HIST 395 Final Exam Study Set

The People's Republic of China: The Maoist Period I. Mao Zedong (1893-1976) A) Background

1. Came from a rich peasant family in Hunan, father was a successful farmer & mother illiterate 2. Made his way thru the school system & attended teacher's college 3. Worked in the library at Beijing University & was involved in Marxist study groups; also involved in the 1919 May 4th Movement 4. Heeded the call by Marxist intellectuals to go to the countryside & organize the peasants. 5. Acted as the Hunan delegate to the first meeting of Chinese Communist Party in Shanghai in 1921 6. At Moscow's directing, he & other communists served the GMD loyally when Sun was alive. 7. Early in the White Terror, which Mao survived, he & others flee to the mountains on the Huang-Jiangxi border where they form Jiangxi Soviet 8. Emerges as CCP leader on the Long March 9. Transform the CCP into a peasant-based movement, not under Soviet domination or urban elites. Viewed the urban communists as having failed. Little to no interest in "international revolution". Mao had never been out of China. 10. Directed brutal purges of those who disagreed & suspected enemies @ Jiangxi

IV. The Nationalist Period (1928-1937) A) Chiang Kai-Shek (1881-1975)

1. Came from upper middle-class family of salt merchants & landlord; father died when he was very young 2. Wanted to be a Confucian scholar & take the mandarin exams but never did. Embarked upon a military career instead, studying military science in Japan 3. While in Japan, he becomes affiliated with the Revolutionary Alliance & later the GMD 4. Appointed by Sun to head Huangpu & then Head of GMD

F) Henry Pu-yi (1906-1967)

1. Came to power at the age of 2 when the emperor and Cixi died in 1908 2. Last Emperor of China 3. Reign lasted less than 4 years from December 1908-February 1912

B) The Northern Frontier

1. China's long border with Mongolia continued to frustrate the Ming, especially with illegal trade & smuggling with an "enemy state". 2. In 1449, emperor invaded Mongol territory & was captured. Many in his entourage were slaughtered. 3. In 1542, a Mongol Khan captured & killed 200000 people, seized a million cows & horses, & destroyed several thousand homes. 4. The Ming was continually trying to strengthen & rebuild the wall.

D) Central Asia (Xinjiang)

1. Chinese control of Central Asia lapsed during the Song & Ming Dynasties but the Qin reasserted control in the 1750s. 2. The Mongol & Uighur inhabitants were allowed religious & cultural autonomy. Nor did they have to wear the Manchu queue. 3. By this time, China was becoming more alarmed about Russian & British expansion from India in the region & to guard its Western frontier, the Xinjiang region was made a regular province in 1784.

E) Decline & Downfall of the Yuan

1. Military Overreach a) The Bun'ei War of 1274: Kublai Khan attempted to invade Japan following the Kamakura Shogunate's refusal to submit. The invasion fails in a storm. b) In 1281, a second larger invasion of 150000 is attempted. Invasion crushed by powerful typhoon. Less than 1/2 made it back to the mainland. c) War against the Tran Dynasty of the Kingdom of Annam was disastrous as the Mongols suffered from tropical disease & their cavalry rendered ineffective in the mountainous jungles. d) Evidently learning little from Japan, another disastrous sea-borne invasion of Java was attempted in 1292. Their fleet was never heard from. 2. Kublai Khan dies in 1294. 3. Yuan Dynasty left with financial problems, military defeats, & dynastic disputes.

II. Expanding the Celestial Kingdom A) The Southwest Frontier: Yunnan & Guizhou

1. Mongols had incorporated these southwestern regions into the Yuan Dynasty in 1253, resettling 50000 soldier & their families, including many Muslims from the northwest. 2. Ming continued this process, reconquering it in 1381 & colonizing it with 200000 soldiers. The subsequent 200 years saw another 500000 settled into the area alongside of its inhabitants. 3. Result: violent uprisings by the indigenous people. Major uprisings occured in 1464 & 1466, in part because the Ming sent their own civil officials into these regions to enforce policies & collect taxation. 4. The goal: strike a middle ground between local tribal autonomy & trying to enforce total submission. 5. Conflict was ameliorated by incorporating local leaders into the apparatus 6. Result: emergence of new provincial dialects & identities with the Han culture being dominant

C) Tibet

1. Mongols invade Tibet from Xinjiang in 1717. 2. Qing responded by annexing Tibet outright, taking Lhasa in 1720. 3. Permanent Manchu garrison established in the aftermath. 4. Little interference in Tibetan affairs.

C) Yuan Rule

1. No Eurasian Mongol empire by the time the Song was defeated. Most of Asia ruled by Mongol successor states which fought amongst themselves. 2. The Yuan Dynasty of Kublai Khan including China proper, Korea, Mongolia, Manchuria, & Tibet. 3.Little assimilation. No adoption of Chinese by Mongol rulers & most spent their summers in Mongolia 4. Mongol officials pitched traditional nomadic tents on the palace grounds rather than sleep in Forbidden City. 5. Kublai discouraged Mongols from taking Chinese women, as they were considered "too delicate" for a Mongol.

