History 454 Test 3

promotoras

'Promotoras'' are not professional health workers, but rather lay Hispanic/Latino community members who receive specialized training to provide basic health education in the community. [1] While most of their work entails educating target audiences about health issues affecting their community they also provide guidance in accessing community resources associated with health care. Often promotoras are residents and identified leaders in their community who work for community-based health promotion projects or as part of a research group. Thus, promotoras serve as liaisons between their community, health professionals, human and social service organizations. As liaisons, they often play the roles of an advocate, educator, mentor, outreach worker, role model, and translator.[2] [3] Depending on the organizations with which they work, promotoras may volunteer their time, draw a salary or receive a stipend. Promotoras have been predominantly volunteers if they assist only through delivery of educational material. However, since 2004 there has been a significant increase in the number of promotoras who are hired as staff and not only receive reimbursements for costs associated with their job (e.g., mileage reimbursement). [4] Traditionally, promotoras have been Latino women. However, more men are entering the field and the gender-neutral term "promotores" is increasingly being used to be more inclusive.

Jose Vasconcelos

(28 February 1882 - 30 June 1959) was a Mexican writer, philosopher and politician. He is one of the most influential personalities in the development of modern Mexico. His research on the nature of Mexican modern identity had a direct influence in the young writers, poets, anthropologists and philosophers who wrote on this subject.

Ignacio Comonfort

. During his term as president, Benito Juárez served as president of the Supreme Court of Mexico. During Comonfort's administration, the country descended into the War of the Reform, a civil war launched by reactionaries against the Constitution of 1857 which, among other things, had abolished privileges for the Catholic Church. Shortly after the adoption of the Constitution of 1857, a board of generals staged a coup d'état, proclaiming the Plan of Tacubaya, which decreed the nullification of the Constitution. President Comonfort, representing himself as a moderate, wavered but decided to go along with the generals. In exchange, the Catholic Church repealed the March 1857 excommunication decree for those who adhered to the new plan. On 17 December 1857, anti-constitutional forces led by General Felix Zuloaga took control of the capital without firing a shot. But defenders of the 1857 Constitution did not stay calm for long. President Comonfort then decreed himself extraordinary powers, an action which alienated both the reactionary rebels as well as the constitutionalists

Lucas Aleman

Alamán returned to Mexico and became one of the most influential politicians in the nascent country. He was a co-founder and lifelong member of the Mexican Conservative Party, and he consistently defended the centralist organization of Mexico. Among his more important actions are the creation of the Natural History Museum in Mexico City and the foundation of Mexico's General National Archive. The latter has been very important for learning about the historical events in Mexico and understanding the political processes of the Mexican Republic. He also founded and ran a mining company, established the first metal foundry in independent Mexico in 1825, administered the estates of the descendants of Hernán Cortés, and served as president of the Mexico City ayuntamiento (city council) in 1849. Lucas Alamán returned to national public service in 1851, when Santa Anna reappointed him for the last time

Alvaro Obregon

Alvaro Obregon ;President of Mexico (192024). A skillful military leader who fought for the moderate presidents Francisco Madero and Venustiano Carranza during the Mexican Revolution, he was largely responsible for the liberal constitution of 1917. In response to Carranza's increasingly reactionary policies, Obregn took a leading role in the revolt that deposed him and was himself elected president in 1920. He managed to impose relative peace and prosperity on his war-torn country. He was elected again in 1928 but was shot and killed before assuming office.

Article 27

Article 27 The property of all land and water within national territory is originally owned by the Nation, who has the right to transfer this ownership to particulars. Hence, private property is a privilege created by the Nation. Expropriations may only be made when there is a public utility cause. The State will always have the right to impose on private property constraints dictated by "public interest". The State will also regulate the exploitation of natural resources based on social benefits and the equal distribution of wealth. The state is also responsible for conservation and ecological considerations. All natural resources in national territory are property of the nation, and private exploitation may only be carried out through concessions. Nuclear fuel may only be exploited and used by the State. The use of Nuclear elements in the Nation may only have peaceful purposes (i.e., Mexico cannot build nuclear weapons). This article also deals with other subtleties on what constitutes Mexico's territory. Foreign citizens cannot own land within 100 km of the borders or 50 km of the sea; however, foreigners can have a beneficial interest in such land through a trust (fideicomiso), where the legal ownership of the land is held by a Mexican financial institution. The only precondition sine qua non to granting such a beneficial interest is that the foreigner agree that all matters relating to such land are the exclusive domain of Mexican courts and Mexican jurisdiction, and that in all issues pertaining to such land, the foreigner will conduct him or herself as a Mexican, and settle any issues arising from their interest in such land exclusively through Mexican courts and institutions. The stipulated consequence of a failure to abide by these terms is forfeiture to the nation of their interests in all lands where the foreigner has such beneficial interests. That an area of land next to the coast (20 meters from the highest tide line) is federal property which cannot be sold to particulars.

How did the U.S. Mexican War and the War of Intervention affect Mexico?Explain the consequences of each war. Which war has more deeply marked the Mexican psyche?

