Human Geo Chapt 7 Pt 2

Christian Landscapes in the US

*Image* The US, predominantly Christian country, demonstrates considerable diversity in relig cult landscapes. One way to map is showing counties with least relig diversity in darkest colors. In those areas, one relig accounts for 64% or more of all erlig adherents in county. Can see that Mormon relig in Utah and southern Idaho, Southern Baptist region in South and Catholic region of NE some of least diverse relig. Plain white churches of South and Lutheran Upper Midwest coincide with Protestant Church's spending of church money, not on art and architecture. But many Catholic churches in NE, Chicago, and other imm magnet cities built by migrants who spent own money and used building skills to make ornate churches and dozens of cathedrals tied them back to origin country. Modern cultural landscapes also shows rapid growth of evangelical Protestant dominations. Even in modest-sized cities, large evangelical churches with congregations over 10,000 peeps sprung up suburbs round cities. Some large cities have evangelical churches can accommodate services attended by thousands of followers. Churches particularly widespread in central and southern parts of US.

Sacred Sites-

A place infused with religious or spiritual meaning. Mems of relig group can define space or place as sacred out of reverence or fear. If sacred site revered, adherents may make pilgrimage to site for rejuvenation, reflection, healing, or fulfillment of relig commitment. In ancient history, physical geo landscape features like mountain peaks, and rivers often chosen as sacred sites. As universalizing relig diffused across world, many sacred sites abandoned or altered. Many of remote physical geo features of Irish landscape were sacred to Celtic peeps. When Roman Catholicism diffused to Ireland, though, Catholic Church usurped many of creatures, infusing them with Chirstian meaning.

Sacred Sites of Jerusalem

Ancient city of Jerusalem sacred to Jews, Chirstians, and Muslims. Jews saw Jerusalm as sacred and maintained control over site from 1200 BCE to time of diaspora. After diaspora, Jerusalem stayed sacred to jews though they didn't control it. Zionist movement recognized sacedness of Jerusalem and sought a return of Jews to Holy Land. Most important sacred site for Jews is Western Wall, at edge of Temple Mount in Jerusalem. Temple Mount occupies top of modest hill where, according to Torah, Abraham almost sacrificed son Issac. On hill, Jews built 2 temples, both destroyed by invaders. Western Wall all that remains of 2nd temple, and Jews gather there to remember story of Abraham and destruction of temples, and offer prayers. Men and Women pray at site, but separately, and area reserved for women fairly small, Beyond reayer, place to mourn and recognize suffering of Jews over time. For Christians, Jerusalem sacred bc of sacrifice Abraham was willing to make and bc Jeusus's crucifixion took place just outside city's walls. Jesus then buried in tomb that Roman emperor Constantine later marked with basilica and now Church of Holy Sepulchre. Christians think Jesus rose from tomb on day marked by Easter celebration. For centuries, Roman, and Byzantine, Empires controlled city and protected sacred site.

Nigeria 3

As influence of Boko Haram grew, state authorities sought to undermine it. IN 2009, Nigerian police publicly executed founder on street. Memes response armed themselves found new leader and became more violent. At first, group focused attacks on police and military as vengeance for leader killing. IN 2012, Boko Haram began attacking schools. In 2014, northern Nigeria made global news when memes kidnapped 250 teenage girls. Recently Boko Haram aligned with Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) and commited itself fully to overthowing Western-aligned Nigerian gov in favor of system based on fundamentalist Islam. Not worked, IN 2019, Nigeria reelected Muhammadu Buhari, moderate Fulani Muslim from far north. Leadup to presidential election, hundreds died as Boko Haram insisted participating in election amounted to apostasy. Violence may root in struggle for access to land, political power, and resources, but relig served as key marker of dif. Violence along interfaith Christian-Muslim boundary rinforces perceptual importance of bundary and promotes sense that relig dif represent most important obstacle to social cohesion in Nigeira. Cote d'ivoire (ivory Coast), Sudan, and others face prob.

Northern Ireland 3

As interaction increased, political commitment to bring Troubles to end did. In April 1998, parties signed Anglo-Irish peace agreement. Good Friday Agreement (Belfast Agreement) raised hopes of new period of peace in N Ireland. Hope been realized in part. Two sides made major strides toward reconciliation in recent years, Though conflict remains unresolved, violent encounters all but nonexistent. Mixing across Christian faiths grown, more commonly among better edu and less segregated. 0Catholic and Protestant celebrations continue to make tensions between communities, uncertainties bout status of Irealnd-Northern Ireland border in wake of UK Brexit could open wounds.

Northern Ireland 2

As time went on. Econ stagnation for both pop worsened. Catholics in particular felt were being repressed. Terrorist acts by Irish republican Army (IRA), organization dedicated to ending British control over all Ireland by violent means if necessary, led to increased British military presence in area in 1968. Republic of Ireland sensitive to plight of Catholics in north, but in no position to offer official help. In face of worsening conflict, called Troubles, Catholics and Protestants in N Ireland increasingly distanced lives and homes from one another. Cultural landscape bears witness to relig conflict, each group clusters in own neighborhoods and celebrates special Catholic or Protestant events. Though religion tag line use to describe Troubles, conflict has more to do with nationalism, econ, oppression, access to opportunities, terror, civil rights, and political influence. Relig and relig history long demarcated opposing sides; churches and cathedrals become symbols of strive instead of peace.

