HST 214: Module 2 Exam
The Berlin Conference (1884-1885)/ King Leopold
Leopold II's claim to congo basin return for free access to area by traders and missionaries --> personal possession of Congo Free State
Factors that motivated French invasion of Algeria in 1830
"bring an end to the corsair piracy of algiers- no longer a serious threat to euro shipping in med in reality, invasion was an attempt to raise nationalistic fervor at home to support corrupt and unpopular french monarchy potential for wealthy colony for white settlement and market for french products
Cause of strained relations between France and Algeria after 1820s
- algeria exporting grain and olive oil to france since 18th century - french refusal to pay debt for the grain supplied to Napoleon's invasion of egypt in 1798
Economic and political impact of Egypt's modernization programs under Khedive Ismail's rule
- booming cotton industry bc of decline in America after the civil war - extension of railway up to Nile - updating his army - opening of Suez→ more and more trade dominated by European shipping - finances overstretched in 1870s, Britain seized opportunity to buy Egyptian share of canal in 1875 for mere 4 mill- safeguarding route to india - Ismail bankrupt- forced deposition in 1879, son as puppet - F &B dual control over Egypt's finances in order to ensure payment of debts
Key Egyptian sectors in which Europeans invested financially
- ivory trade in sudan - railway connecting med port of alexandria to Cairo and the red sea port of suez
Factors that contribute to political upheaval that triggered state formation in South Africa in early nineteenth century
- militarization: initiation of youthful age req, weaker chiefdoms sought protection by powerful ones - demand for ivory @ delongoa bay - adoptionof maize, better rainfall, more food, demand for land- more livestock--> comp for pasturelands & demand for meat by American whaling ships- drought crisis (1802-4) heightened competition for scarce resources leading to mil conflict- rise of shaka from Mthehwa sect of zulu
Muhammad Ali's Reforms: key objective for the reforms; why land reforms were crucial for Ali; some of the land reforms initiated by Ali
- wanted the pashalic of egypt as a hereditary position for himself & family - wanted to make egypt most prosperous and powerful state in all of northern africa - developed a civil service and modern professional army modeled after European ones - past system was open to corruption and abuse as iqta became hereditary and govt lost control - in turn, ali organized specialized regiments of cavalry and infantry - abolished the tax farming so taxes were paid directly to the state land reforms: irrigation extended, work done by traditional forced labor of the fellahin substantial profit for the state was earned by bringing more land under cultivation and long fiber cotton became cash crop (imp from Sudan)
Hottentot Code**
1809- al Khosean and free black men in the colony had to carry passes showing where they lived and who their employer was. any without a pass could be contracted to the nearest white colonist who needed labor- provided a model for similar laws throughout colonial africa and apartheid SA ; forced boer farmers to sign a written labor contract w their A laborers allowing access to courts to address grievances (freedom of negotiation)- pass laws allowed Boers to regulate mobility of their laborers and opened avenues for abuses of african laborers
The Mahdi uprising: causes
1881; organized by Muhammad Ahmad, who declared himself the mahdi (guided one) and launched jihad against egyptians and europeans in sudan (mahdist state and admin org according to quranic principles) --> 17 yrs--> battle of omdurman 1898--> anglo-egyptian force conq Mahdists, est anglo-egyptian condominium as B colony
Fellahin
90% of egyptian population, peasants, grossly exploited historically and under Ali
Identify parts/locations of Africa where European presence in Africa was limited to before the scramble and partition of Africa,
Algeria, western africa/ senegal (f), tunisia, libya, egypt (ottoman), South Africa (b & boers), british along gold coas,t (sierra leone & ghana) portuguese in mozambique and angola
Free trade policy: what was it and what power applied it the most during the early nineteenth century
British: no one nation was to interfere with the right of another to freely trade in africa, B dom in Africa's external trade
Factors that united Algerians in their resistance against French invasion
Algerian Arab and Berber communities were inspired into unity by the shared arabic anguage and muslim religion and cultural values; french threats of imposition of a completely alien religion, culture, and legal system
Portuguese, German, and Italian colonies in Africa
Angola (portuguese), Germany (east africa) italy (libya, eritrea, somalia, ethiopia)
Dithakong**
Battle in 1823; Griqua defeated Sotho raiders/refugees, the battle's outcome enhanced the prestigue of missionaries among Twana & pushed kololo further north, who subsequently conquered Lozi kingdom in upper zambezi--> showing that events are not isolated ; in 1830s Moshoeshoe invited missionaries from CC to come and settle in his kingdom because he knew the northern border regions of the cape were subject to raids at the hands of the Griqua and Kora