As a result of the U.S. Mexican war a distrust developed with the U.S. I t

Benito Juarez

Benito Juárez (Spanish pronunciation: [beˈnito ˈxwaɾes]; 21 March 1806 - 18 July 1872)[1][2] born Benito Pablo Juárez García, was a Mexican lawyer and politician of Zapotec origin from Oaxaca who served five terms as president of Mexico:1858-1861 as interim, then 1861-1865, 1865-1867, 1867-1871 and 1871-1872.[3] He resisted the French occupation of Mexico, overthrew the Second Mexican Empire, restored the Republic, and used liberal efforts to modernize the country. Today Benito Juárez is remembered as being a progressive reformer dedicated to democracy, equal rights for his nation's indigenous peoples, his antipathy toward organized religion, especially the Catholic Church, and what he regarded as defense of national sovereignty. The period of his leadership is known in Mexican history as La Reforma del Norte (The Reform of the North), and constituted a liberal political and social revolution with major institutional consequences: the expropriation of church lands, the subordination of army to civilian control, liquidation of peasant communal land holdings, the separation of church and state in public affairs, and also the almost-complete disenfranchisement of bishops, priests, nuns and lay brothers

General Bernardo Reyes

Bernardo Reyes (born in Guadalajara, Mexico, August 1850 - February 3, 1913) was a General in the army of Mexico under Porfirio Díaz. ] He was the father of the writer Alfonso Reyes,[3] and grandfather of the painter Aurora Reyes. Followers of Reyes were known as Reyistas. Due to his opposition to some of Díaz's policies, Reyes was sent on a diplomatic mission to Europe to prevent him from causing problems in Mexico.[2] Together with José Yves Limantour, he was considered as one of the potential successors of Porfirio Díaz.[4] With Francisco Madero's latter challenge to the dictator in the 1910 elections and, afterwards, initiation of the Mexican Revolution, previous notions of who should succeed Díaz were discarded. For a time Reyes was a supporter of Madero, but he later led the first rebellion against Madero.[1] After this rebellion failed, Reyes was imprisoned. In 1913, Manuel Mondragón's forces freed Reyes from prison. Then, they marched on to the National Palace in the beginning of the Decena trágica. Reyes was killed in the initial assault on the palace.[2]

Cinco de Mayo

Cinco de Mayo (Spanish for "fifth of May") is a celebration held on May 5. It is celebrated nationwide in the United States and regionally in Mexico, primarily in the state of Puebla,[1][2][3][4] where the holiday is called El Dia de la Batalla de Puebla (English: The Day of the Battle of Puebla).[5][6][7] The date is observed in the United States as a celebration of Mexican heritage and pride,[8] and to commemorate the cause of freedom and democracy during the first years of the American Civil War.[9] In the state of Puebla, the date is observed to commemorate the Mexican army's unlikely victory over French forces at the Battle of Puebla on May 5, 1862, under the leadership of General Ignacio Zaragoza Seguín.[2][10] Contrary to widespread popular belief, Cinco de Mayo is not Mexico's Independence Day—the most important national patriotic holiday in Mexico—which is actually celebrated on September 16.[2] [11

Emiliano Zapata

Emiliano Zapata Salazar (August 8, 1879 - April 10, 1919) was a leading figure in the Mexican Revolution, which broke out in 1910, and which was initially directed against the president Porfirio Díaz. He formed and commanded an important revolutionary force, the Liberation Army of the South, during the Mexican Revolution. Followers of Zapata were known as Zapatistas.[1] He is a figure from the Mexican Revolution era who is still revered today. For many years, he campaigned steadfastly for the rights of the villagers, first establishing via ancient title deeds their claims to disputed land, and then pressing the recalcitrant governor of Morelos into action. Finally, disgusted with the slow response from the government and the overt bias towards the wealthy plantation owners, Zapata began making use of armed force, simply taking over the land in dispute.

Francisco Madero

Francisco Ignacio Madero González[3][4][5] (30 October 1873 -21 February 1913) was a politician, writer and revolutionary who served as President of Mexico from 1911 to 1913. As a respectable upper-class politician, he supplied a center around which opposition to the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz could coalesce. However, once Díaz was deposed, Madero proved to be ineffective, and the Mexican Revolution quickly spun out of his control. He was deposed and executed by the Porfirista military and his aides, which he had neglected to replace with revolutionary supporters Madero became president in November 1911, and, intending to reconcile the nation, appointed a cabinet which included many of Porfirio Díaz's supporters. However, Madero was unable to achieve the reconciliation he desired since conservative Porfirians had managed to get themselves organized during the interim presidency of Francisco León de la Barra and now mounted a sustained and effective opposition to Madero's reform program. Conservative Porfirians in the Senate refused to pass the reforms he advocated. At the same time, several of Madero's allies denounced him for being overly reconciliatory with the Porfirians and with not moving aggressively forward with reforms: thus, on 25 November 1911, Emiliano Zapata issued his Plan of Ayala, denouncing Madero for being uninterested in pursuing land reform. After years of censorship, Mexican newspapers took advantage of their newly-found freedom of the press to criticize Madero's performance as president harshly. Gustavo A. Madero, the president's brother, remarked that "the newspapers bite the hand that took off their muzzle." Francisco Madero refused the recommendation of some of his advisors that he bring back censorship.