The Qing Dynasty (1644-1912) I. Origins A) Manchuria

1. Northeast China: Non-Han outsiders 2. Non-nomadic people who farmed, fished & hunted; descended from the Jurchens 3. Some had migrated southward among the Chinese & served the Ming as soldiers

E) Consolidating the Revolution

1. Resisting the United States a) The Korean War (1950-1953) b) Expulsion of Western missionaries 2. Support from the Soviet Union 3. Nationalization of Industry 4. Collectivizing agriculture 5. Party growth: 2.7 million in 1947 to 17 million in 1961 6. Social reform: The 1950 Marriage Reform Law 7. From empire to "multi-national state": Tibet & Xinjiang

F) Yuan Dynasty Achievements

1. Reunified China & fostered North/South interaction 2. Reinvigorated trade along the Old Silk Road 3. Rebuilt the northern section of the Grand Canal & connected it to Beijing. 4) Strengthened China's sense of itself & gave it the confidence of staying power

V. Foreign Trade A) Shifting Balances of Power

1. Between 1700 & 1800, the balance of wealth, power, resources & innovations shifted from China to Western Europe 2. Europeans, esp. the Spanish & Portuguese, had been trading on the south China coast since the late Ming. The Dutch took their place in the 17th century & the English in the 18th. 3. Trade handled on the European side by joint-stock companies & on the Chinese side on the Co-hong, the official merchant guild in Canton (Guangzhou) which was the only city open to European traders after 1759. 4. Foreigners had to reside in a special quarter & stay only long enough to conduct business 5. Afterwards some would go to the Portuguese colony of Macao or return to India & Europe

I. Zhu Yuanzhang, aka "Emperor Taizu") (1328-1398) A) Background

1. Born into poverty, he lost both parents at 16 to a flood, & saw several siblings sold away. Entered a Buddhist monastery until the Mongols burned it down. 2. Joined the White Lotus Society, millenarian cult inspired by Buddhist teachings, & rose to prominence after marrying the commander's daughter. 3. The Red Turban Revolution (1352). In 1355, he became commander & captured Nanjing, drawing many peasant soldiers to his command & uniting the Confucian scholars eager for a return to Han rule. 4. Attacked & captured Beijing in 1367. The Mongols fled northwards in disarray. He proclaimed a new Ming Dynasty in 1368 & ruled from Nanjing, which swelled to 1 million inhabitants from 100000. 5. First commoner to rule China in 1500 years & the First time China was ruled from a city south of the Yangzi!

C) Dream of Red Mansions (aka Dream of the Red Chamber)

1. By Cao Xuequin, in mid-18th century 2. One of the masterpieces of world literature 3. Perhaps China's greatest novel

III. Downfall A) Fiscal Collapse

1. By start of 17th century, Ming was overcommitted financially & virtually insolvent. 2. Military campaigns & overseas commitments were a large drain on the treasury. The war in Korea against Japan cost 26 million oz. of silver 3. During the reign of Wanli (1573-1619), 23000 relatives were receiving stipends! 4. Gov't expenses increasing as populations increasing; revenue doesn't keep up because peasant lose their land & the rich find ways to minimize their payments 5. Cessation of trade between Portugal & Japan in 1639 & conflict between Chinese immigrant & the Spanish in the Philippines led to an end of China's silver supply. 6. Rapid deflation, hoarding of silver & grain, tax defaults & rent riots.

D) Consolidating Power

1. By the time of declaration of the new dynasty, the Manchus were the most powerful military force in China. 2. In 1644, when the Ming emperor committed suicide, the Manchus crossed the wall, defeated the remaining rebels, & rid North China of bandit armies 3. All Chinese were forced to move to the southern section of Beijing & the eunuchs were forced out 4. Large tracts of land in north China was confiscated from Ming relatives and officials & private farmers as well; re-assigned to Manchu soldiers & noblemen 5. Any man who did not shave his head & start a queue was ordered executed in 10 days; taken as a sign of submission 6. Within 15 years, all of southern China was subdued. Many Chinese welcomed the peace and stability & also feared destruction. 1000s were executed in Yangzhou by the Manchus

B) Mao & the CCP @ Yan'an

1. CCP lived in caves, ate simple food & worked to help peasants & gain their support. Also mobilized peasants to fight the Japanese. 2. Generally seen as communists, idealistic revolutionaries who put China's well-being first 3. Mao's writings glorified the peasants & advocated adoption of the "mass line"; party leaders had to spend time working under the peasants & learn from them. 4. Supports land reform 5. Maintains that struggle, revolution & change are good; compromise, deference & tradition are bad. 6. Party members pressured to read Mao's writings & engage in "personal confession" of capitalist, imperialist ideas that elevated the individual over the collective. "Public humiliations" often followed where in party members were taught that any deviation from Mao's thinking & ideas was due to a defect in their "subjective, liberal, bourgeoisie thought"

II. The Three Great Emperors

Together ruled for 133 years. Roughly 60 years each in the case of Kangxi & grandson Qianlong. Long period of peace & stability. Manchus accepted by educated elites & the gentry for the order & moderate rule they provided. Acted as guardians of China's culture & civilization yet were also strong Manchu military leaders.

