Human Anatomy and Physiology 1

matter

the substance or substances of which any physical object consists or is composed

deci

10^-1

centi

10^-2

milli

10^-3

micro

10^-6

nano

10^-9

multiple associated with kilo

10^3

What is waters heat capacity?

4.184 Joules, the highest heat capacity of any liquid

buffer

A buffer is an aqueous solution that has a highly stable pH. If you add acid or base to a buffered solution, its pH will not change significantly. Similarly, adding water to a buffer or allowing water to evaporate will not change the pH of a buffer. How Do You Make a Buffer? A buffer is made by mixing a large volume of a weak acid or weak base together with its conjugate. A weak acid and its conjugate base can remain in solution without neutralizing each other. The same is true for a weak base and its conjugate acid. How Do Buffers Work? When hydrogen ions are added to a buffer, they will be neutralized by the base in the buffer. Hydroxide ions will be neutralized by the acid. These neutralization reactions will not have much effect on the overall pH of the buffer solution. When you select an acid for a buffer solution, try to choose an acid that has a pKa close to your desired pH.

Interpret a simple chemical reaction, identifying reactants, products, and enzyme involved.

A fundamental task of proteins is to act as enzymes—catalysts that increase the rate of virtually all the chemical reactions within cells. The elements or compounds that enter into a chemical reaction are known as reactants. The elements or compounds produced by a chemical reaction are known as products. Enzymes speed up chemical reactions that take place in cells. CO2 + H2O = H2CO3 (reactants are Carbon Dioxide and Water, Product is Carbonic Acid, Enzyme is Carbonic Anhydrase). Left to itself, this reaction is so slow that carbon dioxide might build up in the body faster than the bloodstream could remove it. Your bloodstream contains an enzyme called carbonic anhydrase that speeds up the reaction by a factor of 10 million. With carbonic anhydrase on the job, the reaction takes place immediately and carbon dioxide is removed from the blood quickly.

Why is water an excellent solvent?

A polar molecule with partially-positive and negative charges, it readily dissolves ions and polar molecules.

Define the terms monomer (also called subunit or building block) and polymer.

A polymer is a long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds. The repeated units are small molecules called monomers.

element

A substance that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by chemical means, and is made up of atoms all with identical number of protons.

negative feedback mechanisms

Almost all homeostatic control mechanisms are negative feedback mechanisms. These mechanisms change the variable back to its original state or "ideal value". With negative feedback, the output reduces the original effect of the stimulus.

Define the terms acid, base, and hydrogen ion (also called a proton).

An acid is a substance that donates hydrogen ions. Because of this, when an acid is dissolved in water, the balance between hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions is shifted. Now there are more hydrogen ions than hydroxide ions in the solution. This kind of solution is acidic. A base is a substance that accepts hydrogen ions. When a base is dissolved in water, the balance between hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions shifts the opposite way. Because the base "soaks up" hydrogen ions, the result is a solution with more hydroxide ions than hydrogen ions. This kind of solution is alkaline. ionized hydrogen of the form H +, found in aqueous solutions of all acids

Organism

An organism could either be unicellular or multicellular. The ones that are closely related can be grouped together under a single genus. An organism can be defined as the fully functional form of a living being that can thrive in a particular environment.

Identify the factors that affect enzyme activity (pH and temperature).

As the temperature increases, so does the rate of reaction. But very high temperatures denature enzymes. The graph shows the typical change in an enzyme's activity with increasing temperature. The enzyme activity gradually increases with temperature up to around 37ºC, or body temperature. Changes in pH may not only affect the shape of an enzyme but it may also change the shape or charge properties of the substrate so that either the substrate connot bind to the active site or it cannot undergo catalysis. In geneal enzyme have a pH optimum. However the optimum is not the same for each enzyme.

What are the 8 levels of organization?

Atom, molecule, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism

Chemical symbol for carbon

C

Chemical formula for glucose

C6H12O6

Chemical formula for carbon monoxide

CO

Chemical formula for carbon dioxide

CO2

Chemical symbol for calcium

Ca

Describe why carbon is a versatile element and found in the structure of all biomolecules.

Carbon is versitale because it can form single, double, and triple bonds. It can also form chains, branched chains, and rings when connected to other carbon atoms. It has 4 valence electrons (can have 4 bonds). This makes it extremely versatile which makes it a good choice to be the backbone for biological molecules.

