Human Sexuality Exam 3
What is the genetic explanation for sexual orientation?
Moderately heritable for men...less so for women Gender non-conformity may be more heritable Genes account for some but not all variance in sexual orientation
What is the pattern of findings in regard to religion and premarital sex?
If religious, tend to delay and have fewer partners
What is the difference in the Mullerian and Wolffian ducts? What causes one or the other to develop?
If testosterone is present (Y from dad) Wolffian system dominates- testes; If testosterone is NOT present (X from dad) Mullerian system dominates=ovaries Influence by testosterone
How is homosexuality regarded under the law in the US? What implications does this have for social benefits (health care, worker's comp, taxes, etc.)?
In 2013 everything was legal
What are the main ways to combat homophobia and heterosexism?
Read books, see films and attend special events focused on LGBT issues; Talk with lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender friends, relatives, co-workers or fellow students about their experience; Learn about LGBT people
What sorts of information about sex and sexuality are children in middle childhood learning?
Relationships with others imitates adults, boys call each other gay
What is the risks of serial cohabitation?
The more people you cohabitate with, the more likely divorce
What are the markers of puberty for boys and girls?
boys first marker is pleasurable (masturbation) Girls(menstruation)
Heteronormative:
denoting or relating to a world view that promotes heterosexuality as the normal or preferred sexual orientation. characterizes masculinity as active and persistent and femi- ninity as passive
Minority Stress Model
describes chronically high levels of stress faced by members of stigmatized minority groups
What is KSOG?
expanded Kinsey's continuum 7 dimensions: attraction, behavior, fantasy, emotional preference, social preference, self-identification, lifestyle Each dimension is measured for the past, present and ideal
developmental theories:
focus on upbringing & personal history
Why are people uncomfortable around others whose sex doesn't "match" their gender role?
gender expression that can be contradictory to biological sex can confuse people and upset them cause it doesn't fit into the general society
What are "mixed marriages?" What percentage of marriages are "mixed?" How have these trends changed over the last 30 years?
• "Mixed" marriages: from 1 in 150(1980) to 1 in 7 (2010) • Significant gender differences for Black and Asian individuals marrying outside race or ethnicity
When does sexual differentiation of the brain take place?
• 4 to 6 weeks
Basic chromosomal structures and how the 23rd is formed?
• 46 chromosomes 23 pairs Sperm has 23; Egg 23 (single) • 23rd pair: Sex chromosomes Egg always provides an X Sperm provides X or Y Female: XX Male: XY
What is the difference in Gender Roles and Gender traits?
refers to behaviors, attitudes, and personality traits that a society, in a given historical period, designates as masculine or feminine Innate or biologically determined gender-specific behaviors
Androgyny:
the combination of feminine and masculine characteristics
What is the controversy surrounding bisexuality? What are the outcomes?
Telling them to pick a side
What is the birth order explanation for sexual orientation?
Gay men have more older brothers than heterosexual men Maternal immunity hypothesis: more anti-male antibodies with each male birth 33% increase with each older brother o 14 brothers for 99% chance Older sisters= decreased chance What about lesbian women?
What is the difference between "true hermaphrodites" and intersex individuals?
"True Hermaphtodites" have fully formed ovaries AND testes, either: One ovary and one testicle Gonads that combine testicular and ovarian tissue Testes or ovaries (not both) & gonads match chromosomal sex BUT: Issues with prenatal hormones= ambiguous external genitals
What percentage of married people admit to cheating? By gender? Reasons? (by gender and across all married people)
20% of women, 15-35% of men report extramarital sex Women: most disturbed by emotional infidelity Tend to engage in emotional affairs Tend to have affairs when older Men: most disturbed by sexual infidelity Tend to engage in sexual affairs Typically when younger
What social trends have caused a decrease in divorce rates?
Children, religion, lack initiative, economic conditions
What milestones of physical development are children 2-5 meeting/experiencing?