Indigenous Religions

Belief systems and philosophies practiced and traditionally passed from generation to generation among peoples within an indigenoys tribe or group. Large areas in Africa and other parts of world. Local in scope (ethnic religs), typically treat nature as having divine props, and passed down through fam units and groups (tribes) of indigenous peeps. Don't group indigenous religs together bc share common belief system, but bc they share same pressures from diffusion of global reigns- and have survived.

Intrafaith Boundaries

Boundaries between sects within a single major faith.

Interfaith Boundaries

Boundaries between sects world's major faiths.

Diffusion of Islam

By the time of Muhammad's death in 632 ce, Muhammad and followrs had coverted kings on Arabian Peninsula to Islam. Kings then used their missionaries, traders, and armies to spread the faith across the arabian Peninsula through covo and conquest. Moving west, Islam diffused cross N Africa and beyond. By early 9th century, Muslim world included emirates extending form Egypt to Morocco, caliphate occupying most of Spain and Portugal, and unified realm encompassing Arabia, Middle East, Iran, and most of today Pakistan. Ultimately, mushilm realm extended from Morocco to India and from Turkey to Ethiopia. Later, as Muslim traders settled traiding ports in SE Asia, established new secondary heartsh of Islam, from which relig spread through contagious diffusion. Recent diffusion of islam into Euripe (beyond Spain and Portugal), South Africa, and Americas largely been form migration and relocation diffusion.

Landscapes of Christianity 2

Cities in Europe also home to centuries-old Christian cemeteries. Traditionally, Chrisitan bury instead of cremate, and in Chrisitan-dominated cities, cemeteries often crowded with tombstones. Outside of European cities and in NA, Christian cemeteries can resemble large parks. Often reflect class difs with some graves marked by some tombstones and others with elaborate structures. With rising land-use pressures and associated costs of burial, creation becoming increasingly common among Christians, particularly in NA and W Euroupe.

Jihad

Commonly translated as "Holy War," jihad represents either personal or collective struggle on part of Muslims to live up to relig standards set by Qu'ran.

Landscape of Hinduism and Buddhism 2

Cult landscape of Hinduism closely associated with India as whole. As travel through, Hindu faith visual and emotional. Temples and shrines, holy animals by 10s of mils, distinctively garbed holy men, and sights and sounds of long processions and rituals all contribute to relig atmosphere. When Buddha received enlightenment, sat under large tree, Bodhi (enlightenment) tree, at Bodh Gaya in India. Bodhi tree now growing on site believed to be descendant of orig tree. Bc of association with Buddha, tree revered and protected. Buddhists make pilgrimages to Bodh Gaya and other places where Buddha may have taught beneath Bodhi branches. Along with Buddhism, Bodhi tree diffused as far as China and Japan, purposeful planting marking cultural landscape of many villages & towns.

Landscapes of Christianity

Cult landscapes of Chirsitanity's branches reflect changes faith undergone over centuries. In medieval Europe cathedral, church, or monastery focus of life. Other buildings clustered round tower, steeple, and spire of church, could be seen and bells could be heard for miles. In square or plaza in front of church, crowds gathered for ceremonies and festivals, and church always present even if event nt primarily religious. Good harvests, military victoires, pub announcements, and more took place under symbol of religious authority. In colonial era, Europeans exported ornate architecture of European Christain churches wherever they settled. Reformation, the rise of secularism, and the decline of organized relig reflected in cult landscape. Some of ornate churches in town squares of medieval cities now museums. Others in secular regions closing or reducing num of relig services offered. But, not all Europe's sacred sites become secularized. Fam cathedrals continue to hold services while tourists marvel at architecture and art. Other sacred sites of Christianity, like churches for specific saints, places where signif events happen. And Vatican City in Rome still major pilgrimage to Vatican City, attracting 1,000s of followers to St. Peter's Square each week.

Landscape of Hinduism and Buddhism 3

Cult landscapes of hinduism and Buddhism extend to SE Asia. Later, Idlam relplaed S Asian relig in many of places, and lager Chrisan missionaries gained adherents in SE Asia where Christan govs encouraged migration of peeps and relig to colones Now, can stand in city like Singapore, study cultural landscape, and see influences of Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam.

Islam 3

Division between Sunni and Shi'ite occured almost immediatly after Muhammad's death and associated with conflict over his succsesion. Muhammad died in 632 ce. To some, rightful heir to Prophet's caliphate (area of inluence) wsa Muhammad's son-in-law, Ali. Others preferred different candidates not necessarily related. Ensuing coinfic t marked by great upheaval and lasting doctrinal disagreements. The Sunni Muslims eventually prevailed in many places, but Shi'ite Muslims, followers of Ali survived in some. Eadrly in 16th century, Iranina (Persian) ruling dynasty made Shi'ite Islam only legit faith of that empire- extended into now Southern Azerbaijan, SE Iraq, and W Afghanistan and Pakistan. Gave Shi'ite branch unprecedented strength and made foundations of modern-day culture region centered on state of Iran. Shi'ite veneration of descendants of Muhammad contributed to mcuh mroe centralized and hierarchial clergy than in Sunni world. In Shi'ite areas, relig leaders called imams. Shi'ites treated early imams as sole source of true knowledge, and successors continue to have great social and political authority. Sunni Islam less centralized; an imam simply relig leader or scholar. Still, Sunni branch given rise to stricter, some cases radically conservative, offshoots of relig.