Define the following terms: catalyst, enzyme, substrate, products, activation energy, and active site.

Catalyst =A substance which speeds up a chemical reaction without being used up in the reaction Enzyme =Biological catalysts that speed up a chemical reaction. Substrate Products =The starting material in a chemical reaction, or reactants Activation Energy = The energy required to start a chemical reaction. Active Site = In biology, the active site is the region of an enzyme where substrate molecules bind and undergo a chemical reaction. The active site consists of residues that form temporary bonds with the substrate (binding site) and residues that catalyse a reaction of that substrate (catalytic site).

Identify the characteristics of a neutralization reaction.

Chemical reaction in which a strong acid and a strong base come together to form water and salt

Chemical symbol for chlorine

Cl

Why is water cohesive?

Cohesion holds hydrogen bonds together to create surface tension on water. Since water is attracted to other molecules, adhesive forces pull the water toward other molecules.

Chemical formula for water

H20

Describe the effect of dissociation on the strength of an acid or base.

Dissociation can affect acids and bases differently. Acids and bases are recognized as strong or weak depending on the dissociation effect.

What signifies a hydrogen bond in a diagram?

Dotted line between atoms

example of positive feedback mechanisms

During labor, a hormone called oxytocin is released that intensifies and speeds up contractions. The increase in contractions causes more oxytocin to be released and the cycle goes on until the baby is born. The birth ends the release of oxytocin and ends the positive feedback mechanism.

Explain the characteristics of enzymes, including their specificity and that enzymes are not altered or used up in a reaction

Enzymes exhibit four fundamental characteristics. First, enzymes do not make a reaction occur that would not occur on its own, they just make it happen much faster. Second, the enzyme molecule is not permanently altered by the reaction. It may be changed transiently, but the enzyme at the end of the reaction is the same molecule it was at the beginning. Therefore, a single enzyme molecule can be used over and over to catalyze the same reaction. Third, an enzyme can catalyze both the forward and the reverse reaction. One direction may be more favorable than the other, but the unfavorable direction of the reaction can occur. Fourth, enzymes are highly specific for the substrates they bind, meaning they catalyze only one reaction.

Chemical symbol for iron

Fe

Compare the properties of salts, acids, and bases.

For acids: 1) produces H ions 2) taste sour 3) has a pH level of less than 7 4) it destroys chemical properties of bases 5) pH indicators : http://www.bcscience.com/bc10/images/0_quiz-5.1-05.gif For bases: 1) produces OH ions 2) taste bitter 3) has pH level of greater than 7 4) it destroys chemical properties of acids 5) pH indicators: http://www.bcscience.com/bc10/images/0_quiz-5.1-05.gif Acids, Bases, and Salts: are grouped together in a category called electrolytes, which means that a solution of a given substance will conduct electricity. Salts that are from strong bases and strong acids do not hydrolyze. The pH will remain neutral at 7. Halides and alkaline metals dissociate and do not affect the H+ as the cation does not alter the H+ and the anion does not attract the H+ from water. This is why NaCl is a neutral salt. In General: Salts containing halides (except F-) and an alkaline metal (except Be2+) will dissociate into spectator ions. Salts that are from strong bases and weak acids do hydrolyze, which gives it a pH greater than 7. The anion in the salt is derived from a weak acid, most likely organic, and will accept the proton from the water in the reaction. This will have the water act as an acid that will, in this case, leaving a hydroxide ion (OH-). The cation will be from a strong base, meaning from either the alkaline or alkaline earth metals and, like before, it will dissociate into an ion and not affect the H+. Salts of weak bases and strong acids do hydrolyze, which gives it a pH less than 7. This is due to the fact that the anion will become a spectator ion and fail to attract the H+, while the cation from the weak base will donate a proton to the water forming a hydronium ion. Salts from a weak base and weak acid also hydrolyze as the others, but a bit more complex and will require the Ka and Kb to be taken into account.Whichever is the stronger acid or weak will be the dominate factor in determining whether it is acidic or basic. The cation will be the acid, and the anion will be the base and will form either form a hydronium ion or a hydroxide ion depending on which ion reacts more readily with the water.

Chemical symbol for hydrogen

H

Chemical formula for hydrochloric acid

HCl

Distinguish between hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances and describe their interactions

Hydrophilic-water loving molecules (polar and ionic) Hydrophobic- water-hating molecules (nonpolar) ex: plasma membrane is hydrophilic on the outside and hydrophobic on the inside

Identify the following functional groups and describe their properties: hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amine, phosphate, and sulfhydryl.

