IB Biology Topics 1-6
Draw a graph of temperature as a limiting factor.
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Draw and label a diagram of a kidney.
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Draw and label a sarcomere.
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Draw and label an animal cell.
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Draw and label the human digestive system.
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Draw directional selection.
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Draw disruptive selection.
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Draw how amino acids link by condensation reaction.
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Draw photosynthesis model.
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Draw stabilizing selection.
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Draw the mitosis phases.
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Draw the molecular structure of a ribose.
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Draw the molecular structure of an amino acid.
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Draw the molecular structures of alpha and beta glucose.
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Draw the ventilation system.
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Identify parts of a microscope.
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Identify parts of the cardiac conduction system.
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Identify parts of the heart.
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Klinefelter's Syndrome karyogram.
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Label a growing polypeptide chain.
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Label the cross section of the small intestine.
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Outline the general process of change from a DNA to protein.
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Turner's Syndrome karyogram.
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What is the equation for cellular respiration?
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What is the equation for photosynthesis?
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What part of heart has thickest wall? Thinnest wall?
Tick: left ventricle. Thin: right atrium.
What is the general function of coronary arteries?
To provide oxygen and nutrients to the muscles of the heart
Describe sex chromosomes.
X/Y. Females have XX and give only X; Males have XY and give X or Y. Males determine sex.
Annotate an ovum cell.
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Define DNA Gyrase.
(1) Negative supercoiling of double-stranded closed-circular DNA.
Define DNA Helicase.
(2) Unwinds helix and separates two strands by breaking H bonds between bases.
Define Single Stranded Binding Proteins.
(3) Holds separated strands apart so H bonds do not form and reattach before replication is completed.
Define DNA Primase.
(4) Adds RNA nucleotides to form a template to begin replication (DNA Polymerase III can only add nucleotides to a present 3' end).
Define DNA Polymerase III.
(5) Adds complementary DNA nucleotides to form a complementary strand that is identical to previous strand (AT:CG).
Define DNA Polymerase I.
(6) Replaces RNA template with DNA nucleotides.
Define DNA Ligase
(7) Fills in gaps at ends of DNA and between Okazaki fragments.
Define Okazaki Fragments.
(8) Dictates new DNA synthesis away from direction of replication.
Describe digestive enzymes (amylase, endopeptidase, lipase) using an example, substrate, product, and optimum pH.
*Amylase*: salivary, starch, maltose, pH 7 *Endopeptidase*: pepsin, polypeptide, small polypeptides, pH 1.5 *Lipase*: pancreatic acid, triglycerides (fats and oils), fatty acids and glycerol, pH 7-8
Draw a chart for respiration.
*Anaerobic Respiration*: Glucose ↓ Pyruvate ↓ Fermentation: no O₂, cytoplasm ↓ OR ↘ lactate (animal) OR ethanol + CO₂ (plant/yeast) *Aerobic Respiration*: Glucose ↓ Pyruvate ↓ With O₂, mitochondria ↙↓↘ CO₂ + MANY ATP + H₂O
What are agricultural benefits and risks of GM crops?
*Benefits* - Can be made to be resistant to drought or salt. - Non-herbicide resistant crops can be sprayed and eliminated so less competition. - Produced to be resistant to plant diseases caused by viruses. *Risks* - Crop spreads too much and unwanted crops cannot be controlled by herbicides. - Pests can evolve resistance to pesticide including non-targeted pests that were scarce but can now thrive. - Farmers cannot save and re-sow seeds from crops grown so strains adapted to local conditions cannot be developed, seeds engineered each generation.
What are health benefits and risks of GM crops?
*Benefits* - Increased nutritional value. - Natural allergens and toxins can be removed. - Possibility of putting vaccines in crops. *Risks* - Protein inserted could cause allergic reaction or toxic. - Antibiotic resistant genes could spread to bacteria and become resistant. - Mutation of genes could cause unexpected problems.
What are environmental benefits and risks of GM crops?
*Benefits* - Less insecticide used if a gene to make the toxin can be transferred to the plants. - Less fuel used by machinery due to reduced need for plowing and spraying. - Improved shelf life of fruit and vegetables. *Risks* - Non-target organisms could be affected. - Herbicide resistant plants could spread pollen to other crops making them resistant. - Decreased biodiversity.