Landscape of Islam

Elaborate designed mosques prominent in Islamic cities, towns, and villages. Often mosque is town's most imposing and carefully maintained building. 5 times every day, from minarets, faithful called to prayer. Sounds coming from minarets fill streets as faithful converge on holy place to pray facing Mecca. At height of Islma's expansion into E North Africa and S Europe, Muslim architects incroporated earlier Roman models into designs. Results included some of world's greatest architectural masterpieces, like Alhambra Palace in Granada and Great Mosque of Cordoba in Spain. Islam's prohibition agiants depicitong human form led to widely use of geometirc designs and calligraphy. During 11th century, Muslim bulders began glazing tiles of domes and roofs. To beautiful arcades and arched courtyards, added to nice beauty of glass-like perfectly symmetrical cupolas. Muslim architecture represents unifying concept of Islamic monotehism: perfection and vastness of Allah. Islam achieved greatest articistic exprssion in architecture. Even in smallest towns, community helps build and maintain mosque. Mouse symbolizes power of faith and role in community. Importance in cultural landscape confirms degree to which, in much of Muslim world, relig and culture are one.

The Rise of Secularism 4

Even as secularism on rise in US, many peeps remain deeply rooted in relig beliefs-sometimes more fervently than ever. Relig traditions stronger in some cultural regions of US than others. Sunday observance continues at high level. Ex. In Mormon cult area. Though mainline church closing churches in some parts of US and western Europe, many evangelical and other alternative churches growing rapidly, Entire industries, like Chirstian music and Christian publications, depending on growing commitment of many Americans and Europeans to relig. Trend toward secularism not confined to Chritian world. Secularism also growing in South Korea, where half of pop doesn't profess adherence to any particular relig. Several smaller relig growing in importance, including Baha'i, Cao Dai, Jainism, and Spiritual Church of Brazil.

The Rise of Secularism 2

French gov recently banned wearing of overt religious symbols in pub schools. French gov staed banning relig symbols only egalitarian approach. Other places, state targets more specific pop. In 2009, Swiss voted to ban construction of new minarets. 27% of Canadians who state that relig important would be lower if removed recent or second-gen immigrants from count. Immigrants often hold on to relig more intensly, in part to help them ease into new place and link to a community in new home. Buddhists and Hindus on Canada's west coast and Muslims in eastern part of Canada have higher rate of adherence to relig than many long term res. In some countries, antireligious ideologies have contributed to decline of organized relig. Maoist China's drive against Confucianism had sweeping effects and China continues to suppress organized relig practices as reports of relig persecution still emanate from country. Case of SU is different, despite decades of relig suppression there, church membership rebounded after collapse of communits rule. Other forces led to decline in organized relig many of areas labeled as Catholic and Protestant. From NA to W Europe to Australia, congregations shrunk. Even if peeps continue to be memes of church, participation in church activities declined.

The Rise of Secularism 3

Growth of secularism more muted in strongly Catholic ares outside NA and Europe, Catholic Church remains strong in South and Middle America, though lost some followers in response to teachings on restricting birth control and sexual abuse scandals. While some of theos who left Catholic Church become more secular, many others turning towards evangelical Christian denominations. Traditions associated with relig also weakening throughout much of Chirstian world. Ex, time when almost all shops and businesses closed on Sundays, preserving day for sermons, rest, and introspection. Today, shopping centers mostly open, Sundays increasingly devoted to business and personal affairs.

Israel and Palestine 2

In 1948, British mandate ended, after new UN voted to partition Palestine. State of Israel realized when UN made 2 independent, noncontiguous states: Israel and Palestine. Before partition, Palestineas and surrounding Arabs opposed large-scale migration of Jews to area. Arabs rejected Unplan, citing UN Character's Article 1 that recognizes right to self-determination of peeps. After British ended andate, Israel declared independence, using borders designed by UN. Immediately, Arabs fought against Israeli state, and Israel won lands between 1948 and 1949. During 2 wars in 1967 and 1973, Israel won military victories and expanded Israeli territory. IN course of wars, Palestinian lost land, farms, and villages, and many migrated or fled to ref camps in neighboring Arab states. In 1967 6 Day War, Egypt, Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon attacked Israel, and Israel fought back, gaining control of Gaza Strip and Sinai from Egypt, West Bank and Jerusalem from Jordan, and Golan Heights from Syria. In Yom Kippur War in 1973, Syria and Egypt launched surprise attacks on Israel on israeli high holy day, Israel won.