In a hydroxyl group (—OH), a hydrogen atom forms a polar covalent bond with an oxygen atom, which forms a polar covalent bond to the carbon skeleton. • A carbonyl group (>CO) consists of an oxygen atom joined to the carbon skeleton by a double bond. • A carboxyl group (—COOH) consists of a carbon atom with a double bond to an oxygen atom and a single bond to the oxygen of a hydroxyl group. • An amino group (—NH2) consists of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms and the carbon skeleton. • A phosphate group (—OPO32−) consists of a phosphorus atom bound to four oxygen atoms (three with single bonds and one with a double bond). • A sulfhydryl group (—SH) consists of a sulfur atom bonded to a hydrogen atom and to the backbone.

Explain how organisms use chemical reactions to capture and release energy and to make new compounds and break down compounds.

In a living cell, chemical reactions are carried out to store chemical energy by forming bonds or to release energy by breaking them. -Your body digests carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins in food. Chemical energy is released when covalent bonds in these molecules are broken. -Your cells are building molecules like fats, nucleic acids, and proteins. The covalent bonds that form to build these molecules store chemical energy

positive feedback mechanisms

In a positive feedback system, the output enhances the original stimulus. Positive feedback is a cyclic process that can continue to amplify your body's response to a stimulus until a negative feedback response takes over.

What type of bond does sodium bicarbonate have?

Ionic

Cell

It is considered as the basic unit and building block of life. It is bound by a cell membrane, and possesses a nucleus which acts as its brain. Cytoplasm surrounds the nucleus, which contains cell organelles like mitochondria, ribosomes, vacuole, endoplasmic reticulum, chloroplasts, peroxisomes, and ventricles. The average number of cells in a human body is 100 trillion. They are known to bring about conversion of nutrients into energy, reproduction (cell division), and to carry out specialized functions. Basically, they are of 2 types; prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cells have a smaller size and simpler form, and lack a nucleus. Eukaryotic cells are more specialized in structure than the prokaryotic ones. Moreover, they are larger in size (by almost 15 times).

Atom

It is the most basic and fundamental unit of matter. It consists of a positively charged nucleus that is made up of protons and neutrons, and revolving around them are the negatively charged electrons. An atom that consists of an equal number of protons and electrons is neutral and stable. In case of unequal number of protons and electrons, it is termed as an ion. Ions are either positive or negative.

Organelle

It is the subunit of a cell, and consists of a group of functioning biomolecules. Organelles take part in the chemical reactions and interactions in the cellular processes of an organism. Organelles in eukaryotic cells are different from those in prokaryotic ones. A few examples include nucleus and chloroplasts (plant cells), and golgi bodies and mitochondria (animal cells).

Organ

It performs certain functions with the help of different tissues. The major organs of animals include lungs, brain, liver, etc., whereas roots, stem, and leaves are the different organs of plants. Organs can be classified on the basis of the functions they perform. For example, in case of animals, the tongue, ears, eyes, skin, and nose are sensory organs. Flowers and seeds are the reproductive parts of plants. These units are formed by tissues that serve a common function. There are two types of tissues that form an organ; the main and sporadic tissues. For example, in the heart, myocardium is the main tissue, while the blood, nerves, and connective tissues are sporadic.

Chemical symbol for potassium

K

Chemical symbol for nitrogen

N

Chemical symbol for sodium

Na

Chemical formula for sodium chloride

NaCl

Chemical formula for sodium bicarbonate

NaHCO3

What type of bond does carbon dioxide have?

Nonpolar covalent bonds

How are isotopes(radioisotopes) used in diagnosis and treatment in medicine?

Nuclear medicine uses radiation to provide information about the functioning of a person's specific organs, or to treat disease. In most cases, the information is used by physicians to make a quick diagnosis of the patient's illness. The thyroid, bones, heart, liver, and many other organs can be easily imaged, and disorders in their function revealed. In some cases radiation can be used to treat diseased organs, or tumors. Radioisotopes are an essential part of medical diagnostic procedures. In combination with imaging devices which register the gamma rays emitted from within, they can study the dynamic processes taking place in various parts of the body.

Chemical symbol for oxygen

O

Organ system

Organs working together to perform certain functions form organ systems. Examples are the circulatory system in animals, and the vascular system in plants. The organs in an organ system are interdependent, i.e., they work in harmony to carry out various body functions. For example, the digestive system that carries out the process of digestion consists of salivary glands, stomach, esophagus, gallbladder, liver, intestines, pancreas, rectum, and anus.

