HST 300 Final Exam

Why/how has Africa's oil has sparked the "new scramble" for the continent?

- Africa's oil resources sparked the "new scramble" because of its oil reserves are much higher than that of another country - The instability of oil markets in the Middle East due to conflicts

In what ways has India engaged with Africa in the post-Cold War period?

- Economic growth in India and the quest for Africa's natural resources, market opportunities for Indian commodities and capital; runs parallel to China's experience with their global economy - Indian Diaspora: People of the Indian Origin (POI) need to tap into their economic potential for India's benefit - India's political interests: strategic importance of the African Indian Ocean sphere; a lot of the coastline touches the coast of Africa China's presence within this African Indian Ocean sphere has threatened India's security over this area

Factors that contributed to the decline of Apartheid

- Economic sanctions - Economic pressure - Collapse of communism - Falling of the Berlin Wall - Intense African nationalism and internal political unrest after 1980 - Isolation of South Africa following the collapse of Portuguese and South Rhodesian regimes - Collapse of the Soviet Union and decline in communist threat - International pressure on Frederik Willem de Klerk's regime (1989-1994) for reforms, to end apartheid: ANC unbanned; Mandela released - 1994: majority government under the ANC led by Nelson Mandela

Charles De Gaulle's 1946 reforms for the French African Empire

- Forced labor abolished - Assimilation policy terminated; all colonial subjects were declared French citizens - Overseas colonial citizens were granted representation in French National assembly - The French Union was constituted; composed of France, overseas departments, and territories; demand for independence by overseas territories was considered secession, therefore treasonous

Objectives of 2003 Brasilia Declaration

- Intends to bring about change within the global political economy - Expand the UN's Security Council in the permanent and non-permanent member categories

Why did the Soviet Union part ways with Mohammed Siad Barre's regime in Somalia in the 1970s?

- Somalia cultivated a relationship with Saudi Arabia which alienated the Soviet Union - The Soviet Union didn't like Somalia invading Ogaden and saw it as an imperialist move

What was Organization of African Unity (OAU)'s stand on Somali irredentism?

- The OAU saw Ethiopia as the victim because they were being invaded - They didn't see Somalia's reasons for invading, but rather just saw it as an aggressive attack on Ethiopia's sovereignty

What developments contributed to the decline and subsequent end of Mengistu Haile Mariam's regime in 1991?

- The U.S. started supporting an opposition party to the Derg - The Derg didn't make good land reforms, resulting in famine and international attention - The Soviet Union was collapsing as well - The educated elite didn't support the Derg

Factors that contributed to the collapse of Haile Selassie's regime in 1974

- The famine - The Derg: gained more power in the government; initially made up of young men in the military who felt like they didn't have power - Growing discontent of Haile Selassie's administration - Oil crisis - Unemployment - Nationalism in Ogaden

Following the end of World War II, what was the United States' position on the status of Eritrea? Why did the US assume such a position?

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Katanga Lobby

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The National Union for the Total Liberation of Angola (UNITA)

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The model of Cuba's intervention in Africa during the Cold War was based on the concept of the "Cuban Revolution". What did Cuba's government mean by that?

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What has the World Bank/IMF meant by its emphasis on "enabling environment" in Africa?

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The 1956 Loi cadre

A political framework in which France granted limited self government in its African territories to elected African officials

Resource curse

Africa is impacted by its "resource curse" of oil because it is part of an inherently extractive and exploitive enterprise, therefore, oil-producing countries are more underdeveloped than non-oil producing countries

Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU)

African nationalist movement comprised of the Shona in the northeast under Robert Mugabe.

What did the following territories share in common: South Africa, South West Africa (Namibia), and Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe?).

All territories in Southern Africa that had significant European settler populations and white minority governments before 1990. Africans, the majority, and other populations were marginalized economically, politically, and socially.

What was the main motive for the United States' intervention in Africa in the earlier decades of the Cold War (1950s through the 1970s?)

America's main motive was to keep the Soviet Union out of Africa in order to stop the spread of communism. The U.S. sought to accomplish this by appealing to the new African governments; they wanted to draw people in because they were seeking allies in these territories. By forging an anti-communist coalition with the emerging African governments, there was no room for Soviet proxies.

