Human Development Psych Exam 3

Examples of how SES influences parenting styles

--Low SES more authoritarian, value conformity; High SES more talk, democratic, value autonomy •Low-SES are more likely to use an authoritarian and punitive child-rearing style •*SES differences in parenting are related to differences in parental beliefs and values.* •Lower-SES parents often value conformity in their children, whereas higher-SES parents are more likely to want their children to become self-directed and autonomous. •Education may also be an important underlying contributor •Authoritarian style may be to protect children in unsafe living conditions

What are attachments?

-An emotional bond with a specific person that is enduring across space and time •Originally looked at institutionalized children •*Early relationships with parents thought to influence from infancy to adulthood

What is the role of temperament in Personality?

-Appears to be the roots of later personality -Temperament: the constitutionally based individual differences in emotional, motor, and attentional reactivity and self-regulation that demonstrate consistency across situations, as well as relative stability over time.

What did Harlow's monkey experiments tell us about attachment?

-Attachment is not a response to who feeds you, but instead is a source of comfort

How can parents help children develop emotionally?

-Be open about positive emotions, emotion coaching, don't dismiss children's negative emotions

What about Maternal Depression—how does that affect children?

-Children don't experience contingency of maternal smile when they smile

What is the role of culture in emotion socialization?

-Cultures possess "display rules" (know what display rule is and be able to identify an example - like in the Kahoot! Quiz) -Cultural differences in parenting practices may contribute to cross-cultural differences in infants' expression of emotion. •For example, American mothers appear more likely than Japanese mothers to encourage children's emotional expressiveness in situations of conflict and distress, and corresponding cross-cultural differences are observed in children's responses to hypothetical vignettes. -Cultures also differ in the degree to which they promote or discourage specific emotions, and these differences are often reflected in parents' socialization of emotion. •For example, the Tamang in Nepal are seldom supportive when their children experience negative emotional arousal because of the cultural value on keeping calm and clear of emotion. •However, this parental behavior that Americans would consider nonsupportive does not appear to have a negative impact of the children's social competence within the context of this culture.

Explain connection between early attachment with parents and positive peer and romantic relationships.

-Early attachment influences personality and later relationship tendencies. -Attachment styles in infancy --> Romantic Love styles in adulthood •Romantic love in adults (3 types): •Insecure-anxious •Insecure-avoidant •Secure/trusting

How and when do infants self-regulate (e.g., soothing, distracting, cognitive strategies)?

-In the first months of life, parents help infants regulate their emotional arousal by controlling their exposure to stimulating events. -By 6 months, infants can reduce their distress by averting their gaze and sometimes by self-soothing -Between ages 1 and 2, infants increasingly turn their attention to non-distressing objects or people to distract themselves from sources of distress. -Over the course of the early years, children become more likely to rely on themselves rather than their parents: •LANGUAGE: children become increasingly able to rely on language to manage their emotional arousal and to regulate their expression of negative emotions. •PLAY: Children like to engage in "dangerous play" to "go to the emotional edge and back" to learn their capacity (thrill vs. terror) and emotionally-intense fantasy play -Children's improving self-regulation is due at least in part to the increasing maturation of the neurological system & adult's increasing expectations. -Older children employ cognitive strategies such as mentally distracting themselves from negative events or trying to see things in a positive light. -As children age, they are better able to use cognitive strategies to adjust to emotionally difficult situations. -Social competence is the ability to achieve personal goals in social interactions while simultaneously maintaining positive relationships with others. -Emotional regulation has important consequences for social competence.

Describe Ainsworth's Model of Assessing Attachment (Strange Situation procedure). -Know the categories & the characteristics of child in each category (secure, insecure-resistant, insecure-avoidant, disorganized) -What is a secure base?

-Internal Working Model of Attachment•Child holds a mental representation of the self, of attachment figures, and of relationships -Model guides children's interactions with caregivers & others •Ainsworth developed Strange Situation research paradigm to assess infant attachment •Found 3 Categories of attachment 1.Secure attachment is a pattern of attachment in which an infant or child has a high-quality relationship with his or her attachment figure.When children are securely attached, they can use caregivers as a secure base for exploration.**2/3 of American middle class children are securely attached. 2.Insecure/resistant (or ambivalent) attachment is a pattern in which infants or young children (about 9% of American middle class children) are clingy and stay close to their caregiver rather than explore the environment.•When the caregiver returns, they are not easily comforted and both seek comfort and resist efforts by the caregiver to comfort them. 3.Insecure/avoidant attachment is a type of insecure attachment in which infants or young children (about 15% of infants from middle-class U.S. families) seem somewhat indifferent toward their caregiver and may even avoid the caregiver.•If these children become upset when left alone, they are as easily comforted by a stranger as by the caregiver. 4.Because a small percentage of children (15%) did not fit into these categories, a fourth category, disorganized/disoriented attachment, was subsequently identified.•Their behavior is often confused or even contradictory, and they often appear dazed or disoriented.