Felix Diaz

He was a leading figure in the rebellion against President Francisco I. Madero during the Mexican Revolution. He was the nephew of President Porfirio Díaz and held several offices during his uncle's tenure. After Porfirio Díaz was deposed, Madero was elected President and early in 1912, Díaz joined Victoriano Huerta and Bernardo Reyes in their rebellion against Madero. Díaz was captured in October 1912 and sentenced to death for treason, although Madero later commuted the sentence to life imprisonment. Díaz escaped from jail during La decena trágica ("the Ten Tragic Days"), the Huerta-led coup d'état that overthrew and assassinated Madero. A few days later, after Madero's arrest, Díaz signed the Embassy Pact (Pacto de la Embajada), facilitated by American ambassador Henry Lane Wilson) which installed Huerta as President and allowed Díaz to run as presidential candidate on the next election. Huerta did not honor his part of the agreement and sent Díaz to Japan as an ambassador. At his return Díaz was constantly harassed by Huerta causing him to go into exile to New York and later Havana. He returned to Mexico in May 1916 and became the leader of the National Reorganizer Army (Ejército Reorganizador Nacional). His new revolutionary efforts were not too successful and was forced to retreat to the south of Mexico where he officially remained in arms. In 1920 Díaz went into exile once again. He returned in 1937 and settled in Veracruz, Veracruz, where he died in 1945.

Napoleon III

He was the nephew and heir of Napoleon I, christened as Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte. The French intervention in Mexico (Spanish: Segunda Intervención Francesa en México), also known as The Maximilian Affair, War of the French Intervention, and The Franco-Mexican War, was an invasion of Mexico by an expeditionary force sent by the Second French Empire, supported in the beginning by the United Kingdom and the Kingdom of Spain. It followed President Benito Juárez's suspension of interest payments to foreign countries on 17 July 1861, which angered Mexico's major creditors: Spain, France and Britain. Napoleon III of France was the instigator, justifying military intervention by claiming a broad foreign policy of commitment to free trade. For him, a friendly government in Mexico would provide an opportunity to expand free trade by ensuring European access to important markets, and prevent monopoly by the United States. Napoleon also wanted the silver that could be mined in Mexico to finance his empire.

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However, after the French intervention in Mexico, under pressure from Napoleon III and after General Élie-Frédéric Forey's capture of Mexico City and the plebiscite which confirmed his proclamation of the empire, he consented to accept the crown in October 1863 (Ferdinand Maximilian was not told of the dubious nature of the plebiscite, which was held while French troops were occupying most of the territory).The new emperor of Mexico landed at Veracruz on 21 May 1864 to wild enthusiasm from the crowds. He had the backing of Mexican conservatives and Napoleon III, but from the very outset he found himself involved in serious difficulties since the Liberal forces led by President Benito Juárez refused to recognize his rule. There was continuous warfare between his French troops and the Republicans. Though urged to abandon Mexico by Napoleon III himself, whose troop withdrawal from Mexico was a great blow to the Mexican Imperial cause, Maximilian refused to desert his followers. Maximilian allowed his followers to determine whether or not he abdicated. Faithful generals such as Miguel Miramon, Leonardo Márquez, and Tomás Mejía vowed to raise an army that would challenge the invading Republicans. Maximilian fought on with his army of 8,000 Mexican loyalists. Withdrawing, in February 1867, to Santiago de Querétaro, he sustained a siege for several weeks, but on May 11 resolved to attempt an escape through the enemy lines. This plan was sabotaged by Colonel Miguel López who was bribed by the Republicans to open a gate and lead a raiding party though with the agreement that Maximilian would be allowed to escape and he was later executed.

General Ignacio Zaragoza

In 1853 he joined the National Guard of the state of Nuevo Leion and helpd overthrow President Santa Anna in 1855. Zaragoza served as Minister of the Army under President Benito Juarez between April and December 1861 , but resigned to take command of the Mexican Army opposing the French invasion. He defeated French General Count de Lorenchez at the battle of Puebla on May 5th 1862. On September 8 1862 just a few months later he died of typhoid fever at the age of 33

How did Benito Juarez's liberal policies against corporate ownership of land hurt many of the Indian communities in Mexico? What was Juarez's rationale for the policies?

In practice the enforcement of Ley Lerdo worked to the detriment of the rural masses. One of the civil corporations forced to sell its property was the ejido , the communal landholding of the Indian village. Juarez wanted the community to benefit as a whole.

Indigenismo; Jose Vasconcelos

Indigenismo is a term that has been assigned to diverse sets of ideas and movements in Latin America[1]. In some contemporary uses, it refers to the pursuit of greater social and political inclusion for Indigenous peoples of the Americas, whether through national-level reforms or region-wide alliances.[2] In either case, this type of indigenismo seeks to vindicate indigenous cultural and linguistic difference, assert indigenous rights, and seek recognition and in some cases compensation for past wrongdoings of the colonial and republican states.

Jose Guadalupe Posada

José Guadalupe Posada: (1852-1913) was a Mexican cartoonist illustrator and artist whose work has influenced many Latin American artists and cartoonists because of its satirical acuteness and political engagement. Posada's best known works are his calaveras, which often assume various costumes, such as the Calavera de la Catrina, the "Calavera of the Female Dandy", which was meant to satirize the life of the upper classes during the reign of Porfirio Díaz. Most of his imagery was meant to make a religious or satirical point. Since his death, however, his images have become associated with the day of the dead ;Dia de los Mueros

Jose Maria Velasco

José María Tranquilino Francisco de Jesús Velasco Gómez Obregón (Temascalcingo, 6 July 1840 - Mexico City, 26 August 1912) was a Mexican painter of the 19th century who made Mexican geography a symbol of national identity through of his paintings. He was one the most popular artists of that time so he received many distinctions like the gold medal of National Expositions of Bellas Artes in 1874 and 1876, the gold medal of the Philadelphia International Exposition in 1876 and the medal of the Paris' Universal Exposition in 1889. His painting El valle de México is considered Velascos' master piece. His production can be classified in three parts: The first academic years from 1860 to 1889 that includes La Plaza de San Jacinto en San Ángel, Las montañas de la Magadalena, La Alameda de México, El bosque de Jalapa, El Cedro de Chimalistac and El Ahuehuete de Chapultepec. The period from 1890 to 1892 when he was in touch with French Impressionists that includes Valle de Mexico desde el cerro de Atraeualco and Ajusco visto desde el Tepeyac.