How did the Lozi utilize ecological opportunities of the Upper Zambezi River
During the second half of the summer rainy season, the river swells and floods the plain.The lozi, adapted their society to gain the max benefit from the natural resources of the floodplain, built their settlements on a series of mounds dotted across the plain. when land became flooded, they moved with their belongings to winter settlements on the higher dry ground that bordered the western plain
Menelik***
Emperor of Ethiopia (r. 1889-1911). He enlarged Ethiopia to its present dimensions and defeated an Italian invasion at Adowa (1896). after maqdala, declared himself emperor johannes w support of chuch and regional authority --> menelik (nobility) opposed this-- menelik's advantage over yohannes was his large army w modern weaponry acquired from French and Italians on red sea coast; menelik declared himself emp (1889) at addis ababa: he absorbed non christian agriculture herder southerners
Rene Caille
Frenchman who became the first European to return with a firsthand account of Timbuktu, disbelieved bc hid description was drab
"Protectionism"****
In 1879 the French threw down a challenge to free trade in A by starting railway construction from Dakar to link colony of senegal with upper niger valley. Thus, france broke Britains near monopoly on west A south facing coastline (pointe noire gave france overland access to malebo pool and opened up disc of free trade on congo river); During the Berlin Conference tactics were used to undermine B claims over vague and informal spheres of influence and to protect emerging trade interests
"Vacant land" myth
It was claimed that Shaka's regiments devastated the region driving people to starvation adn cannibalism to the extent that the territory south of the Tugela River became an 'empty land' and thus available for white settlement. justification for what became the 1940s colony of Nata; and occupation by emigrant Boers from eastern Cape colony
Boer republics
Natal, Orange Free State, The Transvaal
Chikunda***
Slave armies employed by prazeros, their duties were carrying out taxing local farmers, hunting, raiding; large standing armies of chikunda, grew to dominate the ivory trade in the 18th cen (with the decline of the maravi empire) in the lower zambezi valley; since prazeros were absentee land lords, power devolved to chikunda; slaves were used as porters to transport ivory to coast ; by 1860s, independent chikunda armies were extending their hunting and raiding frontier into the middle zamb valley --> began taking ivory and slaves by force
Impacts of Kololo conquest of the Lozi kingdom in 1830s
The Kololo (migrants from SA) became the new aristocracy but preserved the existing Lozi polical system; new language (sotho introduced), autocracy under Kololo rulers, Lozi heavily taxed & sold as slaves, emphasis on livestock keeping,
Source of Bemba grew in power/influence
Trade routes to the west were mostly through Lunda capital Musumba. Bemba grrew to dominate the northern region of modern Zambia. developed a powerful military organization and based in stockaded villages, lived largely from raiding others, esp Bisa trading caravans
Xhosa**
a member of a South African people traditionally living in the Eastern Cape Province, brought into conflict in early 19th cen British; B introduced total warfare (1811-12) brutally cleared Zhosa and expelled from east of the great fish river. civil war soon erupted ; xhosa quiclly clashed w trekboer squatters who ignored B restrictions on the territory--> B pushed further east and annexed rest of territory (1830s)--> Boers looked to new region for white settle,emt but B declined by decising that security was too expensive to maintain--> land back to Xhosa in 1836--> this loss led many boers to join trek from colony
The traditional historical interpretation of Mfecane
a violent "tribal conflict" initiated by king Shaka of Zulu kingdom which pushed many communities out resulting in 'vacant' land in SA lowveld and highveld areas which Boers migrated in the late 1830s
Factors for the phenomenal growth of the east African slave
abolition was much more targeted to west africa than in east, cen, southern africa; geophysical locationof east Africa made it harder to surveille eastern regions to stop trade --> factors for growth: establishment of French-Indian Ocean colonies (1700-80s) required slave labor for sugar colonies; decline of African slave exports from early 19th cen led to a rise in slave prices in Americas--> forced Portuguese/Brazilian traders to enter EA/IO coastal lands for slaves
Ngoni's centralized military organization: role of age-sets; fighting technology
age regiments which cut right across local loyalties and brought all young men into military service for the state, captured people were also absorbed into military--> highly effective armies; short stabbing spear (assegai) which made full use of surprise and shock tactics
How did the French seek to dominate Algeria's economy; thus, what sectors were targeted the most
agriculture/ land
Sudan, Khartoum
