History of Argentina

Torrentes

Considered the national variety of Argentine wine. Argentina is the fifth leading export of wine in the world. Torrentes = white wine.

Jose Hernandez- Martrin Fierro

Considered to the thenational epic of Argentina, uses gauchos, or Argentine cowboys, as a symbol of national identity.

Charqui

Dried and salted beef. Most common way to export Argentina's beef before the advent of refrigeration.

River Plate (Los Millionarios)

Formed in 1901 in the northern neighborhood of Belgrano. Nick-named Los Millionarios because their supporters come from the wealthier population

Bocas Juniors (Los Xeneises)

Formed in 1905 in the La Boca neighborhood of Buenos Aires. Traditionally supported by and representative of the middle class section of the Buenos Aires population

Napoleon

French military and political leader that allied with Spain against the United Kingdom. After the failure of Trafalgar, they turned to Portugal (refused to be part of the continental system) and Napoleon insisted French troops should be stationed in Spain. This was increasingly unpopular with Spanish people and resulted in the abdication of Carlos IV and Fernando VII and the installation of Joseph Bonaparte. This led to an overall weakened Spanish monarchy and paved the way for Argentine independence.

Porteños

used to refer to a person who is from or lives in a port city. In 19th century Argentina it generally referred to the Liberal elite who favored a centralized government out of Buenos Aires. Aka Unitarians.

Swift and Armour

American meatpacking company founded in the 1860s thrived with the advent of refrigeration. Had presence in Argentina.

Malbec

Considered the national variety of Argentine wine. Argentina is the fifth leading export of wine in the world. Malbec = dark red

Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA)

Official international governing body of football

Buenos Aires

"Fair Winds" capital city refounded in 1580. first established in 1536 by Pedro de Mendoza. First economic boom came in 1776 when the Bourbon reforms established the Vice Royalty of the Rio de La Plata in the city. Economically and militarily strategic. Capital City as well as Argentina's commercial and population center that is located at the mouth of the Rio de la Plata. Buenos Aires may also refer to the province which is the political territory in and around the city of Buenos Aires established in the nineteenth century.

Agentum

"Land of Silver" name given to present-day Argentina because of mistaken belief that the area was rich with silver deposits. Silver gifts offered to European explorers were goods traded from present-day Bolivia.

Río de la Plata

"River of the Silver"European settlers arrived at the mouth of this river in the 16th century. First settlement established in present-day Buenos Aires (1536) and re-established (1580). Forms part of the border between Argentina and Uruguay and is a major commercial hub.

Descamisados

"Shirtless" In the 20th century, it was also used as an insult by the elite of Argentina to describe the followers of Juan Perón, who served as president of Argentina from 1946 until 1955. The term was later reclaimed as a term of pride, with Juan Perón and his wife Eva Perón affectionately referring to their followers as "descamisados".

Adam Smith

18th century Scottish economist that published "The Wealth of Nations" in 1776 that became one of the most influential economic theories of the next few centuries. Smith laid the foundations for classic free market economic theory and capitalism. Specifically, the development of the concept of the division of labor, and expounded upon how rational self-interest and competition can lead to economic prosperity. This is one of three philosophies that shaped the political ideologies taking root in the Argentine elite (mostly liberal), educated in Europe in the 1850s/60s. Turned colonial understanding of wealth on its head because its not land (or raw materials) but a labor force that led to wealth.

Bartolomé Mitre

19th Century Argentine political and military leader. From liberal elite family in Buenos Aires, he was a natural opponent of Juan Manuel de Rosas. He returned to Argentina after the defeat of de Rosas at the 1852 Battle of Caseros. He was a leader of the revolt of Buenos Aires province against Justo José de Urquiza's federal system, and was appointed to important posts in the provincial government after Buenos Aires seceded from the Confederation. (Two Argentinas). Mitre's success at the Battle of Pavon provided Mitre important concessions from the federation, and provided the 'olive branch' to rejoin Argentina and adopting Urquiza's 1853 constitution. The constitution most notably included the amendment to provide for indirect elections through electoral college. This allowed Buenos Aires to be a loud voice but not the only voice. President of Argentina from 1862-68, the first democratically elected leader to serve complete term. This unification followed the philosophical idea of Positivism and a united elite. Fostered economic and political system that emphasized this unification and the strength of their monocultural economy (e.g. Argentine Rural Society"). Mitre is referred to as the "Great Unifier" and ushered in the Argentine Era of Order and Progress.