Chemical symbol for phosphorus

P

Recognize examples of kinetic energy and potential energy.

Potential energy is energy that is stored in an object. ... As the rubber band is released, potential energy is changed to motion. Kinetic energy is energy of motion. A rubber band flying through the air has kinetic energy. You have probably heard that ATP is the "energy currency" in the cell. How is the potential energy stored in ATP? As it turns out, the ability to release the phosphate group at the end of ATP is what makes it so high in energy.

Differentiate between kinetic energy and potential energy and know their characteristics.

Potential energy is the stored energy in an object due of its position or its configuration whereas Kinetic energy is the energy which a body possesses because of its motion.

Describe how enzymes work, including how they affect the activation energy of a reaction and the rate of a reaction.

Proximity Effect. Substrate molecules collide infrequently when their concentrations are low. The active site brings the reactants together for collision. The effective concentration of the reactants is increased significantly at the active site and favors transition state formation. Orientation Effect. Substrate collisions in solution are random and are less likely to be the specific orientation that promotes the approach to the transition state. The amino acids that form the active site play a significant role in orienting the substrate. Substrate interaction with these specific amino acid side chains promotes strain such that some of the bonds are easier to break and thus the new bonds can form. Promotion of Acid-Base Reactions. For many enzymes, the amino acids that form the active site have functional side chains that are poised to donate or accept hydrogen ions from the substrate. The loss or the addition of a portion (H ) can destabilize the covalent bonds in the substrate to make it easier for the bonds to break. Hydrolysis and electron transfers also work by this mechanism. Exclusion of Water. Most active sites are sequestered and somewhat hydrophobic to exclude water. This nonpolar environment can lower the activation energy for certain reactions. In addition, substrate binding to the enzyme is mediated by many weak noncovalent interactions. The presence of water with the substrate can actually disrupt these interactions in many cases. Enzymes can use one or more of these mechanisms to produce the strain that is required to convert substrates to their transition state. Enzymes speed the rate of a reaction by lowering the amount of activation energy required to reach the transition state, which is always the most difficult step in a reaction.

Write a simple chemical reaction using proper chemical notation (Note: See "Rules of Chemical Notation posted on the Biology Department website, www.austincc.edu/biology)

So for example what is the formula of Copper (I) Oxide? Identify the symbols of the cation and anion Copper is Cu and Oxide is O Identify the charge for each and place above the symbol in parenthesis For Copper I that would be 1+ and for Oxide that would be 2- Balance the positive and negative charges Since each Copper is 1+ and each Oxide is 2- then it will take two Cu+ to balance one oxide with a 2- so that 2(1+) + 1(2-) = 0. The numbers outside the parenthesis become the subscripts in the formula Write the formula placing the subscripts right after the symbol they go with. Cu2O Notice that we don't bother to place a subscript 1 after the Oxide symbol. That is because a subscript one is understood to be so. If it was zero it wouldn't appear at all in the formula. Also note that all binary compounds end in "ide"

Compare the bond strength of covalent and ionic bonds.

Substances with standard covalent bonds seem to be weaker than those with ionic bonds because the ionic bonds tend to form a lattice structure, that makes them much stronger

What's the basic structure of an atom

The basic structure of an atom includes a tiny, relatively massive nucleus, containing at least one proton and usually one or more neutrons. Outside of the nucleus are energy levels (also called shells), which contain one or more electrons. The energy levels are often called rings. The neutrons have the greatest mass and have no charge. The protons have slightly less mass than the neutrons and are positively charged. The electrons have almost no mass and are negatively charged. The electrons move around the nucleus in energy levels.

Define pH and relate pH to the concentration of hydrogen ions/protons.

The character of acidic, basic and neutral is defined by the concentration of hydrogen ions [H+](mol/L). A solution with a concentration of hydrogen ions higher than 10-7mol/L is acidic, and a solution with a lower concentration is alkaline (another way to say basic). Using the formula, pH=-log[H+], a pH of 7 is neutral, a pH less than 7 is acidic, and a pH greater than 7 is basic. As one can see from this formula, ten times a given concentration of hydrogen ions means one unit lower in terms of pH value (higher acidity), and vice versa.

Recognize that in a reaction at equilibrium the forward and reverse reactions are occurring at the same rate.

