallagher and Robinson?

John A. Gallagher and Ronald E. Robinson changed the understanding of imperialism in significant ways. They based their study on Victorian Britain and its expansion in Africa to advance a new understanding of European territorial expansion. Such has been the influence of their study that one historian has credited them as having accomplished a "historiographical revolution" in the study of imperialism. They published a book in 1961: Africa and the Victorians. Components of their interpretations include: • Argued for certain continuity in British expansion policies. Disagreed that late 19th century was a radically new phase in imperialism • Suggested discontinuity in British imperialist activity at the end of the 19th century in the form and mode of expansion based primarily on circumstances in countries beyond Europe. Thus they changed the previous Europe-centric perspective with another one that looks at resistance to colonialism in Africa and considers it a factor in the shaping of imperialism • The most important factor in the partition of Africa was the search for strategic security in the world • Make a distinction between the "motives" of the partitioners and the "causes" of the partition of Africa. The most compelling motives in Africa were strategic although they did not completely exclude commercial or philanthropic interests • Disagreed with a fundamentally economic explanation of African scramble, stating that the bulk of british emigration, trade, and capital went to areas outside the formal British Empire (mostly to the colonies at first). Here they introduce the concept of informal and formal empires, saying that wherever possible, the British went for an informal control; formal control was deployed only when necessary • "Man on the spotism" the periphery man (ruling locally) would make important decisions that would ultimately affect the imperial center; ex: annexing Malay peninsula • In the 1800s, men on the spot had two additional incentives to expand. The weapons gap based on industrialization lowered the price of any use of force against non-Europeans. In addition, that same industrialization in Europe tended to bring about new economic and social dislocations overseas • Long before the 1800s, European bureaucrats had developed the notion that orders should come down from the center of government, often in the king's name, to a hierarchy of subordinate officials, who passed them on down the line. In Europe, the people at the top of this hierarchy tended to be at the court or in the capital city while subordinates were most often located elsewhere, at provincial capitals or in principal towns • Orders went from the colonial ministry or equivalent body to governors-general, to subordinate governors, and finally to military commanders and other subordinates at the point of contact or friction with non-western neighbors or opponents (p. 43) • Decision-making was decentralized, with important consequences. People at different levels of the hierarchy in different place had different sources of information and different assessments of the political or military situation • Individual acts of imperial advance often depended on the interaction of a set of individual decisions, each reached within the context of a particular circle of vision • Maybe incorporate something about Malay peninsula p. 47 • P. 48 in the Anglo-Burma War of 1852 and the British encroachment in Malay later in the century, the impetus for empire building came from the periphery, not the imperial center. A similar tendency could be traced in patterns of French expansion into West Africa or Dutch expansion into Southeast Asia • Men on the spot more likely to encounter cross-cultural confrontation; had to deal with people who had different values and ways of conducting business

theories of imperialism

Marxism/capitalism; Hobson was more social/psychological; John A Gallinger and Ronald E Robinson argued for why and how European countries to were able to partition african Marxist interpretation regards the late 19th century imperialism as economically determined. The emergence of imperialism denoted a viral change in the character of capital. In the earlier stages the units of production were numerous and small, and thus small, progressive capitalism was marked by free competition and free trade. From about 1870 to the growth of giant combines and trusts changed the nature of industrial production. There was now the new growth of monopoly capitalism that attempted to secure exclusive possession of markets, raw materials, and investment areas. The coming of new players like Germany and the US further accelerated the national struggle for markets. The exclusive control of markets sought by monopoly capital was most perfectly realized in the form of political control- hence, the political subjection and subordination of colonial territories Lenin popularized the Marxist interpretation of imperialism more than anyone else, calling it "the highest stage of capitalism." In 1876 1/10th of the African continent was colonized. By 1900, 9/10th had been colonized. Looking at this, Lenin theorized African imperialism as that stage in the development of capitalism in which the division of all the territories of the globe among the great capitalist powers had been completed There were other non-marxist historians who rejected economic motive as the sole and sufficient cause for the scramble for Africa. Most prominent ones among them followed the theory of J.A. Hobson (Imperialism, 1902). According to Hobson, imperialism represented a voluntary choice to develop an overseas market as against an intensive home market. This understanding gives more importance to the "public mind" as causative force in colonial policy; it gives greater weightage to social and psychological factors. Hobson argued that in most instances financial and military losses on colonial acquisition far outweighed the very limited gains. Colonial trade rarely made up really significant share of the total trade of the metropolitan powers. But certain minority and sectional interest in the metropolis had gained significantly. Imperialism served these small financial and industrial interest groups who had monopolized power within imperial nations and employed public force for their own ends. These were called the "economic parasites" of capitalism. Hobson also used the concept of "surplus capital" to explain imperialism. There was both under consumption and over saving in the domestic economy. The profitability of trade was less than the profitability of export capital. Thus, it was the financiers who were setting the agenda in the background. There is a certain degree of convergence in the understanding of Hobson and Lenin on the issue of control by "finance." Lenin also uses the concept of "finance capital" to explain imperial developments, but he uses the term only for the post 1900 period Africa appears in their understanding as a blank map on which the Europeans were free to write their will John A. Gallagher and Ronald E. Robinson changed the understanding of imperialism in significant ways. They based their study on Victorian Britain and its expansion in Africa to advance a new understanding of European territorial expansion. Such has been the influence of their study that one historian has credited them as having accomplished a "historiographical revolution" in the study of imperialism. They publish a book in 1961: Africa and the Victorians. Components of their interpretations include: Argued for certain continuity in British expansion policies. Disagreed that late 19th century was a radically new phase in imperialism o Suggested discontinuity in British imperialist activity at the end of the 19th century in the form and mode of expansion based primarily on circumstances in countries beyond Europe. Thus they changed the previous Europe-centric perspective with another one that looks at resistance to colonialism in Africa and considers it a factor in the shaping of imperialism o The most important factor in the partition of Africa was the search for strategic security in the world o Political crises in Egypt and South Africa which seemed to dictate that these interests must be secured by extension of territory o Changes in Anglo-French relations (Suez crisis) o Make a distinction between the "motives" of the partitioners and the "causes" of the partition of Africa. The most compelling motives in Africa were strategic although they did not completely exclude commercial or philanthropic interests o Disagreed with a fundamentally economic explanation of African scramble, stating that the bulk of british emigration, trade, and capital went to areas outside the formal British Empire (mostly to the colonies at first). Here they introduce the concept of informal and formal empires, saying that wherever possible, the British went for an informal control; formal control was deployed only when necessary "Man on the spotism" the periphery man (ruling locally) would make important decisions that would ultimately affect the imperial center; ex: annexing Malay peninsula In the 1800s, men on the spot had two additional incentives to expand. The weapons gap based on industrialization lowered the price of any use of force against non-Europeans. In addition, that same industrialization in Europe tended to bring about new economic and social dislocations overseas Boar republic buying guns with gold; figuring out better ways of fighting (p. 31 of curtin)