Israel and Palestine 4

In 1993, Prime Minister Ytzhak Rabin of Israel and Yasser Arafat of Palestine Liberation Organization agreed to Oslo Accords, facilitated by Bill Clinton. Palestinina Authority recognized and allowed to practice limited self-government over Occupied Territories of West Bank (including East Jerusalem) and Gaza Strip. Second intifada. Violence in second intifada escalated to individual Palestinas and Palestinan terrorist orgs like Hamas using suicide bombings and sniper attacks on Israeli military using force (defined by Palestininas as excessive) and cracking down on movenment of Palesininas in response to Palestinian demonstrations. Nearly 5000 Palestinians died, over 1200 kids. Over 1100 Israelis died and 1,000s more wounded. In 2005, Israel withdrew from Gaza Strip and Palestine took control of 223 sq miles. Israel evacuated settlements that been built there, burned down buildings that remained and granted autonomy to Gaza. Palestinians living in Gaza Strip rejoiced- visiting branches previously open to only Israeli settlers and traveling across border into Egypt to purchase goods. Joy short-lived. Gaza became econ isolated, standard of living dropped, and continued conflict with Israel made sitch worse. Israeli gov now tightly controls flow of Palestinians and goods in and out of Gaza Strip. Gaza surrounded by fences, and some a wall, with landmines in places.

Sacred Sites of Jerusalem 2

In 7th century, Muslim armies took control of Jerusalem form Byzantine Empire. Muslims constructed mosque called Dome of Rock adjacent to Wstern Wall to mark site wehre Muslims belive Muhammad visited heacen on his Night Journy in 621. Site Jews call Temple Mount called al-Haram al-Sharif (the Noble Sanctuary) by Muslims. In Middle Ages, Chirstians and Musloms fought Crusades over question of who should control sacred land of Jerusalem. Between 1095 and 1199, European political and religious leaders organized series of Crusades to retake holy land. First Christan crusaders captured Jerusalem in 1099, and Christans ruled city for round 100 ye. As first crusaders traveled across modern-day Turkey on way to Jerusalem, aslo left conquests in wake, laying claim to city of Antich and other strategically important sites. Some of crusaders returned to W Europe, but many settled, mingled, and intermarried with locals.

Israel and Palestine 5

In face of developments, Palestinians dug dozens of tunnels between Egypt and Gaza to bring arms, fuel, and goods to Hamas gov in Gaza. In 2014, Egypt moved to shut down flow of goods through tunnels. Did little to ease conflict along Gaza-Israel border. In recent years Palestininas in Gaza periodically fired missiles to Israeli territory, and Israel responded with deadly force. IN 2018, 52 Palestinians killed and 1,000s injured during demonstrations along border against plan to move U.S. embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem. Sitch in West Bank dif. Palestinina lands in West Bank not contiguous and for years Israel been constructing barrier that doesn't follow 1947 border between West Bank and Israel. Instad, areas with signif Israeli settlers pop in West Bank on Israel's side of fence. Patchwork geo of Paestin control in West Bank means movement of Palestiain pepes there can and often restricted. In particular controversial move, road constructed and controlled by Israelis, Route 4370, gives Jew settlers in West Bank easier access to Jerusalem than Palestinian counterparts. Israeli officials argue security concerns justify approach, but helps to fuel palestinina resentment.

Secularism

Indifference to or rejection of relig. Level of this throughout much of Chirstain and Buddhists worlds varies from country to country, same regionally within countries. In NA, 27% of Canadains thought relig was very important to them and 53% in US.

Israel and Palestine 3

International community calls lands Israel gained through 1967 and 1973 wars Occupied Territories. Primary concern of Palestinians and Arab countries since 1973 been growing presence of Israelis in West Bank and East Jerusalem. Israeli gov built settlements for Israelis across West Bank, increased tensions on ground as Palestinians continue to lose land and control. Settlements include housing developments enclosed in walls patrolled by Israeli military, with streets, sewer and water extended to each settlement. Through settlement policy, Israel extended control over Jerusalem, expand city to West Bank and razing Palestinian hosues along way. At same time, Israeli gov restricted new building by Palestinians in Jerusalem and West Bank. Situation produced considerable conflict, with Palestinians claiming oppression and violence by Israel and Israelis claiming right to recover historic homeland and to defend themselves from Palestininas who hostile to presence. Efforts at peace between Israel and Palestine often been led by U.S. presidents, though few success. In 1978, peace accord agreed to by Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin and Egyptian President Anwar Sadat and negotiated by Jimmy Carter lowered tensions between Israel and Egypt. In what became known as Camp David Accords, Israel returned Sinai Peninsula to Egypt and Egypt recognized Israel as independent country. Peace short. Palestinians spontaneously launched first intifada, including boycotts, demonstrations, and attacks on Israelis in 1980s.

Israel and Palestine

Israel and Palestine home to one of most contentious relig conflicts today. After WWI, European colonialism came to region previously been controlled and fought over by Jews, Christians, Muslims, and Ottomans. Newly formed League of Nations (precursor to UN) recognized British control of land, calling territorial mandate Palestine. At point, vast majority peeps living Muslim Palistine. Goal of British gov to meet Zionist goals and create in Palisitne national homeland for Jews (had already begun to migrate there). British explicitly assured world that relig and civil rights of existing non-Jews in Palestine would be protected. British policy didn't produce peaceful result. Civil disturbances erupted almost immediatly, and became worse after Holocaust and WWII, when many more Jews migrated to flee persecution and concentration camps in Euriope. Between 1914 and 1946, Jewish pop of Palestine grew from 60,000 to over 528,000.