Porfiriato

José de la Cruz Porfirio Díaz Mori (15 September 1830 - 2 July 1915) was a volunteer in the Reform War and then a leader of the successful rebellion against French intervention, an accomplished general and the President of Mexico continuously from 1876 to 1911, with the exception of a brief term in 1876 when he left Juan N. Méndez as interim president, and a four-year term served by his political ally Manuel González from 1880 to 1884. Commonly considered by historians to have been a dictator, he is a controversial figure in Mexican history. The period of his leadership was marked by significant internal stability (known as the "paz porfiriana"), modernization, and economic growth. However, Díaz's regime grew unpopular due to repression and political stagnation, and he fell from power during the Mexican Revolution, after he had imprisoned his electoral rival and declared himself the winner of an eighth term in office. The 35 years in which Díaz ruled Mexico are referred to as the Porfiriato.

Porfirio Diaz

José de la Cruz Porfirio Díaz Mori (15 September 1830 - 2 July 1915) was a volunteer in the Reform War and then a leader of the successful rebellion against French intervention, an accomplished general and the President of Mexico continuously from 1876 to 1911, with the exception of a brief term in 1876 when he left Juan N. Méndez as interim president, and a four-year term served by his political ally Manuel González from 1880 to 1884. Commonly considered by historians to have been a dictator, he is a controversial figure in Mexican history. The period of his leadership was marked by significant internal stability (known as the "paz porfiriana"), modernization, and economic growth. However, Díaz's regime grew unpopular due to repression and political stagnation, and he fell from power during the Mexican Revolution, after he had imprisoned his electoral rival and declared himself the winner of an eighth term in office. The 35 years in which Díaz ruled Mexico are referred to as the Porfiriato.

Anti Reelectin Center of Mexico

Madero's book was well received, and many people began to call Madero the Apostle of Democracy. Madero sold off much of his property - often at a considerable loss - in order to finance anti-re-election activities throughout Mexico. He founded the Anti-Re-election Center in Mexico City in May 1909

Melchor Ocampo

Melchor Ocampo (5 January 1814, Maravatío, Michoacán - 3 June 1861, Tepeji del Río, Hidalgo) was a Mexican lawyer, scientist, and liberal politician. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1842. He served as Governor of Michoacán during the U.S. Invasion, and as Treasury Minister in 1850. Because of one of his more controversial projects, he was forced to flee the country by President Antonio López de Santa Anna, taking refuge first in Cuba and then in the U.S. city of New Orleans. In New Orleans he met a group of liberals, including Benito Juárez, and began to publish pamphlets to promote political change in Mexico. The result of his efforts was the Plan de Ayutla of 1855, which called for the overthrow of Santa Anna and the installation of the liberal general Juan Álvarez. With Álvarez's victory, Ocampo served briefly in his cabinet as foreign minister. During Benito Juárez's administration, Ocampo was appointed Minister of the Interior, with responsibility also for foreign affairs, defence, and the treasury. During this period he drafted the Reform Laws (Leyes de Reforma), bringing about the separation of Church and State the Catholic Church had many times intervened in progress and chained the country back to the times of monarchs and the inquisition far into the 19th century.

Miguel Lerdo de Tejada

Miguel Lerdo de Tejada (July 6, 1812 - March 22, 1861) was a Mexican statesman, and a leader of the Revolution of Ayutla. Born in the port of Veracruz, Veracruz, both he and his younger brother, Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada, became leaders of Mexico's Liberal Party. As the president of the ayuntamiento (city council) of Mexico City in 1852, Miguel Lerdo de Tejada proposed inititiatives on public education, transportation, public health, and budgetary reforms. As the Treasury Secretary under president Ignacio Comonfort in 1856, Miguel Lerdo de Tejada initiated the Ley de Desamortización de Fincas Rústicas y Urbanas (Disentailment of Rural and Urban Properties Law), commonly known as the Ley Lerdo, which called for the forced sale of most properties held by the Roman Catholic Church and by municipal and state governments.

What were some of the benefits of the Porfiriato? What were some of the drawbacks? did the benefits outweigh the costs?

One of the benefits was Mexicos foreign trade boomed during the Porfirato. Economic development was good especially in building railroads. One cost was that the wealthy prospered , but the majority of the Mexicans were poor and had poor working conditions. Only a quarter of the population was literate.

Los Rurales

Rurales (Spanish for "Rurals") was the name commonly used to designate the Mexican Guardia Rural (Rural Guard): a force of mounted police or gendarmerie that existed between 1861 and 1914. In modern Mexico the name is applied to members of the part-time Rural Defense Corps. They were brutal

Las Soldaderas

Soldaderas were female soldiers who went into combat alongside men during the Mexican Revolution, which initially broke out in opposition to the conservative Díaz regime. The term comes from the Spanish word soldada which denotes a payment made to the person who provided for a soldier's well being.[1]The majority of these women led ordinary lives, but took up arms during the war to fight for freedom. Among the soldaderas, Dolores Jiménez y Muro, Margarita Neri, and Hermila Galindo are often considered heroines in contemporary Mexico. Today, the term La Adelita is used with pride among Mexican women. La Adelita was the title of a Corrido (folk ballad) about a soldadera named "Adelita", and became one of the most beloved songs to come out of the Revolution. However in most cases, the term soldaderas refers to the wives, children, and relatives of the soldiers in the Mexican army. Soldaderas were allowed to follow the army so soldiers would be less likely to desert.

