Human Anatomy and Physiology Chapter 12: The Spinal Cord, Spinal Nerves, and Spinal Reflexes

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step 1 of reflex

arrival of stimulus and activation of receptor

11% of brain mass

cerebellum

40% of the mass of the brain

cerebral cortex

A fissure is a

deep sulcus

Subdural or subarachnoid hemorrhage

may force brain stem through the foramen magnum, resulting in death

Centers for coughing, sneezing, swallowing and vomiting are found here

medulla oblongata

Forms part of the ventral wall of the fourth ventricle

medulla oblongata

Joins spinal cord at foramen magnum

medulla oblongata

Transmits all ascending and descending impulses

medulla oblongata

Pons nuclei help regulate

respiration

Cerebral edema

swelling of the brain associated with traumatic head injury

Gray matter is

unmyelinated

Cauda equina

"horse's tail", a fan of nerve fibers below the spinal cord

Composition of CSF

*Watery solution *Less protein and different ion concentrations than plasma *Constant volume

Prefrontal cortex

*Working memory for spatial tasks *Executive area for task management *Working memory for object-recall tasks *Solving complex, multitask problems

What is the most reasonable explanation for why meningitis (an infection in the meninges) would damage the spinal cord?

Meningitis would place physical pressure on the spinal cord

What are the three types of functional areas of the cerebral cortex?

Motor areas Sensory areas Association areas

A patient with severe West Nile virus impacting the anterior gray horn would likely exhibit

Paralysis of some muscles

degeneration of the dopamine-releasing neurons of the substantia nigra

Parkinson's disease

Forms part of the anterior wall of the fourth ventricle

Pons

Thoracic spinal nerves

12 pairs

How many enlargements are in the spinal cord?

2

How many pairs of spinal nerves are there?

31

Origin of cranial nerves V (trigeminal), VI (abducens), and VII (facial)

Pons

A typical spinal cord has how many pairs of spinal nerves, and where does the spinal cord end?

31 pairs; lumbar vertebra 1 or 2

Sacral spinal nerves

5 pairs

How many lobes does the brain have?

5: frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, insula

cervical spinal nerves

8 pairs

blood-brain barrier

A mechanism that prevents certain molecule from entering the brain but allows others to cross

Temporal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex responsible for hearing and language.

Occipital lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information

Parietal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex whose functions include processing information about touch.

a progressive degenerative disease of brain that results in dementia

Alzheimer's disease (AD)

Involves progressive destruction of ventral horn motor neurons and fibers of the pyramidal tract

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)

Hearing

Auditory association area Primary auditory cortex

Four modes of protection for the brain

Bone (skull) Membranes (meninges) Watery cushion (cerebrospinal fluid) Blood-brain barrier

-Midbrain -Pons -Medulla oblongata

Brain Stem

Associated with 10 of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves

Brain Stem

Contains fiber tracts connecting higher and lower neural centers

Brain Stem

Controls automatic behaviors necessary for survival

Brain Stem

Similar structure to spinal cord but contains embedded nuclei

Brain Stem

The collection of nerve roots at the inferior end of the vertebral canal

Cauda equina

If West Nile virus invades the anterior gray horn of the spinal cord, what cells types and parts would most likely be damaged?

Cell bodies of motor neurons

Coordinates skeletal muscle movement and maintains posture and balance

Cerebellum

Two hemispheres connected by vermis

Cerebellum

Gives buoyancy to the CNS organs

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

Nourishes the brain and carries chemical signals

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

Protects the CNS from blows and other trauma

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

What is the subarachnoid space?

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

Blood circulation is blocked and brain tissue dies(blockage of a cerebral artery by a blood clot)

Cerebrovascular accidents (strokes)

Typically leads to hemiplegia, or sensory and speed deficits

Cerebrovascular accidents (strokes)

The nerves serving the upper and lower limbs emerge here

Cervical and lumbar enlargements

What are the Motor areas of the brain?

Primary (somatic) motor cortex Premotor cortex Broca's area Frontal eye field

Somatic sensation

Primary somatosensory cortex Somatosensory association cortex

Transection

Cross sectioning of spinal cord at any level results in total motor and sensory loss in regions inferior to cut.

Vision

Primary visual cortex Visual association area

carry motor impulses to muscles and glands

Descending Pathways

interneurons that receive somatic and visceral sensory input

Dorsal horns

contain cell bodies of sensory neurons

Dorsal root (spinal) ganglia

CSF in subarachnoid space

Protection feature of the spinal cord

Cushion of fat and a network of veins in the epidural space between the vertebrae and spinal dura mater

Protection feature of the spinal cord

Which efferent nerve is involved in the plantar reflex?