Judaics Fundamentalism

Judaism has fundamentalist sects. Most conservative of 3 major branches of Judaism is Orthodox, though Orthodoxy takes many forms. Orthodox Jews embrace dif schools of thought, and have diverging views on Israel, edu, and interaction with non-orthodox Jews. More fundamentalist Orthodox Jews who migrated to Israel tend to vote more consevative in Israeli elections, affecting election outcomes. Many of more fundamentlaist Jews in Europe or NA send money to politicians who support conservative Israeli policy. Judaism also has extremist elements- epeps who majority of Jews denounce and whom gov of Israel even banned from country. Among groups are Kach and Kahane Chai- followers of late American-born Israeli rabbi, Meir Kahane. Rabbi Hajane espoused anti-Arabism in teachints, and followers (Kahane Chai) continue to. Memes of Kach and Kahane Chai suspected at several terrorist acts in Israel.

Nigeria

Like other countires in West Africa, Nigeria predominantly Muslim in north and Chirstan and animist in south. Groups converge in middle part of country in region called Middle Belt or Norht Central Zone, where Muslim, Chirstian and animist communites now live side by side. Over 168 mil peeps, Nigeria is Africa's most populous country. Since 1999, when country emerged from years of military rule, Nigeria has witnessed persistent violence along interfaith boundaries between these communities, which has cost hundreds of thousands of lives. With many conflicts, causes of N-S violence in Nigeria can't be attributed only to dif religious beliefs. Bc of differences in climates, many peeps engage in cattle herding in northern Nigeria, where in south, most rural peeps farmers. As land becomes scarcer, fertile grasslands of central Nigeria become covered by cattle herders and farmers. Land once reserved for grazing been gradually replaced by agriculture,and violence against herders often justified as retaliation for acts of trespassing on planted fields and crops destruction by cattle.

Islam

Muhammad admired monotheism of Judaism and Christainty, believed that Allah already reveald himself through other porphets, including Abraham and Jesus. But, he was viewed as the 1 true prophet among Muslims. After his visions, Muhammad doubted that he was chosen to be porphet, but convinced by more revelations and then devoted his life to fulfilling divine commands. IN those days, eastern Mediterranean and Arabin Peninsula were in religious and social disarray, with Chirsitanity and Judaism coexisting with polytheistic religs. As Muhammad's opponents began to combat his efforts, forced to flee to Mecca, were he had been raised, for Median, and continued his work from new base. Many principles of Islam are visinos of Judaic and Christian beliefs and traditions.Central principle taht there's 1 god, occasionally reveals himself through prophets, like Abraham, jesus, and Muhammad. Nother is that earthly matters are profane (not sacred); only Allah is pure. Allah's will is absolute; he is omnipotent and omniscient. Muslims believe that all humans live in world that was made for them, but only until final judgment day.

Hajj

Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca, the birthlpae of Muhammad. Physical lanndscape of Mecca, Islam's holiest city, bears witness to one of best-known pilgrimages in modern world, hajj. One of 5 pillars of Islam. Each year, over 2 mil Muslims form outside Saudi Arabia and over 1 mil from inside country make pilgrimage to Mecca. Hajj requires faithful to follow certain steps of reverence in certain order and within certain time frame. As result, pilgrims move from Mecca through steps of hajj in masses. In 2015, over 400 pilgrims trampled to death as hoarders of peeps followed steps of pilgrimage. Saudi gov now restricts num of visas granted each year to Muslims form outside country. But num of pilgirims continues to climb, and services needed for Muslim pilgirims now emply 4 times as many peeps in Saudi Arabia as oil industry does. Landscape round Mecca reflects growing num of pilgrims year-round, as towers of apartment buildings and hotels encircle sacred city.

Islam 2

Muslims observe "five pillars" of Islam (repeated expressions of the basic creed, frequent prayer, a mont of daytime fating, almsgiving, and if possiblem at least one pilgrimage to Mecca in a lifetime). Faith dictates behavior in other spheres of life too. Islam forbids alcohol, smoking, and gamling. In islamic settlements, peeps build mosques to observe Friday prayer (Friday being holy day); mosques also serve as social gathering places. Islam divided into Sunni and Shi'ite (Shiah) branches. Smaller setcts of Islam include Wahhabis, Sufis, Salafists, Alawites, Alevis, and Yazeedis.

Sacred Sites of Jerusalem 3

Muslims ultimately retook Jerusalem in 1187, and later Christian crusaders unable to conquer again. Crusades helped strengthen commitment by Christians to protect Church of Holy Sepulchre, even as cemented commitment by Muslims to protect Dome of Rock. Zionism represented commitment by Jews to protect Western Wall. Commitment by 3 major religs to protect and control sacred sites led to political turmoil echoes beyond Jerusalem.