Charles Darwin

19th Century English naturalist publish On the Origin of Species (1859) and is one of the most influential figures in history having developed the foundation of evolutionary biology. Although his text applied to life sciences, the idea of "survival of the fittest" or natural selection is applied to a number of fields most especially by Herbert Spencer who applied the theory to society and the idea of social darwinism. This was one of two defining philosophies of the political movements taking root in the 1850/60s as Argentine elites (mostly liberal) received their education in European Universities.

Camila O'Gorman

19th century Argentine socialite executed over a scandal involving her relationship with a Roman Catholic priest. She was 20 years old and eight months pregnant when she and Father Ladislao Gutiérrez faced a firing squad during the administration of de Rosas. Basis of the movie Camilla.

Domingo Faustino Sarmiento- Facundo or Civilization and Barbarism

19th century Argentine writer and eventual president. Wrote the influential Facundo Civilizacion y barberri in 1840s/50s while in exile in Chile. Its a call to progress to adopt further civilization and European influence on culture. A denouncement of Juan Manual de Rosas, caudillo and governor of Buenos Aires and the overall barbarism of the caudillo system, the gaucho, and other ruthless strongmen of nineteenth-century Argentina. Specifically, it describes the like of Juan Facna Quiroga, a gaucho who has terrorized provincial Argentina in the 20s and 30s.

Herbert Spencer

19th century English philosopher that developed the social Darwinism, a social theory that applies the law of the survival of the fittest/natural selection (originally developed and popularized by Charles Darwin) to society'. One of three philosophies that greatly shaped the political ideologies taking root in the Argentine Elite (mostly liberal) in the 1860s that would go on to shape Argentine politics.

Father Uladislao Gutierrez

19th century Jesuit priest known for being killed for his affair with a 20 year old Argentine socialite. Jesuits were infamous for their outspokeness against de Rosas. Basis of the movie Camilla.

Mazorca-Mas Horca

19th century secret police tasked with enforcing the rule of Caudillo Juan Manuel de Rosas. The group was organized by Rosas's wife, née Maria de la Encarnación Escurra, known as Doña Encarnación, during the period that Rosas did not occupy the governorship (1832-35).Name derrived from Mas horce (More gallows) or Mazorca (corcob) known for brutality and torture.

Baltasar Cisneros

Appointed Viceroy of the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata by the Spanish crown, replacing Santiago de Liniers. A cabildo abierto disposed him as viceroy during the May revolution. He was disposed because both the King of Spain and the Junta (of Seville) were removed from power and the people of Buenos Aires though Cisneros had no legitimacy to govern. This started the May revolution. Would ultimately be replaced by the Primera Junta.

Julio Roca

Argentina Vice President responsible for co-authoring the Roca-Runciman pact (1933) that was an attempt to curb the effects of the Great Depression through a commercial agreement between Argentina and the United Kingdom.

Antarctica

Argentina claims a significant portion of the territory (¼ million) although not recognized by the international community.

Caudillo

A Charismatic leader with authoritarian political power based on network of allied friends and family. Often used interchangably with "dictator" or "strongman" or "warlord". Juan Manuel de Rosas was one of the most powerful 19th century caudillos. His power was garnered from his wealthy landowning family. Use Mazorcas to retain power.

Cabildo Abierto

A special mode of assembly formed in Buenos Aires of the wealthiest elites, by which started the the May revolution. The open cabildo played a decisive revolutionary role, acting as organs of popular participation, as they were able to remove the colonial authorities and establish new autonomous governments. This new system of government disposed Cisneros as viceroy of the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata and attempted to establish a government Junta, ultimately it led to the creation of the Primera Junta or First Assembly (in a similarly to the Continental Congress)

Jose Marmol- Amalia

Argentina's national novel. Semi-autobiographical account of Marmol's lving with Rosas's police (mazorca) state.

Maria Luisa Bemberg- Camilla

Argentine film director best known for Camilla.

Juan Martin de Pueyrredon

Argentine general and politician of the early 19th century. He was appointed Supreme Director of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata after the Argentine Declaration of Independence. Favored strong centralization of Argentine government.

Asado-Empanadas-choripan

Asado = grilled meat, mostly beef. Empanadas- Meat or vegetable filled pastries either baked or fried. Choripan- Traditional Argentine sandwich with chorizo in a baguette with chimichurri sauce.