Battle of Puebla

The Battle of Puebla took place on 5 May 1862 near the city of Puebla during the French intervention in Mexico. The battle ended in a victory for the Mexican Army over the occupying French forces. The victory is celebrated annually in Mexico during the festivities of Cinco de Mayo, the 5th of May. Background The 1857-62 Mexican civil war known as The Reform War had disorganised the country's finances and the new President, Benito Juárez, was forced to suspend payments of foreign debts in 1861. In late 1861 Napoleon III, Emperor of the French, under the Treaty of London (1861) sent a joint expeditionary force to Mexico, alongside Spanish and British forces, to protect their interests and collect the debts owed by the previous Mexican government. The allied troops occupied the port city of Veracruz on 8 December 1861 and advanced to Orizaba. Napoleon III wanted to seize the opportunity presented by the U.S. involvement in the Civil War to set up a puppet Mexican regime. Napoleon's intrigues led to the withdrawal of the Spanish and British troops in April 1862 at the same time that French reinforcements arrived.

Yaqui Indians

The Caste War of Yucatán was a conflict that lasted from 1847 to 1901. It began with the revolt of native Maya people led by Maya chiefs Jacinto Pat and Cecilio Chi, against the population of European descent called "Yucatecos", who had political and economic control. A lengthy war ensued between the Yucateco forces in the north-west of the Yucatán and the independent Maya in the south-east. It officially ended with the occupation of the Maya capital of Chan Santa Cruz by the Mexican army in 1901, although skirmishes with villages and small settlements that refused to acknowledge Mexican control continued for over another decade. Because of the conflict, on November 24, 1902, Yucatán had a second territorial division when Porfirio Díaz decreed the creation of the Federal Territory of Quintana Roo,[39] with capital in the port of Payo Obispo (today Chetumal). In little more than half a century, Yucatán lost more than two thirds of its original territory.

cientificos

The Científicos (Spanish: "scientists" or "those scientifically oriented") were a circle of technocratic advisors to President of Mexico Porfirio Díaz. Steeped in the positivist "scientific politics", they functioned as part of his program of modernization at the start of the 20th century.

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The Convention of Aguascalientes was a major meeting that took place during the Mexican Revolution. The call for the Convention was issued on 1 October 1914 by Venustiano Carranza, head of the Constitutional Army, who described it as the Gran Convención de Jefes militares con mando de fuerzas y gobernadores de los Estados ("Great Convention of Commanding Military Chiefs and State Governors"). Its first sessions were held in the Chamber of Deputies in Mexico City, but were later transferred to the city of Aguascalientes, whence its name, where it met from 10 October to 9 November 1914. The convention was intended to little the differences between the "big four" warlords who played the biggest roles in overthrowing Huerta: Pancho Villa, Emiliano Zapata, Venustiano Carranza and Alvaro Obregon.[1] From the onset, however, the Convention was dominated by the Villistas, who imposed their points of view on the other delegates. The supporters of Emiliano Zapata did not arrive until 26 October (a delegation of 26, led by Paulino Martínez and Antonio Díaz Soto y Gama). The Convention declared itself sovereign, elected General Eulalio Gutiérrez Ortiz as President of Republic, and appointed Villa commander of the Conventionalist Army, which then took up arms against Carranza's Constitutionalists. [2] Due to the disagreements that Carrazana had with Zapata and Villa, the three refused to attend the convention and little developed as a result.[1] After the meeting, the newly reconciled Villa and Zapata entered Mexico City on 6 December, at the head of an army of 60,000 men. Carranza and his supporters consequently fled to Veracruz.

cristeros

The Cristero War (also known as the Cristiada) of 1926 to 1929 was an uprising and counter-revolution against the Mexican government in power at that time. The rebellion was set off by the persecution of Roman Catholics and specifically the strict enforcement of the anti-clerical provisions of the Mexican Constitution of 1917 and the further expansion of anti-clerical laws.[1][2][3][4][5] After a period of peaceful resistance, a number of skirmishes took place in 1926. The formal rebellions began on 2 January 1927,[6] with the rebels called Cristeros because they felt they were fighting for "Cristo Rey" ("Christ the King"). The rebellion ended by diplomatic means brokered by the then United States Ambassador to Mexico, Dwight Whitney Morrow. In response to these measures, Catholic organizations began to intensify their resistance. The most important of these groups was the National League for the Defense of Religious Liberty, founded in 1924. This was joined by the Mexican Association of Catholic Youth (founded 1913) and the Popular Union, a Catholic political party founded in 1925. On 11 July 1926, Catholic bishops voted to suspend all public worship in response to the Calles Law. This suspension was to take effect on 1 August. On 14 July, they endorsed plans for an economic boycott against the government, which was particularly effective in west-central Mexico (the states of Jalisco, Guanajuato, Aguascalientes, and Zacatecas). Catholics in these areas stopped attending movies and plays and using public transportation, and Catholic teachers stopped teaching in secular schools.[citation needed] The bishops worked to have the offending articles of the Constitution amended. Pope Pius XI explicitly approved this plan. The Calles government considered the bishops' activism seditious behavior and had many more churches closed. In September the episcopate submitted a proposal for the amendment of the constitution, but Congress rejected it on 22 September 1926.