Describe plasma and B memory cells.
*Both*: clonal selection cell types *Plasma*: antibody secretion into plasma *B memory*: rapid cloning into plasma cells when challenged to the same antigen
What are the functions of capillaries, arteries and veins? Do they have an outer layer, middle layer, inner layer, valves, other?
*Capillaries*: site of exchange between blood and body tissue; absent, absent, present, absent *Arteries*: carry blood under high pressure away from heart; present, thick, present, absent, pulmonary arteries contain oxygen poor blood *Veins*: carry blood under low pressure back to heart; present, thin, present, present; pulmonary veins contain oxygen rich blood
Compare carbohydrates and lipids in aspects of: 1) Energy storage. 2) Transport. 3) Breakdown. 4) Time.
*Carbohydrates*: 1) Less. 2) Water soluble. 3) Easy. 4) Short term. *Lipids*: 1) More. 2) Water insoluble. 3) Difficult. 4) Long term.
Compare cis and trans isomers of unsaturated fatty acids.
*Cis*: bent, less dense, liquid at room temperature (cis = same). *Trans*: not bent, more dense, solid at room temperature (trans = different).
Compare and contrast characteristics of skin and mucous membranes.
*Compare* Both: mechanical barrier, pathogens can penetrate breaks, contains biochemical defenses *Contrast* Skin: thick/strong, surface cells are dead, defends exposed areas, dry, never ciliated Mucus: thin/weak, surface cells are alive, defends internal areas leading to outside, moist, sometimes ciliated
Annotate the female reproductive system (*FRONT* view).
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Annotate the female reproductive system (*SIDE* view).
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Annotate the male reproductive system.
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Annotate the respiratory system, including a bronchiole.
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Compare spermatogenesis and oogenesis.
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Describe Watson-Crick's model.
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Describe the catalytic cycle of an enzyme.
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Down Syndrome karyogram.
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Draw Anaphase I.
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Draw Anaphase II.
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Draw Metaphase I.
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Draw Metaphase II.
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Draw Prophase I.
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Draw Prophase II.
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Draw Telophase I.
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Draw Telophase II.
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Define genome.
Whole genetic information of an organism.
Compare how plant cells and animal cells form.
*How plant cells form*: - Includes formation of cell plate that becomes the new cell wall between nuclei during cytokinesis. - No centrioles. - Spindle fibers spontaneously grow from opposite poles. *How animal cells form*: - Cells pinch together to form a cleavage furrow between nuclei during cytokinesis. - Have centrioles. - Spindle fibers do not grow spontaneously.
Compare inhalation and exhalation (regarding concentration gradient).
*Inhalation*: more O₂ in lungs than in capillaries so concentration gradient is established and gas exchange can occur *Exhalation*: more CO₂ in capillaries than in lungs so concentration gradient is established and gas exchange can occur
Compare internal and external fertilization.
*Internal*: male passes sperm into female's body where fertilization takes place (e.g mammals, reptiles, birds) *External*: female releases eggs and male puts sperm over them (e.g amphibians, most fish)
Compare Mitosis and Meiosis with regards to: a) When DNA replication occurs b) Number of divisions c) Number of daughter cells d) Role in animals
*Mitosis* a) During Interphase b) 1 c) 2 haploid, genetically identical d) Embryonic development, growth, tissue repair *Meiosis* a) During Interphase before Meiosis I b) 2 c) 4 haploid, genetically different d) Produces gametes, reduces number of chromosomes by half, genetic variation
Outline the movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the body.
*[Lungs: ventilation]* Air > O₂ into alveolus > *[Capillaries: gas exchange]* O₂ diffuses into lung capillaries > O₂ diffuses out of body capillary > *[Body cell: cell respiration]* O₂ is a reactant for aerobic cell respiration > CO₂ is a product of aerobic cell respiration > *[Capillaries: gas exchange]* CO₂ diffuses into body capillary > CO₂ diffuses out of lung capillary > *[Lungs: ventilation]* CO₂ out of alveolus > air
Compare blood in renal artery and renal vein. Why are they different?