Critical time period for learning basic physical skills for life Continued learning about the body-its functions & how to control it
What is the prenatal hormone explanation for sexual orientation?
Organizational effects during development Weak evidence Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) o Disorder of sexual development; high levels of androgen exposure prenatally o 1 in 15,000 babies o CAH girls play with male-typical toys & have higher rates of homosexuality than non-CAH girls
What does transgender mean? How is it different from transsexual?
People who identify or express gender in a variety of different ways, typically different than their biological sex Person who identifies with a gender other than one given at birth (Changing body/ appearance)
How do people react to gender non-conforming behavior in children?
"That's not for girls, that's for boys" etc. When boys deviate from gender role behavior, consequences more severe than when girls deviate; when girls deviate from gender stereotypes of sexuality, consequences more severe.
Biological theories of sexual orientation:
(differences in physiology) • Differences are innate • Can be due to genetics, hormones, birth order, or simple physical traits • Genetics: is being gay heritable? Mixed findings Moderately heritable for men...less so for women Gender non-conformity may be more heritable Genes account for some but not all variance in sexual orientation
What does it mean to say that children learn much of their knowledge about gender from homosocial play?
(gender segregation) begins due to different play styles, attraction to others like themselves, learned social roles, or combination of these factors
What factors determine sexual orientation?Behavior?Fantasy?Romantic feelings?Attraction?Self-identification?
*Can be difficult to measure *What you physically do/how you act *Thinking about particular sexual activities without actually doing them *Who you want to be in a relationship with *Who you have sexual feelings toward *Sexual experimentation & orientation are 2 different things. This doesn't determine identity
When do gonads first develop-internally and externally?
5-6 weeks
What percentage of adults has been divorced? Divorce generally occurs early in the marriage at an average of ___ years into it.
50% 8 years in
What is the Kinsey continuum?
7-point scale from exclusively heterosexual behavior to exclusively homosexual behavior First scale to suggest orientation is a continuous variable It emphasized behavior It is static in time
How is homosexuality viewed around the world? How is US progressive and regressive?
A diagnosable mental disorder. AIDS epidemic, "Gay cancer" We've legalized marriage but it took us awhile because of things like Stonewall
What are the advantages of cohabitation? The disadvantages?
Advantages Learn more about each other's habits, share finances, mature the relationships Disadvantages Unsupportive family, cut off from friends... Increases risk for divorce, especially serial cohabitators Exception: engaged couples (same as living together without engagement or with engagement still increased divorce rates) Over 70% of US heterosexual couples cohabitate before marriage
Why are androgens important to brain differentiation?
Androgens are male testosterone which is important for development so lack of them alter things
Explain gender-role nonconformity as an explanation of sexual orientation
As a group, children who display cross-gender traits are more likely to be homosexual as adults BUT ...Many homosexuals were not effeminate as children AND ..not all effeminate boys/tomboys are homosexual as adults
What is attachment? What is the role of Oxycontin in attachment?
Attachment to a primary caregiver A baby's crying helps stimulate the secretion of the hormone Oxycontin in the mother
What are early signs of puberty?
Body matures and establishes reproductive ability Boys' first sign of sexual maturity is usually pleasurable o Not so for girls (menarche vs. semenarche) o Shame surrounding both
Who is treated more harshly for adopting cross-gender characteristics—boys or girls?Why?
Boys because teachers respond based on stereotypes. Judged by peers, etc
How has the notion of dating changed in the past 50 years? The past 15? What is the role of technology in this change?
Changes in dating norms Gray area between traditional monogamy and completely casual sex Hooking up, friends with benefits, sex as a way to "test out" a potential partner Technology increases accessibility To information, partners Changing gender norms
Gender schema theory
Cognitive structures organize "gender", influenced by culture; powerful in our culture
What are the trends regarding interracial dating?
College students would hook up with other races but marry their own Blacks, non-white women with higher education, and white women with lower education are more likely to date outside race
What is the difference in extramarital and comarital sex?