National Congolese Movement (NCM)

An African nationalist organization based in the Congo, founded by Patrice Lumumba. The movement focused on non-alignment while holding nationalistic perspectives, which shows how the group branches further out than just ethnic or tribal relations.

National Islamic Front

An Islamist political organization that influenced the Sudanese government and supported the maintenance of an Islamic state. The NIF infiltrated the Sudanese government through the military and the economy, and engaged in many harmful conflicts within Sudan.

Why did the plans for Namibia's independence, endorsed by the UN in 1980, get delayed for almost a decade?

Because of the delay in removing Cuban troops from Angola.

Contrast the perceptions of Britain and France in the 1950s regarding the future of their African empires

Britain deemed decolonization as a rational/conscious decision to make. France believed that their colonies were critical to its global prestige, so they were opposed to decolonization. France favored colonial reforms, not independence.

Why did the United States, France, and Israel support the South African Apartheid regime?

Britain, the U.S., France, Israel supported the regime under the pretext of warding off international communism. In essence, economic and strategic interests were at the core of their embrace of the apartheid regime: Gold, diamonds, uranium. The U.S. was the largest trading partner and investor in South Africa by the early 1980s

Why have many African countries engaged China's model of collaborative development? That is, why has China has succeeded in forging development cooperation with most African countries?

China supports the African view that American imposition of economic and political Western ideology in Africa as neocolonialism. China has sought to challenge Western hegemony in Africa by positioning itself as the defender for the developing world.

Katanga, Moise Tshombe, mining interests: establish the link

Congolese nationalist Patrice Lumumba was the first democratically elected leader of the Congo, however his vision for Congo ran counter to Belgium's vision, who was indirectly in power despite decolonizing. Moise Tshombe, the premier of the Katanga Province (mineral rich) was strongly against everything Lumumba was for as a Western ally, so he instigated Katanga Province's secession from Congo, aiming to starve Lumumba's government of foreign revenue from mining.

Why did Africa become an attractive field/theater of the Cold War in the 1950s through the 1970s?

Decolonization and African nationalism: America's anti-colonial stance, which put pressure on European colonial powers.

The "Dutch Disease"

Dependence on a single commodity for economic welfare; captures a process whereby a country experiences an export commodity boom which is followed by a decrease in manual exports as policymakers ignore other sectors of the economy

Why did the United States to get involved in the Congo Crisis in the early 1960s?

Despite decolonization, power would remain with Brussels through a Congolese military commanded by Belgian officers. The mining sector remained under Belgian and other Western companies. The U.S. supported the Belgian arrangement as a fellow NATO ally--would help keep Soviet access to uranium in Katanga Province at bay The Congo was still predominantly under the power of Belgium, which the U.S. supported as a fellow NATO ally. The U.S. got involved in the crisis based off this alliance, but also to help keep Soviet access to uranium in the Katanga Province at bay.

The National Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO)

FRELIMO mobilized nationalists from Mozambican migrant laborers and educated elite

Houphouet-Boigny

First president of Côte d'Ivoire; member of the RDA, but broke off

Jacques Foccart, Africa cell, Francafrique: the link?

Following independence in Francafrique, French-African affairs were directed from the Africa Cell, a secretive body that worked under France's president. Jacques Foccart led the Africa Cell from 1960-1974. Foccart was in charge of covert operations in Africa to ensure that African countries remain friendly with France; designed a framework that enabled French interests without creating problems. France would send military power to Africa and secure the presidencies of their former colonies because France wanted access to French Africa's natural materials; the leaders of France's former colonies were primarily dictators

Jonas Savimbi

Founder of UNITA

Why was France reluctant to decolonize Algeria?

France was reluctant to decolonize Algeria because colonies were a way to boost France's economy and prestige. Empire was a part of national identity, and Algeria was especially important in the face of post-war national challenges.

What was the main issue led to the 1956 Suez Canal Crisis? What strategies did Gamal Abdel Nasser adopt to check Western neocolonial influence in newly decolonized African and Middle Eastern countries?

Gamal Abdel Nasser was upset with the U.S. because of their failure to keep a promise to provide funds for the constructions of the Aswan Dam on the Nile River. With economic and military support from the Soviet Union, Nasser seized and nationalized the Suez Canal.