Explain how Bowlby developed his Attachment Theory -Observation of children from orphanages -What are Bowlby's 4 phases of attachment? *Note: these are not the same as Ainsworth's categories (see slides)

-John Bowlby proposed attachment theory •influenced by ethological theory •posits that children are biologically predisposed to develop attachments with caregivers as a means of increasing the chances of their own survival. -Secure baseis an attachment figure's presence that provides an infant or toddler with a sense of security that makes it possible for the infant to explore the environment. •Mary Ainsworth tested Bowlby's ideas 1.Preattachment phase(birth to 6 weeks)The infant produces innate signals that bring others to his or her side and is comforted by the interaction that follows. 2.Attachment-in-the-making (6 weeks to 6-8 months)The phase in which infants begin to respond preferentially to familiar people. 3.Clear-cut attachment(between 6-8 months and 1½-2 years)Characterized by the infant's actively seeking contact with their regular caregivers and typically showing separation protest or distress when the caregiver departs 4.Reciprocal relationships (from 1½ or 2 years on)Involves children taking an active role in developing working partnerships with their caregivers

Tools for measuring temperament? -Ex. 1: Chess & Thomas Categories of Temperament (easy, difficult, slow to warm up); but this also mixes positive and negative components of emotion -Ex. 2: Mary Rothbart's 6 Dimensions of Infant Temperament (what are some examples of the behaviors that we assess to measure temperament?). Think of 3 dimensions, with examples drawn from infant and child scales

-Parent Report -Stella Chess and Alexander Thomas conducted pioneering longitudinal research on infant temperament. •Three categories (based on parents' reports): •Easy babies (40%): adjusted readily to new experiences, quickly established routines, and generally were cheerful in mood and easy to calm •Difficult babies (10%): were slow to adjust to new experiences, likely to react negatively and intensely to stimuli and events, and irregular in their bodily functions •Slow-to-warm-up babies (15%): were somewhat difficult at first but became easier over time •The remaining infants did not fit into these categories. •Some dimensions of temperament showed stability over time and predicted how children were doing years later. -Mary Rothbart 3 dimensions: •Surgency/Extraversion ---Positive anticipation, impulsivity, activity level, desire for stimulation •Negative Affect ---Fear, frustration, sadness, discomfort, anger •Effortful Control ---Focusing and shifting attention, controlling inhibition, perceptual sensitivity Dimensions: -Fearful distress: infants cry or show distress at loud sounds or change in parent's appearance, children are not afraid of dogs or other large animals but could be afraid of loud noises -Activity level: infants either lie or sit quietly, squirm or kick, or wave arms during feeding time, children tend to run rather than walk from room to room or sit quietly when outside -Positive affectivity: infants smile or laugh when tossed around playfully, children smile or laugh during play with parents or have a serious expression even during play

Other tools to measure temperament?

-Parent Report (eg IBQ-R) -Laboratory observations have been used to assess behavioral inhibition, emotionality and regulatory capacities -Physiological measures (heartrate, EEG, cortisol level) have proven useful for measuring aspects of temperament

Do parenting interventions work with mothers who are "insensitive"?

-Yes, 62% of experimental group shifted to secure attachment with parents being more sensitive (compared to 22% of control group without intervention)

How do Fathers differ from Mothers in their parenting interaction with their children?

-fathers more physical, mothers reading, games •Fathers tend to participate less than mothers in child care and to interact with their children differently. •Example: In industrialized Western cultures, fathers spend more time playing with their children and choose more physically active games than mothers do. •The degree involvement in parenting and the nature of parents'interactions with children are affected by culture and employment

To what extent is Emotion "universal" (what evidence?)