D) The Outside World

1. The Voyages of Zheng He (1371-1435) & the Star Fleet a) A Muslim eunuch & navigator who served the 3rd Emperor Chengzu b) 7 major voyages between 1405-1433 c) First expedition: 27000 men on 287 vessels d) Largest vessel: 440 ft long e) Traveled to India, the Persian Gulf as far as East Africa 2. Portugal established a trading base in Macao in 1577; beginning of European interaction. 3. Growing trade with the New World through the European merchants a) silk & porcelain from China b) silver from Peru & Mexico c) New World food- Products: sweet potatoes, maize, & peanuts; all grown on previously uncultivated land & contributed to population increases d) Piracy a continual problem by the mid-16th century 4. European ideas & Christian missionaries began filtering into China a) Matteo Ricci (1552-1610): arrived in Macao in 1583 & lived in Beijing from 1601-1610. First European. b) Ming court often impressed by educated, knowledgeable Western missionaries but the Confucian elites were typically hostile to them, especially their ideas.

D) U.S Involvement

Chiang & the Nationalists, & even China at large, enjoyed much American support.. Chiang & his wife, a daughter of Sun Yatsen, were close personal friends of Henry & Clare Luce. Henry Luce, one of the most influential new publishers in American history, founded Life & Time magazines.

B) Temujin Oge, aka Genghis Khan (1162-1227)

1. Avenged the death of his murdered father & became renowned for his military skills & political savvy. The Mongols were weak, divided, & clannish until he unified them. In 1206, he was proclaimed Chinggis (usually "Genghis") Khan (meaning "fierce ruler"), or Great Kahn of the Mongol clans 2. Formed an army made of up to 1000 horse units, called chiliarchies, led by appointed commanders loyal to him. Had an elite bodyguard of 10000 sons & brothers of the commanders 3. Mongol soldiers endured great hardship & were legendary for their endurance & speed 4. Instituted, simple, draconian laws & adopted Uighur script, even though he himself was illiterate

C) Qianlong (r. 1736-1795)

1. Benefitted from previous fiscal policies & generally ran surpluses 2. Regarded as the "Scholar Emperor" who read, wrote & painted in the evenings. Published over 42000 poems & made thousands more inscriptions on works of art. Also concerned with preserving Manchu culture & history & commissioned numerous collections. 3. A Dark Side: forcefully suppressed any hint of anti-Manchu sentiment including the collection & burning of thousands of books which seemed to include anti-Manchu references. No copies have been recovered of over 2000 titles that were targeted.

B) Environmental/ Ecological Collapse

1. The Shaanxi Earthquake: January 23, 1556. a) Deadliest earthquake in recorded history (8.0) b) 830000 killed c) 97 counties affected in a 500 square mi area 2. Early 17th century: "Little Ice Age" leads to shorter growing seasons & less food. Lakes froze that had never frozen before in recorded history. 3. 1627-1628: widespread famine 4. 1639: tax increases floods, droughts, famines, locusts, & epidemics 5. Increase in beggars, urban workers riots, & a tenant's riot against landlords, all compounded by fiscal crisis

C) Building Projects

1. 30 mi of new walls were built around Nanjing as well as a new palace & government buildings. 2. Taizu's successor relocated the capital to Beijing & built it into the city that it remained for centuries. 3. 100s of 1000s of workers were employed to reorganize the walls & compounds 4. Main palace was the center of a new compound called the Forbidden City, itself in a gov't compound called the Imperial City surrounded by inner walls 5. By 1553, an outer city was added with its own walls & gates 4 mi by 4.5 mi. 6. The Grand Canal was enlarged & Maintained with 160000 soldiers in a transport navy with 15000 boats

C) Hong Taiji (1626-1643)

1. Adopted more Chinese institutions & made use of more Chinese soldiers. 2. Numerous Chinese generals & their armies defected & joined Taiji along with Mongols as the Ming Dynasty fell apart. 3. After 10 years of military expansion, Taiji declares a new dynasty in 1643, just as he died, called the Qing, or "pure" dynasty

A) Taiwan

1. An island populated with indigenous inhabitants that had been visited by Portuguese & Dutch traders as well as Ming mariners. 2. During the 17th century, more than 100000 Chinese settled in Taiwan when it was ruled by an ex-Ming mariner-turned-pirate. 3. Kangxi sent an expedition to attack & defeat Taiwan in 1683, making it a prefecture of Qing China.

C) Tributary System

1. At the height of the Ming, nearby & neighboring states sent envoys every few years to kneel before the emperor & exchange gifts. 2. Recognition of China's "cultural achievement" & feeds into China's view of itself as the Middle Kingdom. 3. Over 40 states at its height, including Korea, Vietnam, Tibet, Japan, Burma, Thailand, the Philippines & many others. 4. Vietnam: The Ming invaded Vietnam in 1407 to shore-up the Tran Dynasty & engage in annexation. Vietnamese armed resistance forced their withdrawal. 5. Korea: The Ming fought a war in neighboring Korea from 1592-1598 to defend it from invasion by a Japanese warlord, Hideyoshi. First battles China fought with muskets.