Nigeria 2

N and S of Nigeria differ in other respects. Rich oil econ and jobs tied to it concentrated in south. Southern Nigeria has higher per capita GDP and greater concentration of wealth than northern Nigeria. While northern Nigeria dominated by Hausa-Fulani ethnic groups, south more diverse. Western-style edu more accepted in south than north, and south has higher female literacy rates. Access to health care, as reflected in percentage of 1-year olds with basic vaccinations, higher in S than N. Since 2009, worst violence in Nigeria taken place in N half of country, and interfaith boundary and in NE, wehre extremist Muslim group, Boko Haram, is. Mohammed Yusuf began organization in 2002 in Maiduguri, Nigeria, with goal of pushing Western-style edu out of northern Nigeria. Words Boko Haram translate to western education is forbidden in Hausa lang. Yusuf built Islamic school, drew mainly students from Kanuri ethnic group and used school to recruit mems to Boko Haram. Group received funding from local politicians seeking to disrupt elections in 2003 and 2007. As support ran out, Boko Haram turned to other forms of criminality for funding, bank robberies, extortion, kidnapping for ransom, etc.

Northern Ireland

Num of W European countries, and Canada/US, have large Catholic and Protestant community. OVer past century, split between 2 sects hasn't been source of violent confrontation. Exception Northern Ireland. NI and Great Britain form UK of Great Britain and Northern Reland. For centuries, island of Ireland free from outside control. Divided to kingdoms and peeps followed mix of Celtic and Western Christian relig practices. As early as 1200s, English began to infiltrate Ireland. Colonization began in 16th century, by 1700 Britain controlled entire island. During 1700s, Protestants from GB (primarily Scotland) migrated to Ireland to take advantage of political and econ power granted to them in colony. During 1800s, migrants drawn principally to NE Ireland, where industrial jobs and opps greatest and Irish colony produced industrial wealth for Britian in its shipyards. During colonial period, British treated Irish Catholics harshly, taking away lands and depriving them of legal right to own prp or participate in gov. In late 1800s, Irish began reviving older celtic and Irish traditions, strengthening identity, leading to greater resentment against British and in early 1900s, major rebellion began. Rebellion successful throughout most of island, predominantly Catholic, leading to creation of Republic of Ireland. Conflict settled in 1922. Britain retained control of 6 countries in northeast, where signif concentrations of Protestant migrants from Britain lived. Counties constituted Northern Ireland, became part of UK. Substantial Catholic minority in NI didn't want to be part of UK- particularly since Protestant majority, constituting 2/3rds of pop (1.6 mil) of Northern Ireland, possessed most of econ and political power.

Sacred Sites:

Places characterized by sacred site features like heights, insularity, or presence of holy water sources, trees, or stones. Contreated Irish sacred sites with ones in continental Europe, where sacred sites typically built in urban, accessible areas. In continental Europe, bones found of saints or images were brought to place to give relig meaning. In many societies, special features in physical landscape remain sacred to relig groups. Access to features varies depending on ownership, enviro regulations, and need or desire to control flow of visitors. Places become sites of contention when one group sees sites as sacred and other group doesn't. In other places, sacred sites can become contentious when peeps of more than one relig sees them as signif. How common sacred site is shared or departed depends on larger geo and historical context of political, econ and social connections between groups.

Settlements

Places where a group of people reside and have established permanent community.

Activity Space

Places within the rounds of daily activity.

Pilgrimage

Purposeful travel to a sacred site for religious reasons. Pilgrimage routes evident in cultural landscape. Geos who study relig interested in pilgrimage and impacts on place, peeps, relig, cult, and enviro.

Islam-

Region based on belief in 1 God who reveald himself to the prophet Muhammad. Islam dates to 7th century CE. Hearth in Mecca and Medina in present-day Saudi Arabia. Youngest of major religion, also single founder- Muhammad, born in Mecca in 561 ce. According to Muslim belief, Muhammad receied truth directly from Allah (God) in a series of revalations that began when he was 42. During revelations, Muhammad spoke verses of Qur'an (Koran), Islamic holy book.

Conflicts in the Face of Migration

Relig can provoke conflict when tied to socially contentious migration stream. So-called guest workers began coming in Europe in 1950s and 60s-often at invitation of European govs with high demands for workers. Most guest workers came from SW Asia and N Africa, and most Muslim. In early stages, migration not controversial. In 1970s, became more contentious as migration continued while European econ in recession. 2 things happened to make migration more contentious in recent decades: 1 Migration grown signif as instability, conflict, and econ hardship in N Africa and SW Asia, 2 Terrorist incidents with roots in region stoked fear among many Europeans. Muslims who migrated to Europe come from places with widely different customs, practices, and langs. But opponents of migration tended to lump them together bc of affiliation with Islam. Tendency to group made relig central symbolic feature of conflict over migration. Anti-immigration extremists began speaking of Islamic invasion. In more moderate circles, concerns were expressed bout how recent migrants didn't integrate into European societies, with Islamic practices trotted out as supporting evidence.

Explain How the Cultural Landscape Reflects Religious Ideas and Practices

Religion has clear presence in cultural landscape- in houses of worship like churches, mosques, synagogues, and temples; cemeteries with relig symbols and icons; stores designated for sales of relig goods.

Identify and Describe the role Religion Plays in Political Conflicts

Religious beliefs and histories can divide peeps who speak in same lang, have same ethnic background, and make living in similar ways. Divisions not only between followers of dif major relig (like Muslims and Christans in former Yugoslavia). Sometimes emerge among believers of same relig. Some of most destructive conflicts pitted Christan against Christan and Muslim against Muslim. Relig conflicts usually involve more than dif in spiritual practices and beliefs. Relig serves as symbol of wider set of cultural and political difs. Relig conflict in Northern Ireland not just bout dif views of christianity, and conflict between Hindus and Muslims in India has strong political dimension. In these and others, relig serves as principal symbol separating competing groups.