Jorge Mario Bergoglio

Birth name of the current Bishop of Rome/Pope Francis, the first leader of the Roman Catholic Church from the Americas, since 2013. Born in Buenos Aires and can trace ancestry to Italian immigrants.

Diego Maradona

Born 1960. Considered by many to be one of the greatest football players in history. Shared FIFA Player of the 20th Century with Pele. Started with Boca Juniors and went on to win 4 World Cups.

Gabriel Batistuta

Born 1969. Played for both River Plate and Boca Juniors as well as national team. Considered one of the greatest. Argentina's all-time leading goalscorer until Messi.

Lionel Messi

Born 1987. Considered the best football player in the world (usually tied with Portuguese Ronaldo). FIFA award 2009 2010 - 2012 2015. Second place 2013-14. 2016. Currently plays forward for FC Barcelona and Argentina national team. 2014 World cup Runner-Up captain. Argentina's all-time leading goalscorer.

Cisplatine War

Conflict between Brazil and Argentina that resulted in the development of the buffer state of Uruguary.

Entre rios

Central province in Argentina explored by Juan de Garay. Most famously the caudillo Francisco Ramirez declared the territory an autonomous entity, the Republic of Entre rios (1820s). During the civil war period (1850s) the area was selected as the capital of the newly formed Argentina Confederation, and the Governor of Entre Rios and caudillo Urquiza was elected as its first president.

Roca-Runciman Pact

Commercial agreement signed in May 1933 between Argentina and the United Kingdom signed by the Vice President of Argentina, Julio Argentino Roca, Jr., and the president of the British Board of Trade, Sir Walter Runciman as a result of the economic crisis stemming from the Great Depression. Argentina is guaranteed a share of British chilled meat market, tariff-free imports, remove all tariffs on all British manufactured goods, no cash only vouchers. Addressed relief and recovery but not reform. This allows Argentina to 'make it out' while most of Latin America continues to suffer but it does so at the expense of stagnating Argentina's other industry. Not well-received. Critics argued that "that Argentina had been converted into a British dominion because England does not take the liberty to impose similar humiliations upon its dominions"

Juan Manuel de Rosas

Controversial 19th century political leader born into a elite land-owning family. Initially made governor of the province of Buenos Aires. But with his newly gained influence, military background, vast landholdings and a private army of gauchos (mazorca) loyal only to him, Rosas became the quintessential caudillo to control all of centralized Argentina. Rosas was known for his cult of personality and the totalitarian nature of his regime, with all aspects of society rigidly controlled. This period is known for the wearing of red.

Gauchos

Cowboy or migratory horseman adept in cattle work revered for their freedom and bravery. The gaucho plays an important symbolic role in the nationalist feelings in Argentina. Immortalized in epic Poem Martin Fierro by Jose Hernandez. Many caudillos relied on gaucho armies to control Argentine provinces. Known for costume and yerba mate.

Jose de San Martin

Criollo and wealthy, land-owning elite who wish to obliterate Spanish presence in America. National hero who led independence movements in southern south america. Simlar to Bolivar. Principal figure during Argentine War of Independence fought from 1810 - 1818. Crusa de los Andres march.

Battle of Caseros

Deciding battle between the Army of Buenos Aires commanded by 20-year term caudillo Juan Manuel de Rosas, Argentina's de facto ruler, and the Grand Army led by Justo Jose de Urquiza, caudillo and governor of Entre Rios. The event marked a sharp division in the history of Argentina. Urquiza sponsored the creation of the constitution in 1853 and became the first constitutional president of Argentina in 1854. De Rosas fled to Britain.

Battle of Caseros

Deciding battle in February 1852 between the Army of Buenos Aires commanded by 20-year term caudillo Juan Manuel de Rosas, Argentina's de facto ruler, and the Grand Army led by Justo Jose de Urquiza, caudillo and governor of Entre Rios. The event marked a sharp division in the history of Argentina. Urquiza sponsored the creation of the constitution in 1853 and became the first constitutional president of Argentina in 1854. De Rosas fled to Britain.

Lunfardo

Dialect developed in the late 19th and 20th centuries in the working classes of Buenos Aires as a fusion of Italian in spanish.