Islamic Courts Movement (ICM); Somalia, Al-Shabaab: the link?

In 2000, the creation of the Islamic Courts Union occurred in Mogadishu, Somalia. The Islamic Courts Movement formed following the overthrow of Siad Barre in 1991. Despite strong support, the Islamic Courts fell victim to extremism. After a wave of unexplained assassinations and disappearances in 2005, the military force Al-Shabaab was created and were suspected of killing on the behalf of the Courts.

The Peoples Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA): what segments of the population formed the core of its strength

In north-central Angola, the MPLA, led by Angostinho Neto, was primarily compromised of the Mbundu people and was a Marxist group focusing on national appeal

"ideological lodestar", Millennium Challenge Account; Africa: the link?

In the U.S., foreign policy on Africa changes with each new president. Under his administration, Bill Clinton took the "ideological lodestar" approach regarding relations with Africa, which essentially meant the enlargement of liberal democracy and the encouragement of African states to create an environment that would foster democracy in exchange for economic aid. George W. Bush reflected a similar policy during his presidency as through the formation of the Millennium Challenge Account which would receive funds from the U.S. for developmental programs based on the if the nation had no malgovernance, invested in its people and encouraged economic freedom.

Identify the actual (initial) cause of the 1960 Congo Crisis

Independence from Belgium

Why was the 1990s "a decade of disengagement" for the US as far as Africa was concerned?

Initially, following the end of the Cold War, the U.S. considered Africa to have lost its strategic value; hence reduction in U.S. bilateral aid to African states in the 1990s. Reasons for this loss of importance are the end of the Cold War and the U.S. under Clinton started paying more attention to eastern countries in Europe, such as Yugoslavia

Henry Kissinger's policy towards African nationalism in Southern Rhodesia

Installation of friendly black governments in countries neighboring South Africa. Saw it as a moderate approach that would sustain white settler governments while incorporating friendly black governments; he had learned the lesson from Angola which ended up not favoring U.S. policy

Somali irredentism/countries that have been victims to this irredentism

Irredentism is the quest to reclaim territory that once belonged to that group. If Somalia's claims were upheld, then Somalia's territory would be much larger. Irredentism led to the Somali-Ethiopia War of 1977/Ogaden War because Somalia wanted to reclaim Ogaden due to the population of Somali people there. Somali populations not only lie in Ethiopia, but also in regions in Kenya

Why did the Derg administration turn to the Soviet Union camp in 1977?

Jimmy Carter's administration criticized human rights abuses right after the Derg had purged human lives. Therefore, the Derg feared that that the U.S. would no longer support them, so they reached out to the Soviet Union.

What was Jimmy Carter's administration core policy towards South Africa?

Jimmy Carter's administration took a humanitarian approach--apartheid is bad and not needed. Apartheid South Africa was painted as a totalitarian regime by Carter's administration; halted the supply of strategic arms supplies to South Africa.

Why has Kenya become deeply targeted/involved by growing insecurity in the Horn of Africa?

Kenya has a large Western presence, specifically in regard to large Western companies. Kenya has the largest collection of Western embassies in comparison to other African countries; political presence. UN agencies are based on Nairobi, specifically the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)

Eduardo Mondlane

Leader of FRELIMO

Sam Nujoma

Leader of SWAPO

Robert Mugabe

Leader of ZANU

Holden Roberto

Leader of the FNLA

Angostinho Neto

Leader of the MPLA

Hassan Al-Turabi

Leader of the National Islamic Front

Amilcar Cabral

Leader of the PAIGC

Patrice Lumumba: who was he? In what ways did the Belgians/the West see him as a threat?

Lumumba was the leader of the Nationalist Congolese Movement and he was the first democratically elected leader of the Congo. He believed that Congolese resources should benefit the Congolese, not Western powers. He also favored the Bandung Conference policy of non-alignment. He was seen as a threat because he supported radical nationalism such as Nasser's which claimed that Europeans should leave Africa and allow African nations their independence. He also denounced Belgium's colonial exploitation of the Congo and backed the 1960 Congolese Army mutiny.