Constitution of 1857

The Federal Constitution of Mexican States of 1857 (Spanish: Constitución Federal de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos de 1857) was a liberal constitution drafted by 1857 Constituent Congress of Mexico during the presidency of Ignacio Comonfort giving birth to the Second Federal Republic of Mexico. It was ratified on February 5, 1857[1], establishing individual rights such as freedom of speech; freedom of conscience; freedom of the press; freedom of assembly; and the right to bear arms. It also reaffirmed the abolition of slavery, eliminated debtor prison, and eliminated all forms of cruel and unusual punishment, including the death penalty. Some articles were contrary to the interests of the Catholic Church, such as education free of dogma, the removal of institutional fueros (privileges) and the sale of property belonging to the church. The Conservative Party strongly opposed the enactment of the new constitution and this polarized Mexican society. The Reform War began as a result, and the struggles between liberals and conservatives were intensified with the implementation of the Second Mexican Empire under the support of the church.[2] Years later, with the restored republic, the Constitution was in force throughout the country until 1917.

Gadsen Purchase

The Gadsden Purchase (known as Venta de La Mesilla, or Sale of La Mesilla, in Mexico[2]) is a 29,670-square-mile (76,800 km2) region of present-day southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico that was purchased by the United States in a treaty signed by James Gadsden, the American ambassador to Mexico at the time, on December 30, 1853. It was then ratified, with changes, by the U.S. Senate on April 25, 1854 and signed by President Franklin Pierce, with final approval action taken by Mexico on June 8, 1854. The purchase was the last major territorial acquisition in the contiguous United States, adding a large area to the United States. The purchase included lands south of the Gila River and west of the Rio Grande. The Gadsden Purchase was for the purpose of the US's construction of a transcontinental railroad along a deep southern route. It was also related to reconciliation of outstanding border issues following the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which ended the Mexican-American War of 1846-48.

What started the Mexican Revolution? What were the differences between Emiliano Zapata , Pancho Villa , and Venustiano Carranza?

The Mexican Revolution (Spanish: Revolución mexicana) was a major armed struggle that started in 1910, with an uprising led by Francisco I. Madero against longtime autocrat Porfirio Díaz, and lasted for the better part of two decades until around 1929. Panch Villa and Zapeta were traditional differences.

Plan of San Luis Postosi

The Plan of San Luis de Potosí was a political document written in San Antonio, Texas, United States, and published in the Mexican city of San Luis Potosí in 1910. The document ushered in the Mexican revolution and the collapse of the Presidency of Porfirio Díaz. The document, or 'plan', called for the destruction of Díaz's authoritarian presidency and the re-institution of democracy through violent direct action on the part of the Mexican populace. The plan was written and published in Texas by a group of exiles led by Francisco I. Madero, a political opponent to Díaz who had been jailed when his popularity threatened the arranged triumph of the old leader in the 1910 presidential election. The Plan asked the Mexican people to rise in arms on Sunday, November 20, 1910, at 6:00 PM, but the first action occurred two days earlier, when Aquiles Serdán was found to be part of Madero's revolution in the state of Puebla and was forced to an early fight in his home, helped by his family. Most of them died. After that, the Mexican Revolution broke out on November 20, 1910 against the political, commercial and social policies of the regime, taking "Effective Suffrage - No Re-election!" as a slogan.

Constitution of 1917

The Political Constitution of the United Mexican States (Spanish: Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos) is the current constitution of Mexico. It was drafted in Santiago de Querétaro, in the State of Querétaro, by a constitutional convention, during the Mexican Revolution. It was approved by the Constitutional Congress on February 5, 1917. It is the successor to the Constitution of 1857, and earlier Mexican constitutions. The current Constitution of 1917 is the first such document in the world to set out social rights, serving as a model for the Weimar Constitution of 1919 and the Russian Constitution of 1918.[1][2][3][4] Some of the most important provisions are Articles 3, 27, and 123; these display profound changes in Mexican political philosophy that helped frame the political and social backdrop for Mexico in the twentieth century. Article 3 forbids the setting up of a list of prohibited books and establishes the bases for a free, mandatory, and lay education;[5][6][7] article 27 led the foundation for land reforms;[6][7] and article 123 was designed to empower the labor sector.

Leys de Reforma(The Reform Laws)

The Reform laws are a set of laws issued between 1855 and 1860, by the then President of Mexico, Benito Juárez. The reforms set out in these laws were more radical than the Constitution of 1857, and according to the collaborators of the President, the Constitution was completed. This document, truly radical, was made entirely by Benito Juárez to issue in Veracruz the reform laws, part of which was intended to punish clergy for its intervention in politics and education, and for helping with their property to sustain the war, favouring the conservatives. It will not be by others warn that those laws had already been implemented by the Governor of Zacatecas, don Jesús González Ortega, previously. The most important of these laws include: the of occupation of church property, on July 13 of that year; of 23 of the same, which declared that the marriage was a contract civil, suppressing the forced intervention therein, of the priests; the civil registration Act, 28 of the same that the test of the civil status of persons, was in charge of employees of Governments; from July 31, by which seculated cemeteries; from August 11, which removed almost all the religious festivities, and on December 4, 1860, which established freedom of worship. The main purpose of these laws was to separate the Church from the Government or State.