Monocultural Economics

Economic system based on the export of only a few kinds of raw materials or consumption goods (at the same time importing almost all kinds of consumption goods and capital goods mainly from industrial countries) Argentine economy that developed in the mid nineteenth century that largely still exists. It is the idea of 'doing 1 thing, and doing it right." Argentine economy was based on exporting beef and wheat to Europe (mostly Britian). Argentine of the 1850s/60s was liberal export-led economy but it did allow them an international economy.

Argentine Rural Society

Established by liberal elite to excite their conservative counterparts. It was designed to diffuse science and technology to rural areas as it relates to agriculture. Still exists and has a State Fair-type vibe. This reinforced the political philosophy of positivism taking root in late nineteenth century Argentina. Part of the Era of Order and Progress ushered in after the unification of Argentina and the election of Bartolome Mitre.

Criollos

European persons born in the new world but still considered a spanish subject. Part of spanish Caste system that distinguished between those with European ancestry and mixed. Most of the local landowning elite and nobility belong to this caste. Organized resistant militia group as part of the British invasions. These folks were the ones to establish/determine independence.

Fernando VII

Fernando VII ascended the throne to replace Carlos IV, his father, following an uprising on the unpopularity of French troops in Spain. Turned to Napoleon for support but was forced to abdicate to Joseph Bonaparte along with his father. Provincial juntas were established in Spain and in Latin America to control regions in opposition to Joseph. Re-established on the throne but the experience had severely weakened the Spanish monarchy. The series of events paved the way for Argentine independence.

Juan Diaz de Solis

First of the three. 16th century Spanish navigator and explorer. Set out to explore and chart the southern area of south america. Landed at Rio de la Plata and is credited with naming Argentina mistakenly as argentina. Three ships and 70 crew men. Named the Rio de la Plata when he reached it in 1516. Took smaller party and sailed up river but was captured by Charrua Indians. Suggested he was eaten. Ships returned.

Bernardino Rivadavia

First president of Argentina (then called the United Provinces of Rio de la Plata) from 1826-1827. Strong supporter of a powerful, centralized government based in Buenos Aires. Rivadavia often faced violent resistance from the opposition federalists. Failed conflict with Brazil in the Cisplatine War. Failed Constitution of 1926 that was liberal and centrist. Masses were not on board, all elites were not aboard. (Rivadavia had also been active in the Argentine resistance to the British invasion of 1806 and in the May revolution movement for Argentine Independence in 1810.)

Superclasico

Football (soccer) derby held every year between rivals Bocas Juniors and River Plate clubs

Auguste Compte- The Positive Philosophy

French philosopher published text in 1830s and provides the framework for the philosophical theory of Positivism which is one of three philosophies that shaped Argetine political and economic system of the 1850s-1860s. Compte's philosophy is based on the idea that society has absolute laws and absolute science (sociology) and it is shaped by the idea that are more perfect society (Utopia) could be formed through the science and technology but it relies on the ability of the governing elites to be united and the masses to be controlled.

Santiago Liniers

Frenchman serving in Spanish army. In 1806 organized militia in Buenos Aires to resist the British invasion of Argentina. Considered hero. Repeled British again in 1807. In 1807 was named interim vice-roy of Rio de la Plata (ousting Sobremonte). This was significant as the designation of a viceroy was Royal prerogative and not the people's.

Voceo

Grammatical term to describe the Argentine use of "vos" instead of Tu (second-person singular)

Pampas

Grassland region of central east Argentina.

Aconcagua

Highest mountain peak outside of Asia located in the Argentine Andes. Origin of the name is widely contested. Quechua term = "'Sentinel of Stone".

Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas

Highly-contested British Territory consisting of a collection of islands off the southeast coast of Argentina. Argentines refer to these as "Islas Malvinas". Falkland war of the 1980s.

Unitarians

In 19th century Argentina it generally referred to the Liberal elite who favored a centralized government out of Buenos Aires. Aka Porteños.

Latifundia

Large piece of land that belongs to a single individual or family often from aristocracy. Latifundia were typically worked by indentured labor or contractual arrangements. The latifundia-based systems were highly profitable for the landed elites who controlled political and economic power in the colonial and postcolonial societies. Those elites shaped agrarian institutions in their own interests in order to control access to land, water, markets, infrastructure, and political influence. Latin American latifundium emphasized its continuity with late-medieval Spain. As the nonrural sectors declined during the Latin American wars of independence, latifundisti gained an unprecedented degree of political power, often running their own private regional states. Not only did they control the conservative parties and the military. In Latin America the latifundium remains a dominant and even expanding form of productive organization that has profitably adjusted itself to the modern, dynamic, and export-oriented economy of late capitalism. Similar term to estancias.