-resemblance of facial expressions within families, blind individuals express smile, sadness -Human facial expressions seen to be universal among humans are also observed in nonhuman primates •Studies of twins and family relatives •Facial expressions of congenitally blind individuals look more like their kin than strangers •Monozygotic twins' facial expressions to evocative images look more similar than dizygotic twins •Studies of congenitally blind individuals •Spontaneous facial expressions resemble sighted individuals and adults from many different cultures -Although people in all cultures are likely to experience many similar emotions, research shows that the degree to which different emotions are expressed (Display Rules) varies considerably across cultures.

3 functions of the family:

-survival of offspring, economic function, cultural training -The most fundamental function is to ensure the survival of offspring by providing for their needs. •Families also serve an economic function by providing the means for children to acquire the skills and other resources they will need to be economically productive as adults. •In addition, families provide cultural training by teaching children the basic values of the culture

What is the role of parents in socialization of infant's emotion? (how do they affect each other?)

-warm, nurturing parent establishes secure relationship and advanced emotion understanding -highly negative parents have children who have low social competence and higher negative emotions -difficult infants can elicit hostile parenting -The quality of children's relationships with their parents seems to influence their sense of security and how they feel about themselves and other people. -In turn, these feelings affect children's emotionality, understanding of emotion, emotional self-regulation, and emotional responses to people and events in their world. -Parents who are supportive when their child is upset, helps them to learn to self-regulate and find ways to express themselves constructively (Emotion Coaching)

Baumrind's 4 Parenting Styles (matrix of 2 dimensions: warmth/support and demandingness/control). Describe parent practices & child outcomes for each cell. Be clear on the diff between Authoritarian/ Authoritative. Will have to identify examples of this on exam. -Examples of how there may be ethnic/cultural differences in outcomes of parenting style -(e.g., more authoritarian African American parenting doesn't always have negative child outcomes )

Demanding Parent expects much of child --Supportive Parent is accepting and child-centered ----Authoritative Parenting Relationship is reciprocal, responsive; high in bidirectional communication --Unsupportive Parent is rejecting and parent-centered ----Authoritarian Parenting Relationship is controlling, power-assertive; high in unidirectional communication Undemanding Parent expects little of child --Supportive Parent is accepting and child-centered ----Permissive Parenting Relationship is indulgent; low in control attempts --Unsupportive Parent is rejecting and parent-centered ----Rejecting-Neglecting Parenting Relationship is rejecting or neglecting; uninvolved Authoritative (High in demandingness and high in supportiveness) Parent characteristics -Set clear standards and limits for their children and are firm about enforcing them -Allow their children considerable autonomy within those limits -Are attentive and responsive to their children's concerns and needs, and respect and consider their child's perspective Child Characteristics -Competent -Self-assured -Popular -Able to control their own behavior -Low in antisocial behaviors in childhoodIn adolescence: high in social and academic competence and positive behavior, low in problem behavior Authoritarian (High in demandingness and low in supportiveness) Parent Characteristics -Nonresponsive to their children's needs -Enforce their demands through the exercise of parental power and the use of threats and punishment -Are oriented toward obedience and authority -Expect their children to comply without question or explanation Child characteristics -Low in social and academic competence in childhood and adolescence -As children, they tend to be unhappy and unfriendly, with boys affected more negatively than girls in early childhood Permissive (Low in demandingness and high in supportiveness) Parent Characteristics -Responsive to their children's needs -Do not require that their children regulate themselves or act in appropriate or mature ways Child Characteristics -As children, they tend to be impulsive, lacking in self-control, and low in school achievement -As adolescents, they engage in more school misconduct and drug use than do those with authoritative parents Rejecting-Neglecting (Low in demandingness and low in supportiveness) Parent Characteristics -Do not set limits for or monitor their children's behavior -Are not supportive of them, and sometimes are rejecting or neglectful -Tend to be focused on their own needs rather than their children's Children Characteristics -Infants and toddlers tend to have attachment problems -As children, they have poor peer relationships -Adolescents tend to show antisocial behavior, poor self-regulation, internalizing problems, substance abuse, risky sexual behavior, and low academic and social competence -Effects of different parenting styles and practices vary somewhat as a function of ethnic or racial group. •Among African-American adolescents at all economic levels, an aspect of authoritariancontrol was associated with positive outcomes. •Parenting styles and practices may have different meanings and effects in different cultures. •Example: Authoritarian child-rearing practices are associated with less negative consequences in Chinese and first-generation Chinese-American families than in Euro-American families. •Example: Different patterns of harsh discipline and acceptance found between English-speaking Mexican-American families and acculturated Spanish-speaking Mexican-American families.