Religious Extremism

Religious fundamentalism carried to the point of violence. Peeps in society often fear fundamentalism in other societies without recognizing it in own. What peeps call fundamentalism sometimes more extremism. Attacks on US Sep 2001 reinforced tendency of some Americans to associate extremism with Islam. Christian extremism also force. In US, relig zealots killed physicians who perform legal abortions, detonate bombs. Though fundamentalists can be extremists, not all of them.

Religious Fundamentalism

Religious movement whose objectives are to return to the foundations of the faith and to influence state policy. Drive towards this often comes from sense of powerlessness. Often peeps frustrated over perceived breakdown of society's morals and values and obstacles to econ advancement. There's a perceived loss of local control and focus on failure of gov institutions. Regardless of relig, mems of fundamentalist groups see relig beliefs as nonnegotiable and beyond question.

Christian Fundamentalism

Roman Cathloic Church long resisted innovations deemed incompatible with fundamental of faith. Among disputed issuer birth control and role of women in relig hierarchy. Major relig tend to be male-dominated, few women gained high positions. In Roman Catholic Church, women not allowed to serve as priests. Roman Catholic Church over 1 bil adherents and global diplomatic and political presence, influencing policies in many places and on many topics. In US, few branches of Catholic Church continue to hold Mass in Latin and much more fundamentalist than rest of church. Some of branches recognized parts of Catholic Church, tohers stand apart; don't recognize authority of pope, or Vatican sanction them. In US, some branches of Protestantism are fundamentalist. Preaching a doctrine of strict adherence to literal precepts of Bible, many protestant Christian fundamentalists belive that entire character of contemporary society needs to be brought into alignment with biblical principles. Fundamentalist Protetant churches range from tiny churches to enormous warehouse-style churches with thousands of memes. Regardless of size of congregation, fundamentalist Prtestant churches become increasingly active in political and social affairs promoting prayer in schools, teahings of creationism in science courses, and strict ban on abortion. In process, have gained considerable influence in local politics (school boards and city councils) and at national level (tanks and issue-focused research institutes).

Sunni

Sect of Islam that believes Muhammad's successor didn't need to be blood relative of Muhammad. Much larger branch and has subgroups

Shi'ite

Sect of Ismal that believes Muhammad's successor needed to be a bood relative of Muhammad. Found commonly in and around Iran. Concentrated in Iran and surrounding areas.

Shamanism

Shamanism is faith where community places great trust in shaman- religious leader, teacher, healer, and visionary. Shamans appeared at various times in Africa, Native America, Central Asia, SE Asia, E Asia, and appearances had similar effects on cultures of widely scattered peeps. Unlike Chirstianity or Islam, shamanist faiths small and comparatively isloated, most likely bc have not developed elaborate bureaucracies and don't send representatives abroad. Shamanism intimate part of local cult and society, but not all traditional relig are shamanist. Many traditional African relig involve beliefs in god as creator and provider, in divinities both superhuman and human, in spirits and life hereafter. Christianilty and Islam have converted some followers of traditional relig but indigenous religs still dominate signif areas.

Israel and Palestine 6

Sitch in Israel and Palestine today not product of conflict along simple interfaith boundary. Tiny region had multitude of interfaith boundaries, especially in West Bank where settlements produced many miles of interfaith boundaries within small political territory. Prospects for peace between Israel and Palestine greatly complicated by fact that each side feels has historic right to land and by violence inflicted on each side by other.

Conflicts Along Religious Borders

Some countries lie entirely within realms of individual world relig and others have interfaith boundaries. Many countries with Interfaith B experienced divisive cult forces- particularly when peeps see relig differences as primary source of social identity. Case in many African countries with Christian-Muslim interfaith boundary. In India, where Hindu nationalism deeply rooted, close to 200 mil Muslims live in state resulted from 1947 partition of South Asia into largely Hindu (India) and Muslom (East and West Pakistan). Other countries with major relig disputes have Intrafaith B. Between Christan Protestants and Catholics (Northern Ireland), between Muslim Sunnis and Shi'ite (Iraq). Israel/Palestine and Nigeria have examples of interfaith conflicts, Northern Ireland is intrafaith conflict. Reelig difference not only factor driving conflict, but plays powerful symbolic role. Interface areas, where interfaith and intrafaith boundaries happen, may be peaceful, or have violent political conflicts.

Minarets

Tall, thin tower on or near mosque. Traditionally, a muezzin stands on the balcony of a minaret to call Muslims to prayer.