Tibial nerve

step 4 of reflex

activation of a motor neuron

step 2 of reflex

activation of a sensory neuron

When does the activation of a motor neuron occur in a stretch reflex?

after information processing in the CNS

somatic motor neurons whose axons exit the cord via ventral roots

Ventral horns

Connected to one another and to the central canal of the spinal cord

Ventricles of the Brain

Lined by ependymal cells

Ventricles of the Brain

petit mal or grand mal seizures

Epilepsy

What are the four regions of the brain?

cerebrum, diencephalon, brainstem, cerebellum

What are the two enlargements of the spinal cord?

cervical and lumbar

Quadriplegia—transection in the

cervical region

Choroid Plexus located

Epithalamus

Most dorsal portion of the diencephalon

Epithalamus

Pineal gland secretes melatonin

Epithalamus

Impulses do not reach muscles

Flaccid paralysis

No voluntary or involuntary control of muscles

Flaccid paralysis

severe damage to the ventral root or ventral horn cells

Flaccid paralysis

Mediates sensation, motor activities, cortical arousal, learning, and memory

Function of Thalamus

Two way communication between brain and body

Function of the spinal cord

cerebral sulcus

Grooves between cerebral gyri

Taste

Gustatory cortex (in insula)

fatal hereditary disorder from accumulation of the protein huntingtin; leads to degeneration of basal nuclei and cerebral cortex

Huntington's disease

Autonomic control center for many visceral functions (e.g., blood pressure, rate and force of heartbeat, digestive tract motility)

Hypothalamus

Center for emotional response

Hypothalamus

Controls release of hormones by the anterior pituitary

Hypothalamus

Forms the inferolateral walls of the third ventricle

Hypothalamus

Involved in perception of pleasure, fear, rage and in biological rhythms and drives

Hypothalamus

Produces posterior pituitary hormones

Hypothalamus

Regulates body temperature, food intake, water balance, and thirst

Hypothalamus

Regulates sleep and the sleep cycle

Hypothalamus

Cerebral hemisphere

Identify #1

Parietal lobe (identify)

Identify #1

axon (identify)

Identify #1

posterior (dorsal) root of spinal nerve (identify)

Identify #1

Pons (midsagittal view)

Identify #10

Precentral gyrus

Identify #10

Solving complex, multitask problems

Identify #10

Medulla oblongata (midsagittal view)

Identify #11

Postcentral gyrus

Identify #11

Working memory for object-recall tasks

Identify #11

Spinal cord (attached to brain midsagittal view)

Identify #11 (the bottom one)

Central sulcus

Identify #12

Corpus callosum (midsagittal view)

Identify #12

Executive area for task management

Identify #12

Fornix (midsagittal view)

Identify #13

Working memory for spatial tasks

Identify #13

Broca's area (outlined by dashes)

Identify #14

Choroid plexus (midsagittal view)

Identify #14

Frontal eye field

Identify #15

Thalamus (encloses third ventricle) (identify)

Identify #15

Posterior commissure (midsagittal view)

Identify #16

Pineal gland (part of epithalamus) (identify)

Identify #17

Corpora quadrigemina

Identify #19

Endoneurium (identify)

Identify #2

Parieto-occipital sulcus (on medial surface of hemisphere)

Identify #2

Primary somatosensory cortex

Identify #2

Septum pellucidum

Identify #2

anterior (ventral) root of spinal nerve (identify)

Identify #2

Cerebral aqueduct (midsagittal view)

Identify #20

Arbor vitae (of cerebellum) (identify)

Identify #21

Fourth ventricle (midsagittal view)

Identify #22

Choroid plexus (inferior one of midsagittal view)

Identify #23

Cerebellum (midsagittal view)

Identify #24

Midbrain (midsagittal view)

Identify #25

Interthalamic adhesion(intermediate mass of thalamus)

Identify #3

Occipital lobe (identify)

Identify #3

Perineurium (identify)

Identify #3

Somatosensory association cortex

Identify #3

pia mater of spinal cord (identify)

Identify #3

Gustatory cortex (in insula)

Identify #4

Interventricular foramen

Identify #4

arachnoid mater of spinal cord (identify)

Identify #4

epineurium (identify)

Identify #4

Anterior commissure

Identify #5

Perimysium (identify)

Identify #5

Wernicke's area (outlined by dashes)

Identify #5

dura mater of spinal cord (identify)

Identify #5

Fascicle (identify)

Identify #6

Hypothalamus (identify)