What is emotion regulation?

The process of initiating, inhibiting, or modulating internal feeling states, emotion-related physiological processes, and emotion-related cognitions or behaviors in the service of accomplishing one's goals

Are older parents any different? -E.g., More financial resources, tend to be more positive and responsive (see slide 27 on Ch 12 pt 2)

Within limits, having children at a later age has advantages: 1.Tend to have more financial resources, fewer children, and are more likely to have planned the births of their children. 2.Tend to be more positive in their parenting of infants than are younger mothers, unless they already have two or more children. 3.Older mothers tend to do fewer hours of housework, resulting in reduced parenting stress. 4.Older fathers are on average more responsive, affectionate, and stimulating with their infants, but are less likely to engage in physically exciting activities with their children.

Origins of individual differences in aggression What are biological factors? Environmental factors? -Aggression: rates in males vs females? Peak ages?Describe Oppositional Defiant Disorder vs Conduct Disorder -How do we treat ODD/CD? -What are the 3 pathways to CD?

•Biological factors almost certainly contribute to individual differences in aggression. •But they are neither necessary nor sufficient to cause aggressive behavior in most children. •Children who are low in self-regulation often elicit harsher discipline; or out-of-control children sometimes forces parents to just give-in, unintentionally reinforcing their aggression •Environmental factors •Quality of parenting •Abusive parenting provides a model of aggression •Inconsistent parenting, without follow-through, reinforces child aggression •Low SES creates greater stressors in families and increases risk for child aggressive behaviors •Having Antisocial friends and larger peer group of antisocial children •Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD): A clinical disorder characterized by angry, defiant behavior that is age inappropriate and persistent. •Conduct disorder (CD): Includes more antisocial and aggressive behaviors that inflict pain on others and are frequently accompanied by persistent school truancy or running away from home before age 13. 3 pathways: •Early authority conflict pathway characterized by stubborn behavior, defiance and authority avoidance •Covert pathway characterized by minor covert behaviors, property damage, and mod to serious forms of delinquency •Overt pathway characterized by aggression, fighting, and violence (hi comorbidity with hyperactivity and substance abuse)

Describe Today's modern family. What is the potential impact of Divorce on children? What factors can increase or reduce the negative impact? Which configurations of "step families" has more challenges in adjustment? What do we know about LGBT parents and child outcomes? Parents with disabilities? Are their children at risk for parentification? (see Olkin, 2000)

•Children of divorce are at greater risk for a variety of short- and long-term problems: •psychological •behavior •academic •relationship •Children in joint legal or physical custody generally are better adjusted than are children in sole custody. •Joint custody effects depend in part on the degree of cooperation •Unfortunately, mutually helpful parenting is not the norm. Factors Affecting Impact on Child •Level of parental conflict prior to, during, and after a divorce. •"Caught in the middle" •Stress experienced by the custodial parent and children in the new family arrangement. •"Single-mom" •Permissive and indulgent noncustodial fathers •Age of the child •Younger are more negatively •Contact with noncustodial parent •Quality over frequency •Long-standing characteristics of child •Difficult personalities and limited coping capacities may also react more adversely •Children & Adolescents exposed to sustained marital conflict: •More aggressive, engage in delinquent behaviors •Roughly 6% of U.S. children live in a household with a stepparent. •The entry of a stepparent into the family is often a very threatening event for children. •Very young children tend to accept stepfathers more easily than older children and adolescents. •Conflict between stepparents/stepchildren tends to be greater than biological •Children with stepfathers tend to have higher rates of depression, withdrawal, and disruptive behaviors than do children in intact families. •BUT, an involved stepfather who provides a role model (when one was not previously there) can lessen the associated increase in problems •Adjustment differs little from that of intact families if the stepparent has beenpart of the family for many years and if the family contains only one parent'schildren. •Estimated 1-5 million children have lesbian or gay parents. •Children of gay parents are very similar in their development to children of heterosexual parents in terms of adjustment, personality, and relationships with peers. •Compared to children of hetero-parents, children of LGBT parents •Not more likely to be gay •Not more likely to be sexually abused •Do not show differences in their gender identity or gender role behavior •Do not appear to be teased more than other children; but some LGBT families face bias in their communities •In the U.S., there are at least 4 million parents with significant disabilities who are raising children under age 18. •Examples: Parents with a physical disability, parents who are deaf, parents who are blind, parents with chronic illnesses, parents who have an intellectual disability and parents who have a psychiatric disability. -The term parentification has been used to describe an unhealthy process whereby children, in the absence of functioning parental and adult figures, take on psychoemotional or caregiving tasks at inappropriately young ages. For example, the child of a parent who is actively alcoholic may make meals, call work to say the parent is out ill, pay bills, and provide nurturance and care for younger children. Such use of the term may be warranted. However, this concept of parentification has been applied to children of parents with disabilities without consideration of whether it is accurate. ....There is a general image of parents with disabilities as "dependent and selfish in their needs for assistance from their children" (Olsen, 1995, p. 47). But is it true that children of parents with disabilities are parentified?Several studies suggest that parents with disabilities take great care in being mindful not to overburden their children and to carefully consider the issue of "helping". It is important to consider the developmental level of the child and the nature of the task itself and when/frequency it is being performed