D) Chinese Life under the Mongols

1. Continuation of Chinese Culture. a) Chinese not forced to adopt Mongol customs. b) Philosophical & religious traditions remained. c) Literary traditions continue. 2. But also, economic hardship... a) Large number of Chinese had land expropriated & given to Mongols. b) Many Chinese forced into serfdom or slavery. c) Taxation was extremely high. d) Rampant inflation. 3. And discrimination... a) Intermarriage discouraged. b) Chinese not allowed to take Mongol names or try to pass as Mongols. c) Sometimes Chinese encouraged to learn Mongol language & at times discouraged. d) Chinese not allowed to own weapons or congregate in public or even traffic in bamboo. e) Chinese who fought back against a Mongol was subject to harsh punishment. f) Mongols only fired for murder of a Chinese 4. Population Decline a) Northern Song population by 1100: 100 million b) By 1207: 120 million combined North & South c) By 1290: Down to 60 million & remained there for 100 years d) Reasons: i. Initial devastation & slaughter by Mongol armies. ii. Turmoil & civil war in the final years of the Yuan. iii. Spread of deadly Eurasian plagues. 1 million people from 1232-1235

B) Nurchaci (1559-1616)

1. Created the Manchu state through a process of unification 2. Well-established military, organized into 4 units under a colored banner; eventually expanded to 8 Manchu banners & 8 Chinese 3. Renounces Ming rule & attacks Liaodong area in 1616, and himself dies. 4. His successor forced all Chinese to adopt Manchu hair queue. 5. Following rebellions by the Chinese under their rule, educated elites were executed & strict separatism was mandated. Manchus were ordered to carry weapons; Chinese forbidden from doing so

D) Chiang & the GMD

1. December 10, 1949: the PLA lays siege to Chengdu; last GMD controlled city on the mainland 2. GMD flees to Taiwan (Formosa) with US support 3. Still the ruling party today

E) Prosperity & Growth

1. Despite Taizu's view of the wealthy & merchant classes, commercial life expanded. 2. Agricultural production grew & market towns sprang up 3. Population during the Ming Period nearly doubled to 200 million.

D) The Boxer Rebellion

1. Emerges in 1898 as an impoverished peasant uprising in northwest China 2. Combining traditional martial arts, spiritual/shamanistic beliefs, & extreme xenophobia, they called themselves the "Fists of Righteous Harmony", or "Boxers" by the West 3. Harassed, killed, and destroyed the property of western foreigners, missionaries, and Chinese Christians 4. Appeared in Beijing & Tianjin in 1900. The Empress Dowager tried to harness them and turn them against the Western powers in their Western coastal concessions 5. 12 nations, including the United States, sent in 20000 forces to suppress the Boxers & evacuate Westerners, but also Chinese Christians to California 6. The Qing Dynasty was forced by the Western powers, in retribution for its support of the Boxers, to pay 450 million oz. of silver; twice the dynasties' revenues to be paid over 40 years with interest!

B) Infatuation with Womanly Virtue

1. Enormous rise in number of "faithful widows"; that is, women who did not remarry after losing a husband & even teenagers who spent their lives celibate after losing a betrothed, sometimes without even meeting the man. 2. One local history from Jianghan records 4 "faithful widows" during the Song Period, 95 during the Ming & rising to 203 by mid-Qing 3. So many "memorial arches" constructed to honor "faithful widows" that only collective arches were allowed in 1827 & only suicide memorials allowed in 1843.

B) But too little, too late...

1. Excessive bureaucratic controls by the dynastic government hindered the reinvestment of profits & therefore prevented sustained free-market growth. 2. The unequal treaties by the Western powers kept China from protecting its industries from competition with better established foreign companies 3. Culture: Local, rural Chinese thought telegraphs & RRs would interfere with ancestor's graves & create unemployment. Opposed & sometimes sabotaged development 4. By 1894: a dismal 195 mi of RR track in the entire country!

C) Humiliation from Japan

1. Following the Japanese Meiji Restoration (1868), Japan rapidly outpaced China in modern industrial & military development. 2. By the 1870s, Japan claimed the disputed Ryukus Islands & "forced open" Korea in 1876 3. The Sino-Japanese War a) Both China & Japan send in forces when a rebellion begins in Korea b) Japan, wanting to provoke war with China, sank a Chinese troop carrier c) China was no match for Japan & was quickly defeated by its much smaller neighbor d) China forced to pay 200 million oz of silver, forced to give up to Japan control of Taiwan (renamed Formosa) & the Liadong Peninsula, & Japan would open factories in China

A) Kangxi (r. 1662-1722)

1. Frequently went on hunting expeditions & made numerous tours of of China's provinces, familiarizing himself with local issues & problems 2. Extended China's empire & strengthened its military position 3. Patronized arts & literature & bought prominent scholars into the court, including missionaries and Jesuits from the West. Appointed Jesuits to head the Imperial Board of Astronomy. 4. In 1692, Christianity was officially tolerated as long as it did not denounce ancestor rites/worship. Missionaries expelled when they did.