ali invaded sudan 1820-21, conquering fuji sultanate and founded the city of Khartoum (commercial hub); from Khartoum, Europ and Egyptian merchants employed priv armies to raid ivory and slaves; this foreign monopology of sudan's trade & egyptian taxation of local herders and use of christian europeans in local admin ignited sudanese resentment against egyptian rule
French interests in Egypt at the turn of the nineteenth century
anglo-french rivalry stemming all the way back from 7 yrs war (1756-63) - france lost america, india, and was now losing Haiti - secure reliable source of cotton & grain - potential for sugar 3 yr french occupation of egypt
Ethiopian Church and Tewodros
attemped to abolish privilege of the clergy and confiscating chuch estates he lost church support which lost him legitimacy in his imperial title --> loss of public support
Kazembe's Lunda***
by end of 18th cen; Kcentral pivot of a longdistance trading network that stretched from one side of the continent to the other (indian ocean hinterlands to Atlantic in west); Kazembe accumulated goods for trade by collecting tribute from the regional chiefdoms; copper was mined extensively in the copper producing region of the modern Zambian/Congo copperbelt, and copper bars circulated as a form of currency; principal exports: copper, ivory, salt, captives importsL firearms, euro wollens, cotton cloth, shells, beats, metal manuf goods from Europ
Factors that favored European conquest of Africa
colonists were able to exploit traditional and long standing rivalries between african states ( some accepted euro alliance or treaty of protection in belief it would shief from african enemies); europe held advantage in military tech (breech loading repeater rifle and maxim gun)
Henry Morton Stanley
completed livingstone's work by unraveling the mystery of Africa's remaining major river; crossed continent from zanzibar and sailed down congo from its upper tributary ; identified possibilities for trade on congo river basin --> colonizing expedition under leopold
Basis of appointment to administration service of Lozi commoners
complex bureacracy of meritocracy
Urabi Pasha revolt: causes
dual control of F & B anti-imperial egyptian nationalism
Rise of European nationalism, creation of new states and their connection to the scramble for Africa
emergence of two new states in europe (italy and germany) in 1870s; saw the acquisition of colonies in africa as a source of national internation prestigue and patriotism
Swahili & Arabs role in east African slave trade
establishment of Arav oligarcgy from Oman settled @ Zanzibar; aided by Sultan, the newcomers est clove plantations which relied on African slave labor ; dominated the slave trade in IO coastal markets, Zanzibar became the largest slave market on EA coast
Colons**
european colonists in algeria (13% of population); from france given land seized from arab and berber peasant farmes who became laborers, 1 million colons by 1900 (13%); controlled most cultivable lands yet most were absentee landowners living inmajor cities; commercial cultivation of olives in vineyards, what farms by colons
Strategies adopted by Mzilikazi to expand the Ndebele Kingdom
expanded mainly by absorbing Sotho-Twana men and women & raided those who did not send tribute- 1838-40: further raids from Zulu and combined force of Boer/Griqua pushed them further north
Heinrich Barth and Gustav Nachtigal
explored the major trade routes of the sahara and the sahel; 5 month volume remains major source for historians of sokoto and borno;
Why the Bisa failed to benefit from their profession as traders
failed bc Kazemba siphoned off most of their profits in customs dues and tributes; where also subjected to raids by the Bemba
"Oil Rivers" and its challenges to European exploration
fever ridden swamplands were the delta of Niger River; high mortality rate from amlarial fever managed to hold euro explorers and traders at bay for a further few decades
Impact of prazeros' expansion into the Zambezi Valley
main traders in Zambezi valley; descended from Portugues and Afro-Portuguese hunters and traders who had settled in the valley in the 17th and 18th cen -- main source of power was their large standing armies consisting of mainly captured slaves (Chikunda), prazeros controlled vast estates called prazos and treated local African farmers as their subjects, taxed them heavily & expected them to support prazero and family as well as Chikunda army ; grew to dominate the ivory trade of lower zambezi valley
Dingane's power strategies
maintained power through perpetual warfare & booty (cattle + young menfor the regiments)
Principle of "effective occupation" and its impact
for europeans to claim territory in africa, that power had to occupy effectively by establishing an administration within it--> sparked the scarmble esp between B & G in east A in the 1880s
Sotho vs Griqua and Kora conflicts
forced west in Caledon River valley, suffered much worse raids from Grinqua & Kora peoples with guns and horses, taking captives for slavery in cape colony - sotho referred to difaqana (the scattering)
Bankers and financiers and the scramble for Africa
in London amassed political influence on British government, pressure to protect overseas investments by colonizing (ex. Egypt & suez canal)