What are the long-term effects of secure & insecure attachment?

•Children who were securely attached as infants seem to have closer, more harmonious relationships with peers than do insecurely attached children. •Secure attachment in infancy also predicts positive peer and romantic relationships and emotional health in adolescence. •Securely attached children also earn higher grades and are more involved in school than insecurely attached children.

Young children's "social networks" - what are Cliques, Crowds, Gangs?

•Cliques: small groups of friends who spend time together and develop close relationships. •vs Crowds: large, reputation-based groups that are based on a shared stereotype but whose members do not necessarily spend time together •In middle childhood: cliques are usually same sex, face •Early adolescence: increasing social interactions occur within clique •From ages 11 to 18, there is an increase in the number of adolescents who have ties to many cliques and an increase in the stability of cliques. •During early and middle adolescence, children place a high value on being in a "popular" group •With increasing age, adolescents are more autonomous and tend to look more to individual relationships than to group relationships. •Gangs:loosely organized groups of adolescents or young adults that identify as a group and often engage in illegal activities. •Family and cultural influences affect the potential for peer-group influences to promote problem behavior. •Adolescents who do not live with their father or a stepfather and who have a poor relationship with their mother may be especially vulnerable to such pressure.

Examples of Cognitive & Motivational influences on gender?

•Cognitive: theories of gender development emphasize the ways that children learn gender-typed attitudes and behaviors through observation, inference, and practice. •Cognitive theories stress children's active genderself-socialization •process through which children's biases to behave in accord with their gender identity is strengthened by their greater attention to and involvement with entities and activities deemed appropriate to their gender. •A common theme of all the cognitive theories described here is that gender development is largely a process of self-socialization.

Examples of Biological Influences on gender?: Evolutionary vs Neuroscience approach (hormones & brain functioning)

•Evolutionary: sex differences in behavior emerged because they offer reproductive advantages •Greater male propensity for impulsivity and physical aggression may have provided them with reproductive advantages and in hunting. (ROUGH & TUMBLE PLAY) •Females' tendency to build strong alliances with other females could have insured assistance with childcare, benefiting their offspring. (PLAY PARENTING) •Neuroscience: how hormones and brain functioning are related to variations in gender development; different ratios of androgens in males/females •Male and female brains show some small differences in physical structure (but does not seem to result in any cognitive advantage): •Women's corpus callosum tends to be larger and more dense •When engaged in cognitive tasks, male brains tend to show more unilateralactivation whereas female brains show more bilateral activation.

How do children define a good friend? Know how this might change over time as they age -On what basis do they select friends? Know how this changes over time as they age

•For preschoolers, proximity is the key factor in friendship selection. •In most industrialized countries, similarity in age is also a major factor in friendship. •A preference for same-sex friends emerges in preschool and continues through adolescence. •*To a lesser degree, children tend to be friends with peers of the same race. •Depends largely on exposure •Around ages 6-8, children tend to: •define friendship primarily on the basis of actual activities and view friends in terms of rewards and costs. •like peers who are similar to themselves in the cognitive maturity of their play and in their aggressive behavior. •Between the early school years and adolescence •friends are more similar than non-friends in prosocial behaviors, antisocial behavior, peer acceptance, and academic motivation. •children increasingly experience and define their friendships in terms of mutual liking, closeness, and loyalty •By adolescence, •use friendship as a context for self-exploration and working out personal problems. •friends tend to have similar interests, attitudes, and behavior.