Calfucura

Leading indigenous chief and military figure in Patagonia in the 19th century. He crossed the Andes from Chile to the Pampas around 1830. The catalyst for the Conquest of the Desert was probably triggered by his 1872 assault on Argentine cities.

Cordoba

Located in the geographic center of Argentina, founded by de Cabrera in 1573. Cordoba was named the temporary capital of the viceroyalty in 1806 during a British Invasion by Sobremonte. Presently it is the second most populous city in Argentina.

May Revolution

May 1810. Forced viceroy to resign. He was replaced by a government junta. Critics thought that Cisneros, appointed by the disestablished Junta, did not have the right to rule anymore. This marked the second disposition of a royal appointee.

Frigofricas

Meat packing plants established in Buenos Aires in the late nineteenth century in order to process the meat from the Estancias before being shipped to Europe. The plants were largely populated by European (Italian) immigrants. American plants of Swift and Armour were two of the largest companies. Meat packing was often refrigerated (where the name derives) or tinned. Represents an international (as Tin comes from Boliva) and domestic thriving economy. Conditions of immigrants were not the best. Similar to Upton Sinclairs "The Jungle" argentina literature reflects the brutality of it. The urban immigrants who worked in these plants were only one type of immigrant.

Juan Domingo Peron

Middle-class military leader who was jointly responsible for Grupo de Oficiales Unidos which eventually staged a coup d'etat to overthrow President Castilla to form a military Junta. Appointed Secretary/ministor of Labor where he became head of all the unions. This strengthen his relationship with working class, "descamisados"-jailed for activities. when he was released he was served three terms as president.

Conquest of the Desert

Military campaign led by General Julio Argentino Roca in the 1870s with the intent to establish Argentine dominance over Patagonia, which was inhabited by indigenous peoples. Similarly, to the Great Sioux Wars in American history, it resulted in the near annihilation of the indigenous people in the area. The main motive behind the expansion was the strengthening monocultural economy of Argentina which demanded more land for the production of beef and wheat.

Sáenz Peña Law

Named after President Roque Sáenz Peña, this politically and economically important legislation was passed in 1912. Takes away property and literacy requirements for voting. This is universal male suffrage for all Argentine citizens. Also makes voting compulsory. (Some have argued it was not as universal as it was presented as only the middle class would have pursued naturalization working class did not). This effectively ended the election of a president by the elite class. Greatly influenced the political election of 1916. Middle class Hipólito Yrigoyen, the candidate of the Radical Civic Union (Unión Cívica Radical, UCR) won the first presidential elections that followed the new law by a considerable advantage, and the UCR became the most powerful political force.

Joseph Bonaparte

Napoleon's brother, installed twice as King Joseph I of Spain, disposing Carlos IV and his son Fernando VII.

Grupo de Oficiales Unidos (United Officers Group or GOU)

Nationalist secret society within the Argentine Army composed mostly of middle-class military men. In 1943 they staged a coup d'etat to overthrow President Ramon Castillo and formed a military junta which lasted until 1945. The group included Colonel Juan Peron.

Manuel Dorrego

Nineteenth-century political leader. Advocate of federalism, rejected strong centralization sought by Pueyrredon and Rivadavia. Appointed governer of Buenos Aires province following the resignation of Rivadavia. Governer of Buenos Aires in 1820 and in 1827. Forced to resign by Juan Manuel de Rosas.

Positivism

One of three philosophies that shaped the next generation of Argentine elites (mostly liberal) that were educated in European universities. Derived from August Compte's Positive Philosophy. Compte's philosophy is shaped by the idea that society follows absolute laws/science (sociology). Specifically, that industrialism provided the science and technology (the tools) to build a more perfect society. However, in order to achieve the Utopia the elite must be solidly united and the masses must be controlled.

Corporatism

Organization of a society by political elite. This legacy of government means that Argentine society has always been characterized by a sharp contrast between the political elite and the everyday people.

Unión Cívica Radical (Radical Civic Union or UCR)

Party demanded universal male suffrage, which was considered radical at the time, when Argentina was ruled exclusive elite. Led by Hipolito Yrigoyen, who would be elected Argentina's first president after the passage of the Sáenz Peña Law. Main opposition party against conservatives and military (1930 - 58). Still an operating political party.