Identify #6

Primary visual cortex

Identify #6

posterior (dorsal) root ganglion (identify)

Identify #6

Myelin sheath (identify)

Identify #7

Optic chiasma (identify)

Identify #7

Temporal lobe (identify)

Identify #7

Visual association area

Identify #7

spinal nerve (identify)

Identify #7

Auditory association area

Identify #8

Lateral sulcus

Identify #8

Pituitary gland

Identify #8

Mammillary body

Identify #9

Primary auditory cortex

Identify #9

Dorsal funiculus

Identify A

Frontal lobe (identify)

Identify A

Pia mater

Identify A

Superior Cerebellar peduncle

Identify A

dura mater

Identify A

Anterior lobe of cerebellum

Identify B

Arachnoid mater

Identify B

Middle Cerebellar peduncle

Identify B

Ventral funiculus

Identify B

periosteal layer

Identify B

Arbor vitae (identify)

Identify C

Dura mater

Identify C

Inferior Cerebellar peduncle

Identify C

Lateral funiculus

Identify C

meningeal layer

Identify C

Arachnoid mater (skull slide)

Identify D

Spinal meninges

Identify D

White columns

Identify D

Bone of vertebra

Identify E

Cerebellar cortex (identify)

Identify E

Dorsal root ganglion

Identify E

Pia mater (skull slide)

Identify E

Arachnoid villus

Identify F

Posterior lobe of cerebellum

Identify F

Spinal nerve

Identify F

Body of vertebra

Identify G

Choroid plexus of fourth ventricle

Identify G

Dorsal root (fans out into dorsal rootlets)

Identify G

Flocculonodular lobe

Identify H

Subarachnoid space(contains CSF)

Identify H

Ventral root (derived from several ventral rootlets)

Identify H

Dorsal median sulcus

Identify I

Subdural space

Identify I

Epidural space(contains fat)

Identify J

Gray commissure

Identify J

Transverse cerebral fissure

Identify J

Cerebellum (identify)

Identify K

Dorsal horn

Identify K

Pons (identify)

Identify L

Ventral horn

Identify L

Lateral horn

Identify M

Medulla oblongata (identify)

Identify M

Gray matter

Identify N

Central canal

Identify O

Ventral median fissure

Identify P

Pia mater (spinal cord slide)

Identify Q

Arachnoid mater (spinal cord slide)

Identify R

Spinal dura mater

Identify S

Lumbar spinal nerves (identify)

Identify these nerves

Bone, meninges, and CSF

What is the spinal cord protected by?

Consists mostly of ascending (sensory) and descending (motor) tracts

White Matter

Each spinal tract is composed of axons with similar functions

White Matter

Produces cerebrospinal fluid

choroid plexus

The Pons is mainly a

conducting area

Cerebellar peduncles

connect the cerebellum to the brainstem

Cerebral cortex is site of the

conscious mind

intermediate mass of thalamus

Interthalamic adhesion

Each hemisphere connects to

contralateral (opposite) sides of the body

Spastic paralysis

damage to upper motor neurons of the primary motor cortex

What type of cells are ventricles of the brain lined with?

ependymal cells

cerebral fissure

separates cerebral hemispheres

RAS (reticular activating system)

special group of reticular formation neurons that plays a role in consciousness and the awake/sleep cycles

Define gray matter in the spinal cord.

It contains the cell bodies of neurons, neuroglia, and unmyelinated axons, and it surrounds the narrow central canal.

sympathetic neurons

Lateral horns (only in thoracic and lumbar regions)

connected with math and language skills, and logic

Left hemisphere

Includes parts of the diencephalon and some cerebral structures that encircle the brain stem

Limbic System

Modifies behavior

Limbic System

Produces emotions - anger, fear, conflict

Limbic System

Structures on the medial aspects of cerebral hemispheres and diencephalon

Limbic System

The thalamus and hypothalamus is part of the

Limbic System

deep grooves

fissures

Wernicke's area function

speech comprehension

Broca's area function

speech production

Central cavity surrounded by a gray matter core

spinal cord

External white matter composed of myelinated fiber tracts

spinal cord

Where is spinal CSF located?

subarachnoid space

shallow grooves

sulci (sulcus)

Cervical enlargement

supplies nerves to the shoulder and upper limbs

Conus medullaris

tapered, conical portion of the spinal cord inferior to the lumbar enlargement

Which lobe controls hearing?

temporal

Which lobe controls speech?

temporal

Concussion

temporary alteration in function

Transient ischemic attacks (TIAs)

temporary episodes of reversible cerebral ischemia

80% of diencephalon

thalamus

Gateway to the cerebral cortex

thalamus

What encloses the third ventricle?