What was the main reason for the failure of the 1960 UN Mission into the Congo? Thus, why did Lumumba break ranks with that mission?

Lumumba's government disagreed with then-UN Secretary General, Dag Hammarskjold's ideas because the UN was more focused on catering towards the interests of the Western powers as opposed to being non-partisan. Lumumba's final break with that mission following the secession of Katanga Province and the Kasai Province. Lumumba wanted to unify the Congo, while the UN claimed that the secession was an internal problem that the UN didn't need to involve tiself with, so Lumumba turned to the Soviets.

What was Lumumba's immediate response to the Congo Crisis? Thus, whom did he initially turn to for help?

Lumumba's immediate response to the Congo crisis was to repress it but though non-alignment. Therefore, he asked the UN for help, which was supported by both the Soviet Union and the U.S. for nationalistic reasons.

Frontline States: what were they? Examples of those states

Newly-independent countries in Eastern and Southern Africa (Tanzania, Botswana, Zambia, Angola, Mozambique, Zimbabwe) formed an initiative whose goal was to take down the Apartheid regime; these nations are also geographically close to South Africa

South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO)

Rise of African nationalism, early 1960s, under Sam Nujoma's South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO)

Structural adjustment programs (saps): what were they? Outline their main facets/features

SAPs were reform programs administered by the IFIs and donors, which were designed to provide more money to each citizen as well as utilize public resources more. The programs restructured the agricultural system for better investment, assured that rational prices and global market conditions would influence decisions for investment and production, and restructured aspects of institutions in order to yield export-oriented industrial investments

Ian Smith; Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI), Britain: the link?

Settlers, under Ian Smith, issued the Declaration of Independence (UDI) on November 11, 1965

Africa Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC): what factors accounted for its success in the struggle for independence?

THE PAIGC had strong and stable leadership which enabled them to enact real changes in their communities. The PAIGC had a strong appeal to Guinea's rural population, so its influence expanded far. Modeled along Chinese and Cuban revolutions, the PAIGC provided social services in liberated areas. They also focused on national unity which was appealing to the masses.

Why the 1970s have been dubbed Africa's "lost decade"

The 1970s have been dubbed Africa's "lost decade" because it was a period of time where Africa's economic growth rate decreased; the annual growth rate declined to 0.1%

The 1981 Berg Report: what was its dual strategy?

The 1981 Berg Report, which denounced the LPA, had a dual strategy of privatization and liberalization.

The Alvor Accord: what was it and why did it fail?

The Alvord Accord was an agreement signed by Portugal, the FNLA, the MPLA, and UNITA which obliged them to create a transitional government that included representatives from all three movements and to hold elections to choose a president and gain independence on November 11, 1975. It failed because the U.S. saw the MPLA as a Soviet proxy and supported the FNLA through financial, military, and political propaganda means, which lead to murders on MPLA activists.

The American Council on Africa, South Africa, the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986: establish the link

The American Council on Africa, a consortium of civil rights and religious organization, trade unions, and students. The Anti-Apartheid movement in the U.S. was spearheaded by the ACA. Reagan's administration leaned towards Pretoria, but activists swayed the American opinion to be Anti-Apartheid. The Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986 was the result of years of work by activists who got the attention of Congress.

Two African countries that became directly involved in the Angolan Cold War due to their high stakes in that country

The Congo (Zaire) and South Africa

The National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA)

The FNLA, led by Holden Roberto, was dominant amongst the Bakongo community in northwestern Angola. It had military strength from the Congo, which was interested in Angola through the FNLA to annex Angola's Baking areas and the Cabinda Enclave in order to make the Congo richer.

Why has the Horn of Africa attracted international attention in the global fight against terrorism?

The Horn of Africa attracted attention in regard to terrorism because it is right next to the Middle East and is split by the Red Sea. This location is geographically significant because oil gets transported in this region, so the politics here are important.

What factors contributed to the failure of the Lagos Plan of Action

The Lagos Plan of Action was a doctrine created by African leaders which mapped out a developmental plan for Africa in the post-colonial period. The LPA failed because it stated Africa's problems and recommended the creation of international institutions to aid the continent without any financial plans. The LPA also required certain economic and social conditions to exist in Africa which did not at the time.