Roque Sáenz Peña

President of Argentina from 1910 - 1914, most famous for passing the Sáenz Peña law which allowed for universal male suffrage.

Walter Runciman

President of the British Board of Trade, chiefly responsible for co-authoring the Roca-Runciman Pact of 1933 that attempted to ease the effects of the Great Depression with a commercial agreement between Argentina and the United Kingdom.

Junta Central

Provisional Spanish government (and Argentina) created by the people to rule over their respective territory until the restoration of the rightful king- Fernando VII.

Roman Catholicism

Religion of Spanish Colonial Argentina and present-day Argentina. After Argentina's independence from Spain in the early 19th century, roman catholicism continued to be an important part of Argentine culture. Widely considered one of the three main pillars of Argentine society (along with military and the elite) the current head of the Roman Catholic church is from Argentina.

Alfajores

Sandwich cookies usually filled with dulce de leche often eaten at non-traditional mealtimes.

Pedro de Mendoza

Second of the three. 16th century Spanish explorer. Sailed with 2000 men and 13 ships with the goal of future transplantation. Sailed up Rio de La Plata and in 1536 founded Buenos Aires. Debilitated by syphilis and sent home. Native relations much more difficult. In 1541 settlers abandoned Buenos Aires and moved to Asuncion.

Inquilines

Second type of immigrant worker that was relegated to the rural areas of ARgentina outside of Buenos Aires. Their life was characterized by four-year contracts with Estancia, land owning elites, where they worked for four years clearing lands of pampas grass so that the regular workers could plant wheat. The relationship between the elite and these immigrant workers was similar to indentured servitude or share cropping in that inquilines rarely escaped the existence, often signing contract after contract. They were considered permanent.

Araucanian

South American indians

Vendepatrias

Spanish for traitor, someone who sells out their country. Term used for the Elite who were thought to have sold out Argentina with the act (as a result of WW2). Literally "country seller" as a result of the electoral fraud and the horribly negotiated Roca-Runciman Treaty

Patagonia

Sparsely populated region at the southern end of South America (composed of Argentina and Chile) . The area was populated by Mapuche indians who lived nomadic lifestyle. In the mid-nineteenth century Argentina began an aggressive phase of expansion in the south (in order to claim more land for their monocultural economies based on beef and wheat). This culminated in the Conquest of the Dessert of the 1870s, which was a miltitary campaign by the Argentine government, executed mainly by General Julio Argentino Roca to subdue or exterminate the native peoples of the South. (Similarly to the Great Sioux Wars)

Estancias

Term to describe large private landholdings, often ranches, owned by the political elite, mostly conservative outside of Buenos Aires. Generally the estancias would be used to raise cattle or grow wheat, the two chief exports in the monocultural economic system that characterized Argentina in the 19th into the 20th century. They still play an active role in Argentine economy. Similar to latifundia.

Yeismo

Term to describe the unique argentine dialects that pronounces Ll = "Yism" = j'sh sound.

Iberian Cultural Tradition

The Argentine declared independence from Spain in the early 19th century. However the Iberian culture continued to thrive in Argentina into the modern era. This includes religion, language, corporatism, roman law, latifundia economy. Three pillars of society- church, military, elite.

Confederacion General de Trabajadores

The General Confederation of Labor (CGT).

Hipolito Yrigoyen

The candidate of the Radical Civic Union (Unión Cívica Radical, UCR) won the first presidential elections that followed the new law by a considerable advantage, and the UCR became the most powerful political force. Would ultimate serve two terms (1916 - 1922 & 1928-1930). Most known for serving middle class interests such as universally accessible public education system (national university development) increase size of bureaucracy. Also worked to improve the standard of living for the working class including a number of social reforms aimed at improving factory conditions, working hours, and pensions. First term was charcterized by a number of labor strikes such as the Semana Trajica and the results of WW1. His second term ended abruptly when he was ousted amid economic crisis resulting from the Great Depression. (First coup in Argentina's modern history)

Argentine Football Association

The governing body of football in Argentina.

Compradrazco

The reciprocal relationship or the social institution of such relationship existing between a godparent or godparents and the godchild and its parents. Traditionally in a catholic latin sense. This is one of the institutions that allowed caudillos like Juan Manuel de Rosas to retain power in the 19th century.