Comarital sex- consenting of married couples/committed couples to sexually exchange partners Extramarital: Sex outside marriage by cheating
What does research tell us about the stability and function of same-sex relationships?
Compared to opposite-sex relationships, research is mixed... Some= same-sex relationships less stable in adulthood Some= heterosexual couples have things to learn from gay couples Gay men: less trouble initiating sex & more sexually active Lesbian women: emotionally closer relationships
What happens to relationship satisfaction as number of children increase? Why?
Decreased satisfaction because lack of time for each other due to children
How do the risks and stressors of adolescence differ for heterosexual and homosexual teens?
Difficult time for homosexual adolescents o GLB youth with supportive families have better outcomes
What does it mean to say that the U.S. has long regulated marriage in an attempt to protect procreative health?
Gay marriage was not allowed because procreation
What are gender identity and gender constancy and when do they develop?
Gender identity-(1-2 years age) is one's personal experience of one's own gender Gender constancy-(6 years age) The realization in the young child that one's gender does not normally change over the life span
What are the steps involved for those seeking gender reassignment surgery?
Have to talk to a physician Get surgery Ask judge Georgia will issue a birth certificate reflecting the proper sex
How does homosexuality in prison complicate our understanding of a strict distinction in sexual orientations?
Just because a man has sex with a man in person does not mean they're homosexual
Asexual:
Lack of sexual attraction/interest in sexual activity
What does it mean to say that children learn about the secrecy of sex? How does terminology play a role in children's knowledge about sex and physical pleasure?
Learn genitals are a unique part of the body and there are privacy issues Gender difference in naming/terminology o Boys: learn "penis" o Girls: do not learn "clitoris"
Why is the onset of puberty emotionally, psychologically, and physically difficult for some children?
Life cycle changes with their body and identity
Describe the gender differences in how children learn about masturbation and the drives behind their "first time."
Masturbation o Boys: often learn from peers o Girls: often learn by accident First time drive o Men: driven by curiosity o Women: driven by affection
What contributes to marital satisfaction for men? Women?
Men: frequency of pleasurable activities done together Women: frequency of pleasurable activities focuses on emotional closeness
What is menarche? Semenarche?
Menarche: the first occurrence of menstruation Semenarche: The experience of first ejaculation
How have trends for marriage changed over the last 40 years? (Ages, percentages, etc.)
Most young adults will marry at some point, but marry later with more education First marriage ages Men= 28 Women= 26 Unmarried women outnumber married women for the first time in US history Many factors (education, ethnicity, race) affect marital rates
What is the history of abstinence-only programs? What does sex education look like around the US today?
Much evidence suggests the abstinence-only programs do more harm than good o 80%+ present incorrect information o They do not significantly change values, attitudes, or intentions about premarital sex o Produce poor contraceptive use rates Sex Ed today Currently, most states recommend or require sex education in public schools Content varies by state
What is no-fault divorce? How has it impacted divorce in the US?
No one is at fault Divorce goes faster
What sexual functions are in place before birth?
Our sexual anatomy becomes functional before birth Male fetuses have erections in the uterus Female infants are capable of lubrication from birth
Be familiar with recommended guidelines for parental reaction to genital touching at ages 2-5. What types of activities are involved in child sex play at this age?
Parental reaction is important o Disapproval may lead to shame of self o Rules of appropriate conditions should be provided Child play may involve acts like exposing genitals, undressing/touching, asking questions, rubbing bodies against each other
How are children 2-5 sorting out what it means to be a boy or girl? Why are they often interested in genitals and body waste at this time?
Parents, siblings or TV tells them about gender behavior Exploration of bodies with toilet training and genital interest
What are the findings in regard to sex within marriage?
Passion is high early in marriages, but slowly dissipates 40% married couples have intercourse 2+ times/ week 50% do so a few times/month Most couples experience a decrease in intercourse over time Marital pressures: children, jobs, housework, money, etc. • Positive correlation between frequency & satisfaction with sex life
What is the role of peers vs. parents in children's knowledge about sex? Sexual decisions?