B) Trade Statistics

1. Goods in demand by England: silk, porcelain, & esp. tea 2. English Tea Imports: a) 1684: 5 chests b) 1720: 400000 lbs c) 1800: 23 million lbs d) By 1800, British buy 1/7 of tea sold in China & import tax is 1/10 is state revenue 3. Silver Flow: 3 million oz. of silver to China in 1760s to 16 million oz. in 1780s

A) Kublai Khan (1215-1294)

1. Grandson of Genghis Khan 2. Ruled over Hebei, in North China, & understood Chinese ways & culture. Had Chinese advisors & even spoke some Chinese. 3. Eventually given Jurchen territory in North China, constructed a new capital called Shangdu. 4. In 1264, relocated to Zhongdu, initiated Chinese court rituals & adopted a Chinese name for the dynasty, the Yuan. 5. Initially popular, promoted Confucian scholars & recognized the sacredness of Daoism & Buddhism. Also promoted Muslim scholars to the court. B) South China: The Southern Song 1. China south of the Yangzi had never been ruled by nomads from the north. 2. Kublai assembled a river fleet in 1268 to lay siege to Xianyang on Han River, key to controlling Yangzi Valley. a) Siege lasted for 5 years & involved 1000s of boats & 10s of 1000s of soldiers. He employed Chinese, Korean, Jurchen, & Persian experts in warfare. b) Muslim engineers designed an artillery piece that hurled 1000 lbs rocks 3. Song leaders & officials were disorganized & un-coordinated & the emperor was a boy, dominated by his mother who was disliked. 4. Despite the Song raising 200000 soldiers in the final phase, Mongol scare tactics demoralized the Song. The queen mother surrendered the capital after the Mongols massacred >1 million civilians in Hangzhou, then the most populous city on Earth. 5. In 1279, Song resistance collapsed.

C) China Come Apart

1. In 1642, rebels destroy the dykes along the Yellow River, killing several hundred thousand people 2. A smallpox epidemic compounds social crisis. China's population dropped by several 10s of millions in the 17th century. 3. In 1644, a warlord general moves into Beijing & last Ming Emperor ends his own life.

B) The "Rape of Nanjing"

1. In 1937, Japan attacked southwards to conquer China from Manchuria 2. Chiang forced to give up Beijing & Tianjin but held out for 3 months in Shanghai, where he lost 250000 soldiers 3. Chiang retreated to Nanjing but Japanese attacked with an aerial bombardment & invasion. Over 300000 civilians killed, est. 20000 women raped & the city ruined. Reported Western press as "Rape of Nanjing" creates much international sympathy for China

B)The Great Leap Forward

1. In late 1957, Mao announced that China would mobilize its masses, surpass GB's industrial output in 15 years & export grain abroad 2. Peasant men mobilized into industrial communes to engage in work projects, such as the construction of "backyard steel furnaces" to double steel production; women were organized to increase agricultural production 3. Results: a) Little technical know-how, hasty construction & crude materials meant most of the steel was useless & projects unsafe. b) Agriculture: Corruption + Government planning = catastrophe i. Corruption: Party appointed officials unaccountable to the people vastly overreported harvests, leading to over-procurement by the state ii. Gov't planning: "Kill the Sparrows." iii. Catastrophe: Between 1959 & 1962

VI. Losing the Mandate A) Structural Decline

1. Insufficient Jobs 2. Population Outgrowing food production 3. Rising poverty & crime 4. The failure to eradicate foot-binding

V. World War II A) Japanese Aggression

1. Japanese army officers assassinated the warlord in Manchuria, Zhang Zuolin, in 1928, hoping to expand their power at China's expense. 2. 3 years later, 1931, Japanese soldiers explode a bomb on the southern Manchurian RR as a pretext for occupying Shanyang. 3. January 1932: Japan attacked Shanghai over anti-Japanese protests & est. a puppet regime in Manchuria, renamed Manchukuo, with Henry Pu-yi as their "puppet emperor"

E) Empress Dowager (1835-1908)

1. Known as Cixi, the Queen Mother was notoriously corrupt and spent vast sums of money on her luxury items. 2. Reigned as an incompetent regent from 1861-1908 3. To many young, educated & "revolutionary-minded" Chinese, she symbolized everything that was wrong with the dynastic system

B) The Northern Expedition (July 1926)

1. Launched & led by Chiang in 1926 as he believed that Nationalist Army was ready 2. The GMD Plan was to reunify the country from the warlords thru force; planned before Sun's death 3. Supported by the CCP which helped by mobilizing peasants & workers 4. Chiang's Nationalist forces defeated 34 warlords in less than a year; Warlord Era ends 5. Garners great patriotic fervor & international attention. The Northern Expedition becomes the stuff of legend. Chiang, like Sun, was also a Christian & therefore had many contacts in & great support from many American quarters