Know the 3 stages (identity, stability, constancy) and be able to identify if an example fits which type of stage

•Gender identity: stage when children can identify gender but their concept of gender relies on external appearance •Gender stability: stage when children understand that their gender will remain stable over time, but aren't sure that it won't change if they do activities usually performed by another gender •Gender constancy: the stage at which children understand that one's gender remains constant despite external changes

How do children learn gender typed attitudes & behaviors?

•In middle childhood, boys' and girls' peer groups tend to establish somewhat different gender-role norms for behavior. •Boys: value self-assertion and peer groups are more likely to reflect norms of dominance, self reliance, and hiding vulnerability •Girls: value affiliation or a balance of self-assertion and affiliation are peer groups are more likely to reflect norms of intimacy, collaboration and emotional sharing •There are certain contexts in which friendly cross-gender contacts often occur, such as in the home and local neighborhood and in more public settings if the reason for the interaction can be attributed to an external cause. •Overall, gender-typing during childhood tends to be more rigid among boys than among girls. •More major characters in televisions shows are male than female, and the difference is large, well documented, and persistent across time.•In addition, portrayals of males and females tend to be highly stereotypical. •These differences in the depiction of gender on television are likely to affect children's development of gender-typical behavior.

Adolescent parents? -Mostly associated with negative consequences such as... -What increases likelihood of teen pregnancy?

•Increased likelihood of teen pregnancy: •being raised in poverty by a single mother •having an older sibling and/or friends who are sexually active •Having a cold and uninvolved mother during early adolescence •Adolescent males are at risk for fatherhood if they are poor, prone to substance abuse and behavioral problems, and have a police record. •Adolescent parenting is associated with negative consequences for both the mother and the child. •Motherhood curtails the mother's opportunities for education, career development, and normal peer relationships. •Children of younger mothers are more likely to exhibit behavior problems and cognitive delays in comparison to older mothers.

Stats What increases/decreases have we seen from 60s-80s until now in the US? What are some of the trends in families and birthrates? Do not need to know exact %'s just the overall trends. (slides 16-17 on CH 12 pt 2)

•Median age for 1st marriages has increased. •Both parents are now employed outside the home in most families. •The average age at which women have their 1st children has increased. •The divorce rate doubled between 1960 and 1980 •The number of out-of-wedlock births increased dramatically during the 1980s and 1990s. •2007: 39.7% of all U.S. births were to unmarried women. •2013: 40.6% (CDC) •2007: roughly 26% of children under 18 lived with only one parent. •2014: 28% (Childtrends DataBank; US Census) •Because most divorced people remarry, the number of families including children from one or both parents' prior marriage has increased substantially.

Peer Status How do we measure Peer Status? What are the Sociometric Status categories and what skills are associated with each? **don't worry too much about 'average' category but definitely know the qualities of the other types How are Aggressive-Rejected vs Withdrawn-Rejected children different from one another?What kind of deficits do rejected children possess and how can we help them??How likely will sociometric status stick? -Which categories change over time, which do not as much? -with socially withdrawn children it can have negative outcomes in adults -Some rejected children have externalizing problems, others have internalizing problems What role(s) do parents play in children's peer relationships?