- *Artery*: a) High oxygen, b) Low carbon dioxide, c) Slightly higher glucose, d) Higher urea, e) Same plasma protein, f) Varies sodium and chloride - *Vein*: a) Low oxygen, b) High carbon dioxide, c) Slightly lower glucose, d) About 20% lower urea, e) Nothing plasma protein, f) Always normal sodium and chloride - *Different*: a) Respiration for ATP in kidney, b) Respiration for ATP in kidney, c) Used in Respiration, d) Excreted in urine, e) Nothing, f) Kidney regulates levels
Describe fat and cholesterol.
- *Fat*: hydrophobic, not soluble, carried in lipoproteins, makes a single layer of phospholipids around the fat with non-polar acid tails inside and polar heads outside. - *Cholesterol*: not entirely soluble; same location as mentioned before.
Describe glucose and oxygen.
- *Glucose*: polar, soluble in water. - *Oxygen*: nonpolar but small size allows to dissolve slightly, only little amount in plasma so it must be carried in hemoglobin.
Compare saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids.
- *Saturated*: all possible hydrogens in a fatty acid chain, no hydrogen bonds. - *Monounsaturated*: one double bond between carbons on a chain. - *Polyunsaturated*: more than one double bond between carbons on a chain.
Describe sodium chloride and amino acids.
- *Sodium Chloride*: Na⁺ attracts O⁻ and Cl⁻ attracts H⁺ of water. - *Amino Acid*: +/- charges, dissolve in water, R group is either hydrophilic or hydrophobic.
What are structures of alveoli and their advantages?
- *Spherical shape*: larger surface area - *Single layer of flat cells*: type I pneumocytes, prevents diffusion through more layers - *Moist inner lining*: type II pneumocytes, allows efficient diffusion, reduces surface tension, prevents side of alveoli from adhering together - *Capillary bed nearby*: small distance of diffusion
What are functions of the male reproductive system?
- *Testes*: production of sperm and testosterone - *Epididymis*: sperm storage - *Vas deferens*: tube carries sperm from epididymis to abdominal cavity to ejaculatory duct - *Seminal vesicle*: pair of exocrine glands that store and produce liquid portion of semen - *Prostate*: produces large portion of fluid that makes up semen
Outline the three action potentials.
- A.P.I: Action potential is generated as Na ions flow in across membrane - A.P.II: Depolarization of first action potential spread to neighboring region of membrane, depolarizing it and initiating second action potential; at site of first potential membrane is repolarizing as K flows out - A.P.III: Third action potential follows, repolarizing; local currents cross membrane give rise to nerve impulse along axon
List examples of organisms that can clone.
- Bulb plants: leaves that produce enough food to grow a group of bulbs - Strawberry plant: growing horizontally and making plantlets that form roots to become a new identical plant 3) Hydra: budding
Describe coronary blockage.
- Causes: high blood sugar, smoking, high cholesterol, genetic factors - Consequences: coronary artery disease, chest pain, high blood pressure, diabetes, death - If plaque raptures, coronary thrombosis forms and blocks coronary artery; this can cause the heart to beat in an uncoordinated way, called fibrillation, and may result in a heart attack
Describe emphysema.
- Causes: smoking, air pollution - Consequences: mucus (coughing and wheezing), increased thickness of alveolar walls (less gas exchange), loss of lung elasticity (difficult to exhale) - Other: toxins cause inflammation and release an enzyme that breaks elastic fibers
Describe lung cancer.
- Causes: smoking, passive smoking, air pollution, radon gas, silica dust - Consequences: difficulty breathing, persistent cough, chest pain, loss of appetite, weight loss, death
Consequences of dehydration? Consequences of overhydration?
- Dehydration: Thirst, dark urine, lethargy, raised heart rate, low blood pressure, severe cases (seizure, brain damage, death) - Overhydration: Confusion, delirium, drowsiness, blurred vision, muscle cramps, nausea, severe cases (seizure, coma, death)
Compare diploid and haploid cells.
- Diploid (2n): nuclei with pair of homologous chromosomes - Haploid (1n): nuclei with one of each pair of chromosomes
Describe the inner medulla.
- Extends into medulla, salt ions make it hypertonic. - Descending: reabsorption of water. - Ascending: reabsorption of salt ions.
Outline how Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) affects body.