C) The Cultural Revolution

1. Mao: "Starting to feel like a dead ancestor" a) Convinced that he was being pushed aside by younger party elites, esp. in the aftermath of the Great Leap Forward b) Mao's 3rd wife, Jiang Qing, organized the Cultural Revolution Small Group in 1966 in response to a Beijing play perceived to be critical of Mao c) Mao encouraged students to organized themselves into "Red Guards" d) Destroy the "Four Olds" i. Old Customs ii. Old Culture iii. Old Habits iv. Old Ideas 2. The Red Guards a) Spreads quickly beyond control b) Mao closes middle schools & universities so students can devote their full attention to promoting Mao Zedong Thought & uncovering "revisionists" c) More than 11 million Red Guards, often carrying their Little Red Book ("The Sayings of Chairman Mao"), terrorized teachers, public officials, artists, business owners & even family members. d) Police ordered to stand aside e) Mao: "This man Hitler was ferocious. The more ferocious the better, don't you think? The more people you kill, the more revolutionary you are." f) Rampant torture, persecutions, suicides & killings 3. Effects a) 36 million persecuted b) 3 million died c) 1.5 million injured d) Red Guards eventually sent to the countryside for "education" 4. Ends when Mao dies in 1976

C) Expansion

1. Seeking tribute & trade from settled agricultural societies & urban centers & driven to find grazing land reduced by climate change in the 12th century, the Mongols set about forging the largest contiguous land empire in history. 2. Envoys demanded total submission from neighboring states or faced annihilation. Those who submitted were left in power. Those who did not were utterly destroyed & slaughtered en masse. 3. The Tanguts of the Xia Kingdom were attacked first & destroyed in 1207. 4. Aiming at the Jin Dynasty of the Jurchens, they swept across the North China Plain in 1212-1213 & razed more than 90 cities. When the Jurchen capital of Zhongdu was sacked in 1215, it burned for more than a month. 5. In 1219, he led 200000 warriors into Central Asia 6. By his death, in 1227, Mongols ruled an empire from Korea to Manchuria, Mongolia, North China, & across Central Asia through Afghanistan, parts of India, Khurasan, (North Persia), present-day Georgia & Azerbaijan, & to the Duchy of Kiev on the Caspian Sea. 7. The empire broke into 4 sections ruled by his descendants after his death. 8. Effect: blending of diverse cultures & heritages among new societies & people.

B) Yongzheng (r. 1722-1736)

1. Shortest reign of the 3, he tightened bureaucracy & curbed Manchu aristocrat's power. 2. Greatly stabilized China's fiscal position & tax policies. 3. Forbade hereditary servile status.

B) The First United Front

1. Sun returns from Japan to Guangzhou in 1916 when Shikai dies to maintain & assume control of the Nationalist gov't, but with little authority outside of Guangzhou in the far south & no military capability. 2. The May 4th Movement (1919) a) At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, following WWI, the Western Powers award former German possessions in China to Japan to reward it for its participation against Germany, without consulting China whatsoever. b) Thousands of Chinese students' riots & protest at Tiananmen Square c) Strikes & demonstrations spread to more than 200 cities d) The warlord government in Beijing (no Sun's) arrests 1150 but releases them. e) Has a galvanizing effect on Chinese opinion for the better, marking the beginning of a true, country-wide nationalist movement. A politically conscious middle-class begins to emerge. 3. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) forms in Shanghai in 1921 with Soviet support 4. Starting in 1923, Dr. Sun & the GMD received Soviet aid in return for accommodating the CCP. CCP members were allowed to join the GMD as individuals but not as a separate party cell of communists. 5. Dr. Sun never was a communist himself but found common cause with them as he believed that they, like himself, wanted a better China and saw no reason not to cooperate 6. Sun's chief lieutenant, and his son-in-law, Chian-Kai-Shek returns from study in Moscow in 1924 to found the Huangpu Military Academy in Guangzhou with Soviet aid & advice. By 1926, Huangpu graduated several thousand officers, & the GMD army has 100000 men in uniform under Chiang's leadership. The GMD finally had a military capacity. 7. Sun dies unexpectedly in 1925; Chiang takes command of the GMD

D) Controlling the Eunuchs

1. Taizu did not trust the traditional palace eunuchs & forbid them to learn to read or interfere in politics. Later emperors were more successful in controlling them, however. 2. Eventually the eunuchs were once again playing a major role in military affairs & civil matters. 3. By the end of Ming, nearly 70000 eunuchs at work across the country & 10000 in the capital. 4. Even had their own schools and bureaucracy 5. Later emperors turned most matters of states over to them, allowing them to collect taxes.

II. Maoism Mixed Legacy A) Crushing Dissent

1. The Hundred Flowers Campaign (1956) a) "Let a hundred flowers bloom, let a hundred voices contend" b) Journalists, intellectuals & scholars were invited to criticize & make suggestions c) Lavish praise initially fostered great participation 2. The Anti-Rightist Campaign a) What followed was the stigmatization & punishment of those who spoke out b) Labeled as "Rightists" for being against the revolution & therefore the people, almost 3 million were accused & not allowed to work any longer. c) Over .5 million sent to work camps in the countryside for "reeducation" & manual labor d) Many of them were replaced by party officials, who had little professional training or Western education. Over 1/2 of China's "Old Guard" intellectuals were wiped out & replaced by state servants. The rest were silenced from fear & intimidation e) Reminiscent of the Qin emperor

Exalting the Position of the Emperor

1. The Kowtow: officials were required to kneel & were frequently beaten. 2. Built a self-supporting army of over 2 million. 3. Re-organized the tax base & strengthened the law code. 4. Forced better-off village families to carry out civil functions & collect taxes, reducing corruption among the mandarins. 5. Little sympathy for intellectual elites & the wealthy. a) Imposed high taxes on the wealthy. b) Mandated that scholars not question authority of the emperor c) Turned his palace guard into a secret police force to report on political opponents d) Over 100000 executed in purges in 1380.