•Most common method: ask children to rate how much they like or dislike each of their classmates or to nominate some of those whom they like the most or least, or whom they do or dont like to play with. •This info is used to calculate children's sociometric status:a measurement of the degree to which children are liked or disliked by their peers as a group. •Peer status is affected by the childs: •Attractiveness •Athletic ability •Social behavior •Personality •Cognitions about self and others •Goals when interacting with peers •Peer status is also influenced by the status of the child's friends. Popular Children: receive many positive nominations and few negative ones •These individuals... •Tend to be skilled at initiating interactions with peers and at maintaining positive relationships. •Tend to be cooperative, friendly, sociable, and sensitive to others. •Are not prone to intense negative emotions and regulate themselves well. •Tend to be less aggressive than average children. •Important to differentiate between children who are popular in terms of sociometric measures and those who are perceived by peers as being popular with others. •Individuals with high status in the peer group are often labeled "popular" by peers, but tend to be above average in aggression and use it to obtain their goals. •The relationship between perceived popularity and aggression is especially high in adolescence, particularly among high-status girls, who may use relational aggression to hurt others Rejected Children: receive many negative nominations and few positive ones •A category of sociometric status that refers to children or adolescents who are liked by few peers and disliked by many peers. •A majority of rejected children tend to fall into two categories: Aggressive-Rejected •Are especially prone to hostile and threatening behavior, physical aggression, disruptive behavior, and delinquency. •About 40% to 50% of rejected children tend to be aggressive. •When they are angry or want their own way, many rejected children also engage in relational aggression. •Aggressive behavior often underlies rejection by peers. •However, not all aggressive peers are rejected; some develop a network of aggressive friends. Withdrawn-Rejected •Are socially withdrawn, wary, and often timid •Between 10-25% of the rejected category•Not all socially withdrawn children are rejected or socially excluded. •Rather, it appears that withdrawn behavior combined with negative actions or emotions is correlated with rejection, although this pattern may change with age. Neglected Children: low in social impact, not especially liked or disliked by peers •A category of sociometric status that refers to children or adolescents who are infrequently mentioned as liked or disliked. •Display relatively few behaviors that differ greatly from those of many other children •Appear to be neglected primarily because they are not noticed Controversial Children: receive many positive and many negative nominations •A category of sociometric status that refers to children or adolescents who are liked by quite a few peers and are disliked by quite a few others -Tend to have characteristics of both popular and rejected children. Some peers view such children as arrogant and snobbish. Stability of Sociometric Status •Over relatively short time periods such as weeks or months: •children who are popular or rejected tend to remain so •those who are neglected or controversial tend to change their status •Over time, sociometric stability for rejected children is generally higher than for popular, neglected, or controversial children, and may increase with the age of the child. Peer Status as Predictor of Risk •Rejected children, especially those who are aggressive, are more likely than their peers to have difficulties in the academic domain. •The tendency of rejected children to do more poorly in school worsens over time. •Approximately 25% to 30% of rejected children drop out of school compared with 8% or less of other children. •Children, especially males, who are socially withdrawn from familiar peers may differ in important ways from their peers even in adulthood. •(Men) observed to have less stable careers and marriages than their peers, •(Women) less likely than other women to have careers outside the home. •Rejected children who are victimized, may be especially at risk for loneliness and other internalizing behavior, but can also be aggressive.

What about attractiveness of the child?

•One of strongest influences on parents' parenting styles is child characteristics: •Attractiveness •Child's Behavior & Temperament •Cycle/bidirectionality

What is the definition of peers (not to be confused with "friends")

•Peers: people of approximately the same age and status who are not family

What functions do friendships serve?

•Provide context for development of social skills •Because friends criticize and elaborate upon one another's ideas more than nonfriends do, friendships promote cognitive skills and enhance performance on creative tasks. •Provide a source of emotional support and security •particularly important during difficult transition periods and during adolescence •May serve as a buffer against unpleasant experiences. •Among children who were victimized by peers, children who showed increases in adjustment problems a year later were those who did not have a reciprocated best friendship

Development of conception of Self * (reminder this will only include slides and the section in textbook on self-concept (pts 481-482): Development? How do we determine if an infant or child has a sense of self? How do children define or understand themselves? Traits? As they get older, increasingly more psychological characteristics (know how this progresses, changes from infancy through elementary school)

•Refers to a conceptual system made up of one's thoughts and attitudes about oneself •Can include thoughts about one's own physical being, social roles and relationships, and "spiritual" or internal characteristics. •Children's sense of self emerges in the early years of life and continues to develop into adulthood •Adults contribute to the child's self-image by providing descriptive information about the child. •Infants have a rudimentary sense of self in the first months of life •evidenced by their control of objects outside of themselves. •Their sense of self becomes more distinct at about 8 monthsof age•**when they respond to separation from primary caregivers with separation distress •By 18 to 20 months of age, many can notice oneself in mirror •By 30 months of age, almost all can recognize self in photos •Two-year-olds have good self-awareness as seen by: •exhibition of embarrassment and shame •their self-assertive behavior •their use of language •At age 3 to 4, children understand themselves in terms of concrete, observable characteristics related to physical attributes, physical activities and abilities, and psychological traits. •Their self-evaluations during the preschool years are unrealistically positive. •Children begin to refine their conceptions of self in elementary school •increasingly engage in social comparison:the process of comparing aspects of one's own psychological, behavioral, or physical functioning to that of others in order to evaluate oneself. •By middle to late elementary school, children's conceptions of self begin to become integrated and more broadly encompassing •Older children can coordinate opposing self-representations and are inclined to compare themselves with others on the basis of objective performance.