La Decena Tragica

The Ten Tragic Days ("La Decena Tragica") was a series of events that took place in Mexico City between February 9 and February 19, 1913, during the Mexican Revolution. They culminated in a coup d'état and the assassination of President Francisco I. Madero and his vice president, José María Pino Suárez.

Invasion of Veracuz

The United States occupation of Veracruz, which began with the Battle of Veracruz, lasted for six months and was a response to the Tampico Affair of April 9, 1914. The incident came in the midst of poor diplomatic relations between Mexico and the United States, related to the ongoing Mexican Revolution. Background American ships at Veracruz. See also: Ypiranga incident After the Tampico Affair, where nine American sailors were arrested by the Mexican government for entering off-limit areas in Tampico, Tamaulipas,[2] President Woodrow Wilson ordered the United States Navy to prepare for the occupation of the port of Veracruz. While waiting for authorization of Congress to carry out such action, Wilson was alerted of a delivery of weapons for Victoriano Huerta due to arrive to the port on April 21 on the German-registered cargo-steamer SS Ypiranga. As a result, Wilson issued an immediate order to seize the port's customs office and confiscate the weaponry. Huerta had taken power with the assistance of the American ambassador Henry Lane Wilson during a coup d'état in early 1913 known as La decena trágica. The Wilson administration's answer to this was to declare Huerta a usurper of the legitimate government, embargo arms shipments to Huerta, and support the Constitutional Army of Venustiano Carranza. The arms shipment to Mexico, in fact, originated from the Remington Arms company in the U.S. The arms and ammunition were to be shipped via Hamburg, Germany, to Mexico allowing Remington Arms a means of skirting the American arms embargo.[3

U.S. occupation of Veracruz 1914

The United States occupation of Veracruz, which began with the Battle of Veracruz, lasted for six months and was a response to the Tampico Affair of April 9, 1914. The incident came in the midst of poor diplomatic relations between Mexico and the United States, related to the ongoing Mexican Revolution. After the Tampico Affair, where nine American sailors were arrested by the Mexican government for entering off-limit areas in Tampico, Tamaulipas,[2] President Woodrow Wilson ordered the United States Navy to prepare for the occupation of the port of Veracruz. While waiting for authorization of Congress to carry out such action, Wilson was alerted of a delivery of weapons for Victoriano Huerta due to arrive to the port on April 21 on the German-registered cargo-steamer SS Ypiranga. As a result, Wilson issued an immediate order to seize the port's customs office and confiscate the weaponry. Huerta had taken power with the assistance of the American ambassador Henry Lane Wilson during a coup d'état in early 1913 known as La decena trágica. The Wilson administration's answer to this was to declare Huerta a usurper of the legitimate government, embargo arms shipments to Huerta, and support the Constitutional Army of Venustiano Carranza.

Venustiano Carranza

Venustiano Carranza de la Garza (28 December 1859 - 21 May 1920) was one of the leaders of the Mexican Revolution. He ultimately became President of Mexico following the overthrow of the dictatorial Huerta regime in the summer of 1914, and during his administration the current constitution of Mexico was drafted. He was assassinated near the end of his term of office at the behest of a cabal of army generals resentful at his insistence that his successor be a civilian.

Victoriano Huerta

Victoriano Huerta ;After Díaz went into exile, Huerta initially pledged allegiance to the new administration of Francisco Madero, and he was retained by the Madero administration to crush anti-Madero revolts by rebel generals such as Pascual Orozco. However, Huerta secretly plotted with United States Ambassador to Mexico Henry Lane Wilson,[6] cashiered general Bernardo Reyes, and Félix Díaz, Porfirio Díaz's nephew, to overthrow Madero. This episode in Mexican history is known as La decena trágica. Following a confused few days of fighting in Mexico City between loyalist and rebel factions of the Army, Huerta had Madero and vice-president José María Pino Suárez seized and briefly imprisoned on 18 February 1913 in the National Palace. The conspirators then met at the U.S. Embassy to sign el Pacto de la Embajada (The Embassy Pact), which provided for the exile of Madero and Pino Suárez, and Huerta's takeover of the Mexican government.[7] [edit] Political career To give the coup the appearance of legitimacy, Huerta had foreign minister Pedro Lascuráin assume the presidency; under the 1857 Constitution of Mexico, the foreign minister stood third in line for the presidency behind the vice-president and attorney general; Madero's attorney general had also been ousted in the coup. Lascuráin then appointed Huerta as interior minister--constitutionally, fourth in line for the presidency. After less than an hour in office (some sources say as little as 15 minutes), Lascuráin resigned, handing the presidency to Huerta. At a late-night special session of Congress surrounded by Huerta's troops, the legislators endorsed his assumption of power. Four days later Madero and Pino Suárez were taken from the National Palace to prison at night and shot by officers of the rurales (federal mounted police) who were assumed to be acting on Huerta's orders. Huerta established a harsh military dictatorship. U.S. President Woodrow Wilson became hostile to the Huerta administration, recalled ambassador Henry Lane Wilson, and demanded Huerta step aside for democratic elections. When Huerta refused, and with the situation further exacerbated by the Tampico Affair, President Wilson landed U.S. troops to occupy Mexico's most important seaport, Veracruz. The reaction to the Huerta usurpation was Venustiano Carranza's Plan of Guadalupe, which called for the creation of a Constitutional Army to oust Huerta and restore constitutional government. Supporters of the plan included Emiliano Zapata, Francisco "Pancho" Villa and Álvaro Obregón. After repeated field defeats of Huerta's Federal Army by Obregón and Villa, climaxing in the Battle of Zacatecas, Huerta bowed to pressure and resigned the presidency on 15 July 1914.