C) Foreign Intervention

1. The MaCartney Mission (1793) a) Lord George Macartney (1737-1806) b) Refused to kowtow c) Made no progress in opening China but believed China was too backwards to resist 2. The Opium War a) Opium derived from poppies in India & present-day Afghanistan b) East India Company gradually increased imports. Opium shipments to China by chest full: i. 1729: 200 ii. 1767: 1000 iii. 1800: 4500 iv. 1825: 10000 v. 1838: 40000 c) Qing Dynasty bans importation & production by 1800 & smoking was outlawed in 1813, punishable by 100 blows & wearing the cangue for 1 month. d) Smuggling continued. e) Silver Flow Reverses: 2 million oz of silver from China in 1820s to 9 million oz by 1830s 3. Commissioner Lin Zexu (1785-1850) a) Sent to Canton (Guangzhou) to stop opium trade in 1839 b) Seized pipes, opium stores & arrested 1600 Chinese c) Offered to trade seized opium for tea at 1:5 ratio d) Ultimately, Lin destroyed the opium stones e) The British fleet attacks & the Qing were forced to sue for peace 4. The Treaty of Nanjing (1842) a) Hong Kong ceded to British b) The dynasty forced to pay an indemnity for the opium c) Direct talks between officials d) 5 coastal cities were opened: Canton, Shanghai, Xiamen, Fuzhou, & Ningbo e) Extra-territoriality for British subjects 5. The Treaty System a) Anglo-French Expedition in 1860 occupied Beijing & forced 9 more cities open b) More concessions followed c) "Gunboat Diplomacy" d) Christian missionaries gain free access e) Opium Trade Continues: i. Legalized in 1860 ii. By 1900, 10% of population smoked opium, with 1/3 addicted iii. 15 million addicts & 30 million recreational users

B) Mongols

1. The Qing was more effectively able to secure the northern border with cannons & other modern weapons. 2. Eastern Mongols subdued in 1630s by the early Manchu state & Western Mongols subdued in 1696.

B) Internal Rebellions

1. The White Lotus Rebellions (1796-1804) a) Started as a tax revolt in south-central China b) Millenarian movement to return to the Buddha & restore the Ming c) Several hundred forts constructed d) 5 years worth of revenue spent e) Caused the death of 16 million people 2. The Eight Trigrams Sect (1813) a) 100000 followers in cities in North China & in Beijing b) 70000 deaths 3. The Great Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864) a) Starts in South China under Hong Xiuquan (1814-1864) i. Had dreams in which he was told he was Jesus' little brother & that he should annihilate demons ii. Learned from missionaries how to pray, baptize & sing hymns. iii. Followers were to destroy temples, give-up drugs & alcohol, & end foot-binding & prostitution iv. The Manchus: wicked oppressors who were the devil incarnate & God wanted them destroyed b) Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace (Taiping) i. By 1850: 50000 followers ii. Captured Nanjing in 1853 iii. Called for a new society based in equal land ownership & gender equality iv. Civil service exams based on Hong's teaching & the Chinese Bible c) Brought to an end in 1864, with Western aid, By Zeng Guofan, a Chinese scholar-official i. 600 cities destroyed ii. 20 million deaths

IV. Culture & Society A) Rise of Conservatism

1. The late Ming was seen as a time of moral degeneracy, leading to social collapse. 2. Harsher laws against behaviors deemed deviant, such as homosexuality. 3. Drama, poetry & fiction were seen as a subversive or licentious

I. The Fall of the Manchus/Qing Dynasty A) Made efforts at "self-strengthening"....

1. Tried to reorganize the military along western lines 2. Attempted improved knowledge of the west & western modernization 3. Chinese emissaries sent abroad to learn 4. Tried to modernize the infrastructure of Manchu society a) First telegraph network (1879) b) First RR (1880) c) First ironworks at Hayang (1890)

The "White Terror"