Congress of Tucuman

The representative assembly met in Northwest Tucuman and declared independence of the United Provinces of South America from the Spanish Empire on July 9, 1816. (Composed of present-day Argentina, Uruguay, and part of Bolivia). The name hoped to encourage other Spanish American independence regions that were not represented at the Congress. The Congress was inaugurated in the house of Francisca Bazán de Laguna, consisting of 33 elites, and its presidency rotated on a monthly basis. Congress continued its work in Buenos Aires from 1817 and issued a Constitution in 1819. The Constitution was rejected and the Congress dissolved in 1820.

Social Darwinism

The sociological theory that individuals and society are subject to the same Darwinian laws of natural selection. Developed and advocated by 19th century English Philosopher Herbert Spencer it greatly shaped the political ideologies taking root in the Argentine elite (mostly liberal) in the 1860s that would go on to shape Argentine politics in the next decade. The theory has been hotly debated/discredited and is employed to justify political conservatism, imperialism, and racism as it was used in Argentine for a variety of political activities including the "bleaching" of society (e.g. Immigration laws favored Europeans rather than Asian or Africans). This is reflected in Argentine literature.

Gnocchi

Thick soft dough dumplings popularized by the Italian population. Gnocchi Day is celebrated in Argentina on the 29th of each month. It is a cheap, but filling dish, which is why it is popular at the end of the month when funds are low.

Juan de Garay

Third of the three. 16th century spanish explorer. Governor of Asuncion and founded a number of cities in present-day Argentina including the refounding of Buenos Aires in 1580 at its present location of Plaza de Mayo. Surpassed Asuncion as an important trading post for the Spanish (on the Atlantic side)

Golondrinos

Third type of immigrant worker that also worked in the rural areas of Argentina outside of Buenos Aires. Unlike the Inquilines, they were considered migratory workers and often only worked three month stints harvesting wheat (monocultural economy) before returning to Italy. The word is derived from a small, migratory bird similar to the swallow.

Peninsulares

Those born in mainland spain. Often top ecclesiastical, military, and administrative positions were reserved for crown-appointed peninsulares.

Yerba Mate- Bombilla

Traditional hot drink of Argentina. Made by steeping mate (holly bush) leaves, similarly to tea, with hot water. Traditionally this is done in a hollowed out gourd with the use of a special metal drinking straw, "bombilla", that filters the leaves.

Conventillos

Urban housing or tenement in Argentina. First developed in Argentina in the late nineteenth century, these were the first homes of many immigrants recently arrived from European countries. Architecturally significant- often having a central courtyard around which stood a double row of rooms on the ground floor and on one or two upper floors. They did not have windows or natural light. Often occupied by Frigiricos.

Rafael Sobremonte

Viceroy of the Rio de La Plata in 1804 during the time of the British invasions of the Rio de la Plata. [Vice Royalties were how the Spanish sought administrative control over new Spain. Originally there were only two vice-royalties in the new world, Lima and Mexico City, however the Bourbon reforms established a Rio de la Plata viceroyalty around 1776] Sobremonte left the city and decided to move to Córdoba. Since the time of Vértiz there was a regulation that stated that if Buenos Aires was attacked by a foreign invader and the capital could not be held, there must be a move to the interior of the country and organize the defense in Córdoba, in order to defend the rest of the Viceroyalty, and have a fighting chance to reconquer the capital with some chances of success. Sobremonte, accused of cowardice by many at the time, followed the directive by moving to Córdoba. Replaced by Liniers who with a citizen army fought the invasion.

Carlos IV

Weak Spanish monarch (1788-1808). Forced to abdicated throne due to devaluation of Spain as a trustworthy ally and increased presence of French troops in Spain. (Spain had been allied with France against the United Kingdom and Portugal.) Opponents favored Fernando VII. The ousted King, having appealed to Napoleon for help in regaining his throne, was summoned before Napoleon in Bayonne, along with his son, in April 1808. Napoleon forced both Carlos IV and his son to abdicate, declared the Bourbon dynasty of Spain deposed and installed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as King Joseph I of Spain. Eventually Fernando VII would be reestablished on the throne. This led to an overall weakened Spanish monarchy and paved the way for Argentine independence.

Dona Encarnacion Ezcurra

Wife of Juan Manuel de Rosas. President of the Mazorca, the secret police tasked with governing Argentina especially during de Rosas campaign in the desert.