Islamic Fundamentalism

The growth of a fundamentalist movement in Afghanistan (The Taliban) provided a striking example of how quickly a fundamentalist movement can use extremism to change a place one it comes to power. Taliban regime seized control of much of country during 1990s and asserted stricter fundamentalist regime in contemporary world. Leadership imposed wide range of relig restrictions, sought to destroy all statues depicting human forms, required followers of Hinduism to wear identifying markers, and forbade women to appear in public with head exposed. Taliban in Afghanistan also provided haven for activities of Islamic extremists who sought to promote jihad against West in general and US in particular. One of key figures in Islamic extremist movement of past decade Osama bin Laden, helped finance mastermind variety of terrorist activities including destruction of World Trade Towers, attack on Pentagon, and downing of Flight 93 on Sep 11, 2001. Bin Laden now dead, but those following footsteps product of fundamentalist revolutionary Islamic movement that view West as great enemy and opposes many of changes associated with modernization and globalization. Beliefs not representative of Islam as whole, but relig beliefs. Can be traced to form of Islam known as Wahhabi Islam, developed in eighteenth century in opposition to what see as sacrilegious practies of Ottoman rulers. Champions called return to puree variant of Islam form centures earler. Saudi Arabian state is hearth of wahhbi Islam since 1800s, and Saudis fund Wahhabi Islamic shools, called madrassas, round world.

Religious Fundamentalism and Extremism

Today forces of globalization affect relig. Edu, radio, tv, travel spread ideas bout individual liberties, sexual equality, and freedom of choice- also consumerism and secularism. Some Christian churches allowed women and mems of LGBTQ community serve as relig leaders and same-sex partners to marry. Othes reaffirmed fundmental or literalist interpretations of relig texts and tried to block what see as morally corrupting influences and external cult interference.

Diffusion of Islam 2

Today, Islam, with more than 11.8 bil followrs, ranked 2nd to Chirstianity in global num. Fastest growing of world's major relig, dominating in N Africa and SW Asia, extending into Central Asia, former SU, and China, and including clusters in indonesia, Bangladesh, and southern Philippines. Islam strongley represented in Inda, over 172 mil, and in N Africa, whre nearly 2/3rds of pop is Musilm. Ismal had followers in Bosnia and Albania, and substantial nums of adherents in US and Western Europe. Largest Muslim country outside Middle East: Indonesia, more than 87% if pop mus. Of Islam's 1.8 bil, more thank half live outside SW Asia and N Africa.

Landscape of Hinduism and Buddhism

Traditional Hinduism more than faith; way of life. Pilgrims follow prescribed routes, and mills of peeps attend rituals. Festivals and feasts frequent, colorful, and noisy. Hindus believe erection of temple, whether modest or elaborate, bestows merit on builder and is rewarded. As result, Hindu cultural landscape- urban and rural- dotted with countless shrines, ranging from small village temples to structures so large and elaborate virtually holy cities. Location of shrines important bc Hindus believe holy places shouldn't greatly disrupt natural landscape. Whenever possible, Hindu temple located in comfy position, Ex. undr large, shady tree. Hindus also tend to locate temples near water bc believe many gods won't venture far from water and bc water serves holy function of ritual bathing. Village temps should face villages from prominent position, followers must make offering frequently. Small offerings of fruit and flowers lie before sanctuary of deity honored by shrine.

Islamic Fundamentalism 2

Variety of forces fueled violent path of Wahhabi extremist movement, some of forces decidedly geographic. Most important is widely held view among movement followers that infidels have Islamic holy land over past 80 years. Islamic extremists particularly concerned bout presence of American military and businesses interests in Arabian Peninsula, establishment of state of Israel, and support that European and American govs given Israel. Principal goal to bring end to what seen as improper external linfuelces on Islamic world. Second, geographiclly related, concern is diffusion of modern cult and tech to Islam world and impact on traditional lifestypes and spiritual practices. Ridding Islamic world of influences major goal. Extremist Islamic fundamentalists have resorted to violence in pursuit of cause. Relatively small in num, though Most Muslims in Middle East oppose Islamic extremism. Considerable majority of peeps in Pakistan oppose Taliban; most Palestininas hold unfavorable view of Hezbollah and Hamas; and most Nigerians concerned bout Boko Haram.

Conflicts in the Face of Migration 2

Wasn't just traditional Europeans who lumping peeps of diverse background and beliefs under one relig label. Islamic extremists like Osama bin Laden also calling for all Muslims to put aside differences and make unified, powerful Islamic world. Rhetoric coming form some radical mosques in Europe encouraged an us-them way of thinking based on board relig-cult difs. Whateve source, growing presence of Islam in Europe been source of conflict. Anti-Islaimc pronouncemetns and harassment of Muslims found at one end of spectrum, calls for uprising and terrorist bombings at other end. Migration can lead to social conflict without relig being signif issue, case with stream from Mexico and Central America to US or central Europeans to western Europe. Arrival of migrants in Europe from NA and SW Asia reminds that tensions can identify when migrants of one relig move to palace where dif relig traditions dominate. Strong link between relig and cult identity.

The Rise of Secularism

World map of relig can be misleading bc many peeps in areas shown as Chirstain or Buddhist don't follow. Enven most careful analysis of relig membership produces round 4 bil followers of major relig- in global pop of over 7 bil. Hundreds of mills of peeps not mounted in figure bc practice traditional reig. Even wehn are taken into account, additional hundreds of mils don't practice relig at all. Church membership figures don't accurately reflect num of active memes. In France and Great Britain, round 10% of pop reported attending least 1ce a month. Lack of active memes underscores rise of secularism.