thalamus

Cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance

third lobe of cerebellum

flocculonodular

Insula lobe

found deep beneath the lateral sulcus, associated with memory and interpretation of taste

Which lobe controls motor functions?

frontal lobe

Mostly neuron cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers

gray matter

Superficial layer of the cerebral cortex

gray matter

contralateral

opposite side

sensory lobes

parietal, temporal, occipital and insular lobes

Gustatory cortex

perception of taste

Contusion

permanent damage

second lobe of cerebellum

posterior

Somatosensory association cortex is located

posterior to the primary somatosensory cortex

Medulla oblongata function

regulating vital function (breathing, digestion, heart rate)

Nuclei in the medulla regulate

respiratory rhythm, heart rate, blood pressure

step 5 of reflex

response by effector

Left hemisphere controls

right side of the body

Parasthesias

sensory loss

CNS consists of

the brain and spinal cord

Conscious behavior involves

the entire cortex

Primary motor cortex

the section of the frontal lobe responsible for voluntary movement

Cerebrum function

thinking, personality, sensations, movements, memory

Cushion of fat and a network of veins in the epidural space between the

vertebrae and spinal dura mater

Dense collections of myelinated fibers

white matter

A disease that damages myelin sheaths would affect which portion of the spinal cord?

white matter columns

Dorsal root ganglion (cross section view)

Identify F

carry sensory impulses to the brain

Ascending Pathways

First lobe of cerebellum

anterior

Maintains an alert state in the cerebral cortex

Reticular Formation

Severe injury results in permanent unconsciousness (coma)

Reticular Formation

Three broad columns of nuclei along the length of the brain stem

Reticular Formation

has far-flung axonal connections with hypothalamus, thalamus, cerebral cortex, cerebellum, and spinal cord

Reticular Formation

What are three surface markings of the cerebral hemisphere?

Ridges (gyri) shallow grooves (sulci) deep grooves (fissures)

insight, visual-spatial skills and creativity

Right hemisphere

Describe the direction of sensory input and motor commands relative to the spinal cord

Sensory input travels toward the spinal cord and motor commands travel away from the spinal cord.

Filum terminale

Slender fibrous strand that extends to the coccyx providing longitudinal support to the spinal cord

Function of Thalamus

Sorts, edits, and relays information

No voluntary control of muscles

Spastic paralysis

Spinal neurons remain intact; muscles are stimulated by reflex activity

Spastic paralysis

Paraplegia—transection between

T1 and L1

Frontal lobe

The lobe at the front of the brain associated with movement, speech, and impulsive behavior.

Cortex (gray matter)

The outer layer (approximately one-fourth to one-half inch) of brain tissue containing nerve cell bodies (neurons)

Premotor cortex

The region controlling learned motor skills.

The largest part of the brain is called the

cerebrum

Dorsal to the pons and medulla

cerebellum

Subconsciously provides precise timing and appropriate patterns of skeletal muscle contraction

cerebellum

Where is the Arbor vitae?

cerebellum

Channel between third and fourth ventricles

cerebral aqueduct

Site of conscious mind: awareness, sensory perception, voluntary motor initiation, communication, memory storage, understanding

cerebral cortex

Superficial layer of gray matter

cerebral cortex

Where is the site of the conscious mind?

cerebral cortex

Two C-shaped lateral ventricles in the

cerebral hemispheres

Four Ventricles filled with

cerebrospinal fluid

Third ventricle in the

diencephalon

Three layers of meninges

dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater

ridges

gyri (gyrus)

Fourth ventricle in the

hindbrain, dorsal to the pons

Cauda equina translates to

horse's tail

Primary somatosensory cortex is located

immediately behind the central sulcus

Transection results in total motor and sensory loss in regions _________ to the cut

inferior

step 3 of reflex

information processing in the CNS

Which lobe controls vision?

occipital

The cerebral cortex is 40%

of the mass of the brain

Right hemisphere controls

left side of the body

Anterior, posterior, and flocculonodular

lobes of the cerebellum

Paralysis

loss of motor function

Helps regulate sleep-wake cycles

melatonin

Contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

meninges

Cover and protect the CNS

meninges

Form partitions in the skull

meninges

Protect blood vessels and enclose venous sinuses

meninges

Cerebral aqueduct located

midbrain

Located between the diencephalon and the pons

midbrain

Reflex centers for eye and head movement

midbrain

White matter is

myelinated

The white matter of the spinal cord is mainly

myelinated axons.

Lumbar enlargement

nerves of pelvis and lower limbs


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