Peers o Perceptions of peer behavior very important o Lessened with strong family ties Parents o If moderately strict and open climate, tend to delay intercourse and use contraceptive o Mainly mothers discuss sex
Evolutionary theory
Roles= mechanism for survival
What are the four stages of affairs? Why do most affairs occur?
STAGE ONE: VULNERABILITY STAGE TWO: THE "DIRTY LITTLE SECRET" STAGE THREE: DISCOVERY/ADDICTION STAGE FOUR: THE PLAN, OR HOW TO END IT • 90%+ affairs due to emotional needs not met
Why does sexual touching decrease in middle childhood? With what age is this decline associated?
Sexual behaviors are less tolerated and children may simply be better at hiding it (10-12 years old)
When did sex education become a part of the curriculum in the US? Why?
Sexuality education increased in the early 1900s to decrease STI rates
What social factors contribute to divorce? Predisposing factors? Relationship factors?
Social Factors Accessibility and low cost More acceptable: Religious groups less opposed than in past Predisposing Factors Marry at a young age, emotional immaturity Marry because of an unplanned pregnancy Relationship Factors Communication problems: avoidance, lack constructive communication Partners feel criticized or neglected; loss of sexual interest
What are the demographics of swingers?
Swingers tend to be white, middle class, middle-aged church goers Often have "safe-sex" circles Many found to report happier marriages & higher life satisfaction Mutual consent is critical
What is the distinction between swinging and polyamory?
Swinging: To have open, promiscuity with a select group of partners, who "swing" each other's wives and girlfriends back and forth to other people Polyamory: the state or practice of having more than one open romantic relationship at a time
What do we know about same-sex divorce?
There is not much about same-sex marriage divorce because not legal long enough but it is equally important
What does it mean to say that babies under 2 can have a genital response? What is the role of genital touching in babies under 2?
They have erections Children are learning about their bodies and how to control them, tension reduction and distraction
Cognitive development
Universal stages for understanding and utilizing gender
How prevalent are laws against workplace discrimination based on sexual orientation?
Unlike the other areas of employment discrimination, the federal government does not provide protection for LGBTQ employees, whether these employees are protected depends on each state's laws
What is conversion/reparative therapy?
Used to fix "gayness", basically pray the gay away or other ways like shock Does not work
Why do we not have much good data on cohabitation?
Usually data is only on married couples
What are virginity pledges? What do we know about their effectiveness?
Virginity pledges decrease sexual behavior immediately following pledge, but increases STI and pregnancy risks 88% of pledges engaged in premarital sex
Social learning
We learn gender roles from society, our environment
What does it mean to say that women's sexual identity is more fluid than men's?
Women are more likely to report bisexuality, while men are more likely to report being either "100 percent heterosexual" or "100 percent homosexual."
Heterosexism:
a presumption of heterosexuality in society A passive lack of awareness, not necessarily active discrimination
What does it mean to say that gender is on a spectrum? What is gender fluidity?
a way of describing gender without conforming to the gender binary when gender expression shifts between masculine and feminine, can be displayed in how we dress, express and describe ourselves
What is the difference in abstinence-only, abstinence-plus, and comprehensive sex education programs?
o Abstinence-only: teaches abstinence as the only morally correct option of sexual expression for teens o Comprehensive: teaches about abstinence as the best method for avoiding STDs & unintended pregnancy with open topics Abstinence plus: Teaches abstinence with condoms
What is gender identity?
one's personal experience of one's own gender. Gender identity can correlate with assigned sex at birth, or can differ from it
What is the difference between polygyny and polyandry? What is a consanguineous marriage?
polygyny is an example in which a man has more that one wife Polyandry refers to one woman with multiple husbands consanguineous marriage is defined as a union between two individuals who are related as second cousins or closer
What are covenant marriages? How have they impacted divorce in the US?
spouses agree to obtain pre-marital counseling and accept more limited grounds for later seeking divorce (religious marriage)
What is homophobia? What personality and lifestyle characteristics are associated with more negative attitudes toward gay and lesbian men and women?
strongly negative attitudes toward homosexuals and homosexuality Society is less threatened by lesbian sexuality, which may explain why women's sexuality is more fluid than men's Racial minority gays and lesbians face both heterosexism in their racial group and racism in gay and non-gay groups
Gender binary definition:
system refers to the dichotomous categorization of gender in terms of male and female
What are the findings on outcomes of children raised in hetero- versus homosexual homes?