- HIV attaches to lymphocytes and takes over nucleic acid and protein synthesis. Helper T-cells are lymphocytes responsible for communicating that cells need to be cloned and begin antibody production. If they die, communicating stops and antibodies are not produced so the individual can no longer fight pathogens as efficiently - AIDS is transmitted by body fluids (through small cuts or tears, sexual intercourse, traces of blood on hypodermic needles across placenta of through cuts during childbirth, blood transfusions by one not tested for blood-borne diseases)
List some medical products from rDNA technology.
- Human insulin: diabetes. - Hepatitis B vaccine: immunization. - Whooping cough vaccine: immunization. - Factor III: hemophilia.
Annotate elbow structure.
- Humerus: upper arm bone - Synovial membrane: encloses joint capsule and produces synovial fluid - Synovial fluid: reduces friction and absorbs pressure - Ulna: radius levers in flexion and extension of arm - Cartilage: red living tissue that reduces friction at joints - Ligaments: connect bone to bone and produce stability at joint
Outline the functions of villi.
- Increase surface area of epithelium - Microvilli project from villi to further increase surface area - Absorbs monomers, mineral ions, and vitamins by one thin layer of cells to make absorption easier - Protein channels in membrane of microvilli allow for absorption through facilitated diffusion and pumps for active transport - Blood capillaries are superficial to decrease distance - Lacteal from lymphatic system in center of villus is superficial to carry fats away after absorption
Outline the Endosymbiotic Theory.
- Mitochondria and chloroplasts share similar characteristics so it is believed that prokaryotes were engulfed by eukaryotes during endocytosis (instead of being digested they became an organelle of a eukaryote). - Characteristics: smaller 70S ribosomes; makes proteins; transcribe DNA and use mRNA for circular DNA; similar size and shape; binary fission; double membrane. - Valuable: ability to produce organic molecules and make ATP.
Describe vaccination (immunization).
- Modified pathogens (antigen) with reduced danger effects because they are dead or weakened; carry pathogen antigens and stimulate clonal selection and development of immunological memory but without symptoms - B memory cells result from primary response - Infection with disease-causing organism is secondary response (rapid recovery shows little if any sign of infection)
What are ways of creating variation within a species?
- Mutations: makes new alleles and the gene pool greater - Meiosis: crossing over during prophase I allows for new combinations of alleles; independent assortment during metaphase I allows for new combinations of chromosomes - Sexual reproduction: combination of alleles from different individuals and mutations can be brought together
Describe mucus.
- Primary defense, good barrier - Blocks non-specific pathogens in trachea, nose, urethra, and vagina - Produce sticky substance that traps pathogens, cilia move trapped pathogens up and out of trachea - Cells that secrete mucus also secrete enzyme lysozyme that chemically damages pathogens
Describe skin.
- Primary defense, good barrier - Tough, secretes acidic oils that prevent growth of most bacteria - Outer layer or epidermis is mostly dead cells preventing contact with live cells
Concentrations in protein, glucose, urea with/out ADH: a) Amount in blood plasma in mg/100 ml (glomerulous) b) Fluid entering proximal tubule in mg/100 ml (filtrate) c) Taken to bladder in mg/100 ml (urine)
- Protein: >700, 0, 0 - Glucose: >90, >90, 0 - Urea with/out ADH: 30, 30, 1800/180
Describe phagocytes.
- Secondary defense - Recognize whether pathogen is "self" (to be left alone) or "not-self" (identity of pathogen has not been established and must be engulfed) by proteins on its surface - Contain lysosomes that chemically digests what it engulfs
Describe the proximal convoluted tubule.
- Site of most re-absorption: thin surface has microvilli for increased surface area. - Active transportation of salt and glucose: most salt is reabsorbed to capillaries after active transport from tubule, all glucose reabsorbed actively to accommodate high volume; passive transportation too slow so if volume of glucose is too high then active transport is unable to keep up and results in presence of glucose in urine. - Passive transportation of water or osmosis: movement of salt results in hypertonic solution outside of tubule and hypotonic solution inside. Water moves from hypotonic to hypertonic. Salt ion movement causes water to follow.
Describe the distal convoluted tubule.
- Site of water re-absorption. - If not re-absorbed, must increase water intake because too much would be lost
Describe the glomerulus.
- Ultrafilters blood. - Narrower than afferent arteriole so pressure builds in glomerulus. High pressure opens fenestrations (small slits) in capillaries. Fluid goes through basement membrane of Bowman's Capsule where larger molecules (proteins) are kept from becoming part of filtrate. Filtrate goes to proximal convoluted tubule.