Atlantic complex

Move of goods, wealth, people, and cultures Utilization of indentured servants and slaves on plantations Atlantic Circuit and Middle Passage Atlantic circuit: first leg was from Europe to Africa and carried European manufactures like metals, hardware, and guns; second leg was Middle Passage which transported slaves; third leg was plantation goods from the colonies returned to Europe Tobacco plantations, sugar plantations New diseases introduced that severely hurt populations; ex: malaria in the tropical areas carried by mosquitos Started in the Mediterranean and shifted to the Atlantic

What led to the industrial revolution in Britain?

Probably happened because of population growth that increased the demand for goods, agricultural revolution (intro of new crops like the potato; revolution in farming increased food supply and forced many peasants off the land), the expansion of trade, and an openness to experimentation and innovation Britain enjoyed a rising standard of living, had booming overseas trade, already the world's leading exporter of tools, guns, hardware, clocks, etc., skilled mechanics; commercial culture was excellent Britain also had good water transportation and none of the duties and tolls that goods had to pay every few miles in France or Spain; had abundant supplies of coal and iron ore In contrast, the economies of continental Europe were hampered by high transportation costs, misguided government regulations, and rigid social structures 5 technological innovations o Mass production through the division of labor; ex: Josiah Wedgwood started his own pottery business and subdivided work o New machines and mechanization; banned importation of cotton cloth and instead imported cotton fiber to make cloth domestically with laborsaving machines; Mechanization offered two advantages: increased productivity for the manufacturer and lower prices for the consumer o Great increase in the manufacture of iron; Availability of cheap iron made mass production of objects such as guns, hardware, and tools appealing. However, fitting together the parts of these products required a great deal of labor so manufacturers like Eli Whitney (firearms) and Eli Terry (clocks) contributed to the development of standardized interchangeable parts o Steam engine; First machine to transform fossil fuel into mechanical energy (most important because use of coal is more efficient) o Electric telegraph; The first practical electric telegraph systems were developed almost simultaneously in England and America; in 1837 in England, Charles Wheatstone and William Cooke introduced a five wire telegraph, while the American Samuel Morse introduced a code of dots and dashes that could be transmitted with a single wire It had its manufactories- Birmingham with its small metal goods, Sheffield with its cutler, Staffordshire with its pottery, woolen in east Anglia West Country, and Yorkshire Putting out system (merchant bringing raw materials, capital, and machines to rural artisans and returning months later to collect goods) shifted thinking to a more manufacturing perspective One interpretation has focused on favorable geography and natural resources: moist climate of Lancashire ideally suited to cotton textile Manufacturing: ease of access to seas and good river waterways brought transportation costs down Britain had ample reserves of coal Political factors: appropriate political framework- British government from 1660 was firmly committed to policies favoring the pursuit of profit over other aims- more than any other European government Main conditions of IR were already present in Britain (wage workers, concentration of land and capital, social concentration of capital) or could be easily brought into being