What type of aid did Nordic countries lend African nationalist movements during the Cold War?

The Nordic countries were the most significant liberation supporters, which included neutral Sweden and Finland as well as NATO members Norway and Denmark. They formed close relationships with nationalist movements and provided humanitarian assistance.

Why did France crack down against the African Democratic Rally (RDA)?

The RDA was an alliance of political parties in French West and Equatorial Africa who formed thanks to a meeting held by African delegates from French Sub-Saharan Africa. France cracked down on the RDA because of its ties to the PCF and its links to the communist-affiliated General Confederation of Labor (CGT). It also supported ethnic individuality, which was against what the French wanted through a holistic, French colonial region.

The Byrd Amendment

The Rhodesia Lobby in Richard Nixon's administration; pushed for the 1971 Byrd Amendment which was an exception on the embargo that allow U.S. trade for anything that they considered strategic; it justified what they wanted to trade with Rhodesia

Why/how does the Sahel fit the description "ungoverned spaces". How has this contributed to the international and regional perceptions of insecurity?

The Sahel fits the description of "ungoverned spaces" because it has a long history of limited government presence, smuggling, banditry, human trafficking, and violence. The region also suffers from frequent drought, food shortages, poverty, development disparities at national levels. The combination of these factors has caused external powers to perceive this area as highly dangerous, with the implementation of many U.S. anti-terrorism programs within the Sahel.

Why was the Soviet model of intervention in Africa during the Cold War prove more appealing to some African States than the American one?

The Soviet Union believed in equality, land reform, anti-colonialism which was very attractive to African nations under colonial rule. At this point in history, the Soviet Union and China had not implemented their harsher policies, so Africans looked to them for support rather than other nations.

Djibouti, "lily pads", United States: the link?

The U.S. developed security assistance programs in Africa along with anti-terrorism "lily pads" where military forces would be deployed. These "lily pads" were a means of countering terrorism while also securing a stronghold in various African territories. The most prominent location where these lily pads occurred was Djibouti.

What aspects of the African society/continent has the U.S. securitized its foreign relations on the continent?

The U.S. securitized its foreign relations in Africa because of Africa's institutional weaknesses, autocratic governance, and economic marginality. The U.S. securitized its relations in regard to terrorism as the U.S. implemented policies and made changes to cater to counterterrorism efforts.

How did the Union of Peoples of Cameroon (UPC) justify its demands for Cameroonian independence?

The UPC justified its demands for Cameroonian independence by claiming that forced membership into the French Union was a violation of the UN charter's advocacy for "self-government and independence"

Following independence, what was the emphasis of African governments approach to development?

The emphasis of African governments' approach to development was to expand infrastructure and education while increasingly participating in import-substitution to stimulate industrialization; relying on domestic economy to produce goods rather than importing internationally

The Rentier State

The rentier effect allows oil-rich regimes to use oil receipts instead of taxation. No taxation creates short-term benefits, but in the long-term, does not allow the government to retain any money for social services

The Repression Effect

The repression effect demonstrates how oil-rich governments can use patronage and repression in order to build an authoritarian regime if and when they want

Why was Portugal reluctant to decolonize its African Empire?

They held onto their African colonies for a little bit longer than other European powers because they were more unstable in comparison to other European colonial powers; they needed the resources of their colonies in order to stay afloat.

Evian Accords

Treaty signed by France giving Algeria its independence following the Algerian War

Objective of the 1947 revolt in Madagascar

Wartime burdens and post-war deprivation led to anti-colonial revolt (1947) organized by the Democratic Movement for Malagasy (MDRM). The objective of this revolt was to demonstrate how angered sectors of the MDRM as well as rural Malagasy people were by the burden of the war effort and the poverty that followed in its wake

What criticisms has China's approach to development in Africa elicited?

While China strengthens its political ties with Africa and positions itself as the leader of the developing world, it also participates in Western financial institutions, such as the World Trade Organization, demonstrating a paradox within China's foreign policy.

Why did the governments of South Africa and Rhodesia rebuff African claims for independence or majority rule in the 1960s and 1970s?

White minority governments in these areas always rebuffed notions of independence of African majority rule and considered African nationalism as a radical idea influenced by international communism.