Describe the collecting duct.
- Water re-absorption based on presence of Anti-Diuretic Hormone. - ADH targets collecting duct and increases permeability which increases water movement to hypertonic medulla (see Loop of Henle) of kidney and later back to blood. Good for retaining water when dehydrated. - No ADH = no permeability = dilute urine.
Outline properties of water.
1) *Cohesion*: ability of water molecules to stick to one another, result of H bonds. 2) *Adhesion*: ability of water molecule to stick to other substances, result of H bonds. 3) *High specific heat*: large amount of energy is needed to heat or cool water, helps organisms and global temperature stay stable, result of H bonds. 4) *High heat of vaporization*: large amount of heat is needed to evaporate water; heat is absorbed by water and is released when hydrogen bonds are broken causing sweat or cooling effect; result of H bonds. 5) *High boiling point*: water is liquid over a broad range of temperature since it takes a lot of energy to heat it, result of H bonds. 6) *Solvent*: many substances dissolve in water and are easily transported; allow metabolic reactions to occur; result of dipolarity.
Describe three types of carbohydrates.
1) *Monosaccharides*: single sugar molecule, monomer. 2) *Disaccharides*: two sugar molecules formed by condensation reaction. 3) *Polysaccharides*: many sugar molecules formed by condensation reaction, polymer.
Outline in vitro fertilization (IVF).
1) *S*top normal menstrual cycle: with drugs 2) *H*ormone treatments to develop follicles: FSH stimulate follicle growth; HCG allows follicle maturation 3) *E*xtract eggs: from follicles 4) *S*perm selected: processed and concentrated 5) *F*ertilization occurs: eggs and sperm mixed in Petri dish 6) *I*mplantation: multiple embryos into uterus 7) *T*est for pregnancy: to see if implantation successful 8) Used in cases of blocked oviduct or low sperm count *SHES-FIT*
Example: H is normal and h is hemophilia. A homozygous normal female has a child from a male that has hemophilia. 1) What is the chance that the child will be afflicted? 2) Be a carrier?
1) 0%, 2) 50.
What is the genome size (million base pairs) of the following? 1) T2 phage virus. 2) E Coli. 3) Fruit fly. 4) Human. 5) Woodland plant.
1) 0.18. 2) 5. 3) 140. 4) 3,000. 5) 150,000.
1) How many possible combinations of amino acids? 2) How many peptide bonds are in a polypeptide? 3) How many nucleotides in one amino acid?
1) 20ⁿ, n=#aa, 20 different aa. 2) n-1, n=#aa, one peptide bond between two aa. 3) 3n, n=#aa, one aa is three nucleotides which is one codon.
How many genes do the following have? 1) Human. 2) Mouse. 3) Roundworm. 4) Chicken. 5) Fruit Fly. 6) E Coli. 7) Yeast. 8) Rice. 9) Grape. 10) Bread Wheat.
1) 23000. 2) 25000. 3) 19000. 4) 17000. 5) 14000. 6) 4000. 7) 6000. 8) 41000. 9) 30500. 10) 100000.
Example: B is normal vision and b is color blindness. XBXb is a carrier female for color blindness. She marries a man that is color blind XbY. 1) What percent of children will be color blind? 2) What percent will be carriers?
1) 50%, 2) 25%.
1) Define clade. 2) Define cladistics.
1) A group of organisms that evolved from a common ancestor and are determined by the base sequences of a gene to its amino acid sequence on a protein 2) Method of classification that groups organisms according to recently evolved characteristics
1) Define natural selection. 2) Does this increase variation in a population?
1) A process in which individuals with certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than others due to those traits 2) No
1) Define homeostasis. 2) Identify endocrine system. 3) What are ways of maintaining homeostasis?
1) Ability to maintain internal environment within constant/narrow limits 2) See image. 3) Blood glucose concentration, temperature, blood pH, water/solute balance, CO₂ concentration
Outline sliding filament theory.