1. Unlike Sun, Chiang hated the communists & moved to crush the CCP in April 1927 as his army approached Shanghai on its return southward, directing the "Green Gang" was a powerful, mafia-like criminal organization which controlled the streets of Shanghai, trafficking in drugs, gambling, prostitution, etc. With ties to the early 17th century Chinese Triad, they were virulently anti-communist & Chiang had many supporters among its members 2. GMD forces attack nearly 100000 striking workers & CCP members in Shanghai , killing an est. 12000 3. CCP flees to the countryside & suffers repression at GMD hands 10s of 1000s ultimately killed. By the end of 1927, CCP membership had declined from 60000 to 10000. 4. CCP flees southwestward to a remote part of China from 1928 to 1931 & forms the "Jiangxi Soviet", largely under Russian advisory leadership 5. Chiang attacks the Jiangxi Soviet in 1934 in the 5th "extermination campaign", forcing communists to flee once more towards the northwest, during a legendary flight known as the "Long March" 6. The Long March: 80000 CCP soldiers, porters & followers set out on a 6000 mi march. Only 8000 survived until the end, although numbers approached 20000 as peasants joined them on the way 7. Very Important: During the Long March, Mao Zedong wrests control of the CCP away from Russian advisors & urban-oriented Marxist purists to become the leader 8. Mao established the CCP base at Yan'an in 1935

C) Civil war (1945-1949)

1. War with Japan ends with CCP having a broad base of support among the peasantry, esp. in North China. The Nationalist government of Chiang regarded by most as corrupt & repressive. 2. U.S supports Chiang in name of curtailing international communism but with little knowledge of conditions in China. 3. Soviet Union supported Mao & CCP's People Liberation Army 4. In 1948, the PLA starves the GMD forces out of Changchun; 160000 civilians die 5. January 21, 1949; Nationalist forces suffer massive losses to the PLA 6. On October 1, 1949, PLSA takes Beijing & Mao proclaims birth of the People's Republic of China: "China has stoop up."

III. The Warlord Era A) Warlordism

1. When Shikai dies, China comes apart as no central power, incl. Sun's Nationalists, was strong to hold the country together. Local armies under former Qing generals take control in local areas. 2. Destructive wars rage, especially across north China 3. Banditry was rampant

C) The Revolution

1. Yuan Shikai (1859-1916) a) In 1911, bomb exploded in HQ of Revolutionary Alliance b) Army officers, many of whom supported the Alliance, feared exposure as revolutionaries & took over Beijing. They used their influence to pressure Chinese outer provinces to declare independence c) Within 6 weeks, 15 declared secession from Manchu rule d) The dynasty asked Yuan Shikai to take over, who then turned & negotiated with the Dr. Sun & the Alliance 2. The Constitutional Agreement a) Henry Pu-yi abdicates in February 1912, imperial rule ends b) Shikai becomes Interim President of the new Chinese Republic c) Sun Yatsen returns from the US in March to issue a provisional Constitution & organize elections 3. The Nationalist Party & Shikai's Brief Dictatorship a) In the 1913 elections, successor to Revolutionary Alliance Sun Yatsen's Goumindang Party (GMD), or Nationalist Party, wins over 1/2 the seats b) Shikai has the leading GMD organizer assassinated c) Shikai then used force to subdue the provinces that refused to declare renewed allegiance to him d) In 1915, Shikai announced that he would become a new emperor, initiating a new dynasty on January 1, 1916, but dies in June e) Sun & his inner circle had fled to Japan to keep from being killed by Shikai

II. Revolution of 1911

A) First Decade of 20th Century: Rising Protest & Demands for reform from educated Chinese, including many who had studies abroad in the U.S

Background to Mongol Expansion

A) The Mongols were a nomadic, pastoral people of the Eurasian steppes north of China, who herded sheep, oxen, goats & horses.

B) Sun Yatsen (1866-1925; Sun Zhongshan in Pinyin)

Along with Mao, Dr. Sun is a towering figure in modern Chinese history. Despite not being a communist, still widely regarded across China today as the "Father of Modern China". His portrait & statue are more commonly seen in China than any other figure except Mao himself. 1. Family members had spent time abroad & some lived in CA and Hawaii 2. Sun sent to Hawaii for school in 1879; studied in Honolulu at the small, private Punahou Academy 3. Sent back to Hong Kong where he was baptized as a Christian & began studying medicine 4. Great admirer of American Constitutionalism, Alexander Hamilton Abraham Lincoln. Also admired Western European Socialism 5. Returns to Hawaii in 1894 to found the Revive China Society with branches in Hawaii & Hong Kong; in 1896, like many young reformed & revolutionaries, he cut off his Manchu queue & adopted Western clothes, as did many revolutionaries 6. Spent time in Japan and founded the Revolutionary Alliance along with other Chinese reformers, some more radical than he. With Japanese help, he emerges a well-known leader among the reformers & revolutionaries 7. While the Alliance tried to build support & sponsor several uprisings, Sun traveled widely in the US searching for funds & support, which he was fairly successful @ owing to his Western ties & demeanor & especially his Christian conversion which earned the support of numerous Americans' churches & missionary societies 8. Best known for his "Three Principles of the People" from 1905 a) Nationalism b) Democracy c) People's Livelihood

C) The Second United Front

Despite differences, & Chiang's history of trying to kill off the CCP, Mao & Chiang joined together in Second United Front to & oppose Japan takeover of China. Mao recognized Chiang as superior military leader & followed his lead in the war against Japan. Mao's CCP was able to mobilize the peasants while Chiang's Nationalists led the army.

III. Expansion

During the time of the Three Great Emperors, China added Taiwan, Central Asia, Mongolia & Tibet to its empire