Italian interests
italians declared a colony over ports of assab and massawa in 1882 and 1885, italian coastal colony of eritrea (1880s-90s), italian conquest into ethiopia was defeated by menelik
Commodities exported from east and central Africa following the abolition of the slave trade
ivory & copper
Muhamad Ali's political reform
land reforms: transformed agriculture into steady source of revenue/taxes for the state- eliminated iqta (tax-farming( system and the mamluk estate/landlords- a new land survey registry ensured that land teaxes were now paid directly to govt not landlords- irrigation ag using fellahin labor- new commercial crops: cotoon
Developments/changes in the Cape Colony that contributed to the Great Trek
new British administration introduced new laws and economic changes that pushed many Boers to trek toward north out of colony - agricultural changes and labor restrictions- abolition of slave trade (1807) restricted slave importations by boers for use on farms- abolition of slavery (1834)--> creation of free wage labor
Why were the Chokwe constantly expanding their territory because:
originated as full-time hunters in remove highland regions of Angola; specialized ivory hunters and beeswax, operated as a series of separate village communities (max size 1k) which meant they were in state of perpetual expansion in search of new sources of ivory and wax
A power that nominally controlled North Africa in the nineteenth century
ottoman empire
Motivation of Chokwe expansion to the north and east of their homeland
perpetual state of expansion in search of new sources of ivory and beeswax,--> 1880s and 90s began rubber production
Ways in which Lozi aristocracy demonstrated their social prestige
posession of livestock was a status symbol, grew fingernails long to show they did not have to engage in manual labour
The role of the Ovimbundu of West-Central Africa in the trade?
professional long distance traders- link between the Chokwe and Atalntic coast, slaves were used as porters of ivory and other goods
Bemba livelihoods
raiders
Chokwe source of labor
relied on women for labor, agricultural production and beezwax processing
Emperor Tewodro's reforms
revived effective central government, created salaried royal appointees to district governments, judges to replace rebellious independent nobility, payment of military trained modern weapons, confiscated land owned by ethiopian orth church --> alienated the clergy who mobilized local support for an invading B army sent to rescue B consular mission
Chokwe exports to European markets after 1870
rubber
Moshoeshoe's power consolidation strategies on the highveld
successful cattle raider and took advantage of disruption to gather Sotho chiefdoms into defensive kingdom, he used royal marriage to build a complex alliance system; he raided cattle from weaker neighbors but spent tribute to powerful ones (Zulu, Ndebele, Ngwana), since Griqua and Kora were well armed with guns-- Moshoeshoe partnered w christian missionaries in cc to gain access to military portection and horse and gun imports in 1830s and 40s
Roles/duties of Zulu military age-regiments
tend to royal herds and hunted ivory while female regiments cultivated royal farms (mil as participant in economic producion
Battle of Magdala, 1868
tewodro's army lost outcome of battle which created a false sense among eurpeasn that ethipia was militarily weak
Nguni army's military technology
throwing spear--> stabbing spear; introduced total warfare by having the aim to kill as many of the enemy as possibly rather than just drive them off; cow horn military formation for encircling the enmy ; Shaka--> discipline, speed, chiefs replaced by commanders who had both military & econ roles
Quinine
turning point for explorers in 1850s when it was discovered to provide reasonable protection against malarial fever
How did the Lozi ensure the construction of dwelling mounds and canal channels?
used organized enforced or slave labor to build the dwelling mounds and to cut canals for canoe transport
European views of importance of African rivers
viewed as primary trading arteries to and from the heart of the continent ; highways to "open up" continent to euro trade and exploitation
Roles of Africans in European exploration of Africa
virtually every explorer was dependent on african hospitality and traveled with the aid of african guides and servants
Zulu regimental system regional identities"
weakened regional ethnic identities; everyone who was conquered became zulu--> redefined identities- forced to fashion themselves to accomodate zulu expansion- those forced out by zulu militarization relocated to new areas & found new states (Swazi & sotho kingdoms)
Key export from Egypt during Ali's reign
wheat and cotton
David Livingstone: exploration of the Zambezi and its significance
witnessed the ravages of the still active slave trade, he crossed back across the continent to the east coast wrongly concluding that zambezi provided a navigable route into the interior; he preached that Christianity and commerce were only possible antidotes to the evils of slave trade ---> imperial slogan to justify colonial conquests