Disentangling concepts: Biological Sex/ Gender/ Sexuality

•Sex: anatomy of an individual's reproductive system •Determined by specific chromosomes (XX,XY) •most commonly follows binary modelassigned at birth based on presence of external genitalia (& congruence with sex chromosomes) •Intersex: A socially constructed category to describe biological variation •Breasts, penises, clitorises, scrotums, labia, gonads—all of these vary in size and shape and morphology. •Can be genital ambiguity or presence of both male and female tissue •Gender: social roles, personal identification (gender identity) •Gender identity relates to one's subjective sense of congruence/incongruence with an attributed gender (typically assigned at birth). •Cisgender: congruence •Transgender: an individual who moves away from gender assigned at birth, typically violating societal expectations about gender conformation •Androgynous: a person who cannot be classified into a typical gender role •Sexuality/Sexual orientation refers to with whom an individual directs their affection and sexual desires: heterosexual/straight (opposite gender attraction); homosexual/Lesbian/Gay (same-gender attraction); and bisexual (either gender attraction)

Define concepts: Gender identity: cisgender, transgender Gender Role Sexual Orientation Gender Variance

•Sexuality/Sexual orientation refers to with whom an individual directs their affection and sexual desires: heterosexual/straight (opposite gender attraction); homosexual/Lesbian/Gay (same-gender attraction); and bisexual (either gender attraction) •Gender role is a public display of gender identity conveying societal schemes of how boys and girls should behave (gender role stereotypes regarding masculinity/femininity) •Cisgender: congruence •Transgender: an individual who moves away from gender assigned at birth, typically violating societal expectations about gender conformation

Siblings Sibling Interaction Study (Smith & Ross, 2007).: Intervention: training parents to mediate sibling conflict; Describe the study and outcomes

•Siblings have both positive and negative effects on development and on family functioning. •Initially older sibling may be negative, but eventually, with parental assistance, becomes more accepting. •Siblings close in age more likely develop advanced theory of mind skills •In early and middle childhood, siblings get along better if they are temperamentally similar, unless both have difficult temperaments. •Smith & Ross (2007) •48 families with children ages 5-10 were randomly assigned to mediation or control groups •Method: Mediation parents were trained in formal mediation techniques •Results: •Siblings of MEDIATION Parents •showed better conflict resolution strategies •compromised more frequently and managed the outcomes of conflicts better •showed less negativity in recurrent conflicts •greater ability to appreciate sibling's point of view

Parent Socialization: How do parents influence their children's development (3 ways: give examples of direct instruction, indirect socializers, provider/controller of opportunities)

•Socialization is the process through which children acquire the values, standards, skills, knowledge, and behaviors that are regarded as appropriate to their present and future roles in their particular culture. -Parents can influence their children's development through socialization in at least three different ways: 1.As direct instructors who explicitly teach their children skills, rules, and strategies and provide advice 2.As indirect socializers who transmit skills, rules, and attitudes in the course of everyday interactions with their children 3.As providers and controllers of opportunities through their management of children's experiences and social lives

When do romantic relationships start? What predicts good healthy romantic relationships?

•Starting in 7th grade, girls and boys tend to associate with one another more and dyadic dating relationships become increasingly common. •In the United States, 25% of 12-year-olds and 70% of 18-year-olds report having had a romantic relationship in the past 18 months. •Quality of adolescents' romantic relationship appears to mirror quality of their other relationships (w/ parents and peers)

Controversy in diagnosis of Gender Identity Disorder "Gender Dysphoria" ?

•Thought by many to be the developmental path toward becoming transgender, but about 30% of children with "GID"/Gender dysphoria become heterosexual adults, and a large percentage have a gay/lesbian psychosexual outcome. but it is a small minority that are transgender as adults •Gender dysphoria: DSM-5 approach when a person is distressed about his/her preference to be different from his/her natal gender

Self-socialization?

•process through which children's biases to behave in accord with their gender identity is strengthened by their greater attention to and involvement with entities and activities deemed appropriate to their gender.