• All the scientific evidence suggests that children who grow up with one or two gay and/or lesbian parents are as emotionally, cognitively, socially, and sexually heathy as children of heterosexual parents... • Children of gay parents are similar to those raised by heterosexual parents • BUT different... Less homophobic Accept greater diversity More empathic
What are the main functions of estrogen, progesterone, and androgens?
• Androgens Testosterone (male development) • Estrogens (Female development) Estradiol • Progestins (menstrual cycle) Progesterone • Found in both males & females
What role does family play in coming out? What are the risks associated with family rejection?
• Awareness of sexual orientation begins pre-puberty • Coming out is a life-long process 50% report negative experiences 26% are kicked out of their homes • Rejection= increased risk of suicide (x8), depression, drugs, unsafe sex • Positive experience= higher self-confidence, lower rates of depression, & better psychological adjustment overall
Interactional theory:
• Biology (genes, hormones, neuroanatomy) contributes to childhood temperaments...(personality) • ...that influence preferences for sex-typical or atypical behaviors (all theories working together)
How is homosexuality complicated by racial/ethnic norms?
• Caught between a rock and a hard place Many ethnic groups don't accept homosexuality Homosexuality community doesn't readily accommodate expressions of ethnic identity • GLB minorities report a feeling of being between two communities, rather than part of any one
Differences between sex and gender?
• Gender Socially constructed Behavioral, psychological, and social characteristics Man, woman, girl, boy (identity) • Sex Biological Genitals and chromosomes Male, female
Behaviorist theories:
• Homosexuality= a learned behavior • The behavior results from reward or positive reinforcement of homosexual behaviors & punishment or negative reinforcement of heterosexual behaviors But society doesn't reinforce homosexual behavior often, right? • Conversion therapy/ Reparative therapy Uses this principle...(Pray the gay away) (learned behaviors (reinforcement))
Be familiar with the most common types of hormonal (e.g., CAH, AIS) , and chromosomal conditions (e.g, Klinefelter syndrome, Turner syndrome)-how they occur, who is affected, symptoms, treatments, outcomes
• Klinefelter Syndrome XXY- egg contained an extra X Develops male genitalia, but not fully Low testosterone levels' low in sexual desires Infertile • Turner Syndrome XO- egg has no sex chromosome Ovaries aren't fully developed, resulting in amenorrhea & infertility 1 in every 2,500 Hormonal Disorders • Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) XX girl exposed to excess androgen from adrenal glands prenatally Female internal organs; sometimes masculinized external genitalia Higher rates of bisexuality and homosexuality • Androgen-Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS) XY-the body doesn't respond to testosterone that is produced by the testes Genitals appear female at birth No internal reproductive structure except two undescended testes
What is "organization"? "Activation"?
• Organization is initial fetal development • Activation is the affects hormones have on the body that lead to puberty
What are our current estimates for categories of sexual orientation today?
• Same-sex behavior has remained constant in the U.S over the years Most current estimates= 3-4% of males; 1.5-2% of females; 2-5% bisexual
Sociologial theories:
• Social forces are responsible for sexual orientation • Sexual orientation labels are a product of our society Kids internalize their labels Example: Gender non-conforming boys are labeled as homosexual children & adopt that role (Influence of social forces (society, culture)
What is the transgender umbrella?
• Transgender • Transsexual • Gender Queer Person whose gender identity is something completely different from only male or female