Henry Lane Wilson

Wilson was appointed Ambassador to Mexico by President Taft on 21 December, 1909 and presented his credentials to President Diaz on 5 March, 1910[4]. He became personally acquainted with some of the most important figures of the Revolution, such as Álvaro Obregón, Venustiano Carranza, Pancho Villa, and Francisco I. Madero. As Taft's Ambassador to Mexico, fearing the leftist tendencies of the new Madero government upon the ouster of Diaz (not to mention the fact that he considered Madero a 'lunatic')[5], he assumed the role of catalyst for the plot of General Victoriano Huerta, Felix Diaz, and General Bernardo Reyes against President Madero [6], and was purported to have assisted in arranging the murder of Madero and his vice-president, José María Pino Suárez, during La decena tragica (The Ten Tragic Days) in February 1913, a point that was later disputed by Wilson[7].[1] After his inauguration in March of that year, President Woodrow Wilson was informed of events in Mexico by a clandestine agent, reporter William Bayard Hale[8] and was appalled by Henry Lane Wilson's assistance to the Huerta coup d'etat against Madero. The President supplanted him by sending as his personal envoy John Lind, the former governor of Minnesota, and on 17 July, 1913[9], the President dismissed Ambassador Wilson.[

Zapatistas

Zapistas; The Liberation Army of the South (Spanish: Ejército Libertador del Sur, occasionally abbreviated to ELS) was an armed group formed and led by Emiliano Zapata that took part in the Mexican Revolution. The force was commonly known as the Zapatistas. The Zapatistas were formed in 1910 in the southern Mexican state of Morelos. Zapata, whose main cause was land reform, became one of the major figures of the Mexican Revolution. The Zapatistas originally aligned with Francisco Madero in opposition to the regime of president Porfirio Diaz, who was soon after overthrown in 1911. After Madero's regime, too, proved uncommitted to the cause of land reform, the Zapatistas turned against him. Fighting continued against the successive leaders Victoriano Huerta and Venustiano Carranza. Zapata's assassination in 1919 struck a mortal blow to Zapatistas, and the army slowly disbanded afterwards. The Zapatistas were mainly poor peasants who wished to spend much of their time working their land to produce an income. As a result, Zapatista soldiers tended to serve for several months at a time, and then return home to spend most of the year farming.

Ley Juarez

abolished the military and ecclasiastical fueros , the special priviledges exempting soldiers and clerics from having to stand trial in civil courts.

Ignacio Altamirano

appealed to the development of a distinct national literature in reaction to predominant European models. In 1869 he established the literary newspapter , El Renacimiento , which sought to revive national creativity after the war years by bringing togehter talent from whatever ideological persuasion. A radical Liberal of of indigenous origin , born in Tixtla , Guerrero , was also a novelist , whose Clemencia 1869 has been regarded as one of the first modern Mexican novels.

Ejido

communal landholding of the Indian village

Pancho Villa

governed Cha wa wa , attacked Nex Mexico and Carranza

Ley Lerdo

prohibited civil institutions from owning or administering real property not directly used in day to day operations. The Roman Catholic church could retain its church buildings , monasteries , and seminaries and local and state units of government: their meeting halls , jails , and schools , but both had to divest themselves of other urban and rural property. The massive holdings the church had gradually acquired through the centuries were to be put up for sale at public auction. -In practice the enforcement of Ley Lerdo worked to the detriment of the rural masses. One of the civil corporations forced to sell its property was the ejido , the communal landholding of the Indian village.

Ley Iglesias

prohibited the church from charging high fees for administering the sacraments. The poor were to receive their sacramental blessings at no charge, and those who could afford to pay were to be charged modestly.

General Bernardo Reyes

was a General in the army of Mexico under Porfirio Díaz. He served as governor of Nuevo León he helped in the modernization of that state.[1] While governor of Nuevo León, Reyes approved a workers compensation law.[2] He was the father of the writer Alfonso Reyes,[3] and grandfather of the painter Aurora Reyes. Followers of Reyes were known as Reyistas. Due to his opposition to some of Díaz's policies, Reyes was sent on a diplomatic mission to Europe to prevent him from causing problems in Mexico.[2] Together with José Yves Limantour, he was considered as one of the potential successors of Porfirio Díaz.[4] With Francisco Madero's latter challenge to the dictator in the 1910 elections and, afterwards, initiation of the Mexican Revolution, previous notions of who should succeed Díaz were discarded. For a time Reyes was a supporter of Madero, but he later led the first rebellion against Madero.[1] After this rebellion failed, Reyes was imprisoned. In 1913, Manuel Mondragón's forces freed Reyes from prison. Then, they marched on to the National Palace in the beginning of the Decena trágica. Reyes was killed in the initial assault on the palace.

Felix Maria Zuloaga

was a Mexican general , and a conservative leader in the Mexican Civil War in the late 1850s and early 1860s , Zuloaga served 3 times as interim or acting president of Mexico. Conservative General Felix Zuloaga issued the Plan of Tacubaya , dissolved Congress , and arrested Juarez. President Comonfort looked on powerlessly.