The definition of chemical equilibrium is the point at which the concentrations of reactants and products do not change with time. It appears as though the reaction has stopped but in fact the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal so reactants and products are being created at the same rate.

Molecule

The formation of chemical bonds between two or more atoms leads to the formation of a molecule. It is one of the most fundamental and stable components of matter. Chemical compounds exist as molecules.

Compare polar and nonpolar bonds

The greater the electronegativity difference, the more ionic the bond is. Bonds that are partly ionic are called polar covalent bonds. Nonpolar covalent bonds, with equal sharing of the bond electrons, arise when the electronegativities of the two atoms are equal.

Motion of particles in gas

The particles of a gas move quickly and are able to spread apart from one another.

Motion of particles in liquid

The particles of a liquid are able to move past each other.

Motion of particles in solid

The particles of a solid are not able to move out of their positions relative to one another, but do have small vibrational movements.

What is the role of electrons in chemical bonds?

They are important in covalent and ionic bonds. Their role in both is being mutually transferred between atoms(covalent) or a complete transfer of electrons from one atom to another(ionic).

Tissue

This level is a combination of different types of cells which perform specialized functions. The group of cells that form a tissue need not be identical, but they should have the same origin. Different types are the nervous, muscle, connective, and epithelial tissues. Connective tissues are fibrous in nature, and they are made up of cells that are separated by an extracellular matrix. Muscle tissues are actively contractile, and useful for producing force and motion. Nervous tissues form organs like the brain and the spinal cord. Epithelial tissues cover the surface of body organs.

Describe the polarity of water

Water is a "polar" molecule, meaning that there is an uneven distribution of electron density. Water has a partial negative charge ( ) near the oxygen atom due the unshared pairs of electrons, and partial positive charges ( ) near the hydrogen atoms.

Describe why water is an essential reactant

Water is an essential reactant in the chemical reactions of living systems. Water is the solvent that transports many nutrients throughout the body

Example of hydrogen bond

Water is an excellent example of hydrogen bonding. The bond is between the hydrogen of one water molecule and the oxygen atoms of another water molecule, not between the two hydrogen atoms

Explain the biological importance of hydrogen bonds between water molecules and between other polar covalent molecules

Water makes up to 60-70% of the human body as well as most other things are mostly made of water. Without hydrogen bonding none of it would exist, including us.

mass

a body of coherent matter, usually of indefinite shape and often of considerable size

molecule

a group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest fundamental unit of a chemical compound that can take part in a chemical reaction.

hydrogen bond

a weak bond between two molecules resulting from an electrostatic attraction between a proton in one molecule and an electronegative atom in the other.

ion

an atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to the loss or gain of one or more electrons.

isotope

each of two or more forms of the same element that contain equal numbers of protons but different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei, and hence differ in relative atomic mass but not in chemical properties; in particular, a radioactive form of an element.

What type of bond does sodium chloride have?

ionic

3 states of matter

liquid, solid, gas

Basic units of the metric system for length, mass, time, and volume

meter, gram, liter, second

What type of bond does oxygen gas have?

nonpolar covalent bond

What type of bond does hydrochloric acid have?

polar covalent

What type of bond does water have?

polar covalent

atom

the basic unit of a chemical element.

example of negative feedback mechanisms

the control of blood sugar by releasing insulin

Describe the relationship between temperature, pressure and volume in a closed system.*

the pressure of a given amount of gas held at constant volume is directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature. As the pressure goes up, the temperature also goes up, and vice-versa. the pressure and volume of a gas have an inverse relationship, when temperature is held constant.

dissociation

the splitting of a molecule into smaller molecules, atoms, or ions, especially by a reversible process. Typically ethanoic acid (acetic acid) splits into the ethanoate ion and H+ this means that an anion (the CH3COO-) and a cation (the H+) are produced. So the effect of dissociation is to increase the number of anions and cations in solution.

homeostasis

the tendency toward a relatively stable equilibrium between interdependent elements, especially as maintained by physiological processes.

Describe the reactions (dehydration/synthesis or hydrolysis) used to make and break down polymers.

• Monomers are connected by covalent bonds that form through the loss of a water molecule. This reaction is called a condensation reaction or dehydration reaction. • The covalent bonds connecting monomers in a polymer are disassembled by hydrolysis, a reaction that is effectively the reverse of dehydration. In hydrolysis, bonds are broken by the addition of water molecules