1) Action potential moves through T tubules causing release of calcium from muscle sarcoplasmic reticulum 2) Tropomyosin blocks myosin binding site on actin; calcium helps expose binding site on actin by binding to troponin so it moves tropomyosin 3) Myosin heads bind to actin and form cross bridges 4) Myosin heads swivel and move (power stroke) actin filaments toward center of sarcomere (sliding of filaments shortens the sarcomere) 5) ATP binds to myosin heads releasing them and breaking cross bridges. ATP is hydrolysed/split into ADP + Pi 6) Energy from split causes myosin head to change shape
Outline Miller-Urey's experiment.
1) Added elements thought to be present in atmosphere and oceans of pre-biotic earth (H₂, N₂, CO₂, H₂O, NH₃ ammonia, CH₄ methane). 2) Added electrical discharges to simulate "lightning" as catalyse. 3) Produced organic amino acid molecules found in the "soup". 4) Led to later experiments that produced adenine (present in DNA, RNA, and ATP).
1) Define proteomes. 2) Explain emergent properties.
1) All proteins produced by the cell, tissue, or organism. 2) Different cells make different proteins and differ over time based on cell's activities.
Outline non-competitive inhibition.
1) Allosteric enzyme has binding site(s) other than the active site, causing them to alternate between active and inactive (form). 2) Non-competitive inhibitor binds to allosteric site, changing the shape of active site; they do not compete with substrate for the active site. 3) End-product can inhibit enzyme needed for early step in metabolic pathway (negative feedback). 4) Inhibition is reversible.
1) What is lactase? How is it obtained? 2) Monosaccharides of lactose (galactose and glucose) are better than lactose for what reasons?
1) An enzyme that breaks down lactose (milk sugar); obtained from cultures of K. lactis yeast, which grows naturally in milk, and extracted then purified. 2) Lactose-reduced milk for people who are lactose-intolerant (improves digestion of milk), galactose and glucose are sweeter than lactose so less sugar is needed to sweeten foods, smoother ice cream as lactose crystalizes, ferments more quickly for yogurt and cottage cheese.
Outline anaerobic respiration.
1) Anaerobic respiration produces two ATP from glucose breakdown in glycolysis, but no more ATP is made during fermentation. 2) When animals are unable to get enough O₂ to fuel muscles during exercise, lactate is produced to allow anaerobic respiration to continue making two ATP to power muscle contractions. 3) Yeast uses available O₂ but once used it respires anaerobically; production of CO₂ is important as it forms bubbles to make the dough rise, ethanol is produced and later evaporates.
What is the taxa for the following (from kingdom to species)? 1) Humans 2) Gray wolves 3) Date palms 4) Cost redwood trees
1) Animalia > Chordata > Mammalia > Primate > Hominidae > Homo > sapiens 2) Animalia > Chordata > Mammalia > Carnivora > Canidea > Canis > lupus 3) Plantae > Angiospermaphyta > Monocotyledoneae > Palmales > Arecaceae > Phoenix > dactylifera 4) Plantae > Coniferophyta > Pinopsida > Pinales > Taxodiaceae > Sequoia > sempervirens
Outline the role of antibiotics.
1) Block metabolic pathways of prokaryotic cells (bacteria) by inhibiting protein synthesis or preventing a new cell wall from forming 2) Newly formed antibodies circulate in blood to find antigen match (proteins of pathogen) 3) Antibody binds to the antigen and binds them to other antigens (agglutination) 4) This concentrates the antigen and makes it easier to engulf by phagocyte 5) Binding of antibodies may inactivate the antigen directly
Describe kidney failure (hemodialysis).
1) Blood from patient's arm goes through tubing in a machine 2) Tubing surrounded by fluid with specific concentrations of sodium, glucose, water 3) Urea, salt, waste diffuses from blood into fluid and water leaves by osmosis 4) Blood is returned to vein once temperature is checked 5) Fluid is renewed to make sure concentrations are consistent 6) Complete kidney failure requires kidney transplant from matching donor
Outline the action of the heart.
1) Blood is collected in atria 2) Walls of atria contract, pushing blood past atria-ventricular valves which are forced open 3) Blood fills the ventricle because semilunar valves are closed 4) Atria relax 5) Walls of ventricles contract, forcing atria-ventricular valves closed to prevent backflow 6) This forces semilunar valves open, allowing blood flow into arteries 7) At same time, blood is being collected in atria from veins 8) Ventricles relax while pressure in arteries force semilunar valves closed to prevent backflow
1) What color light do plants absorb the most? What color is transmitted? 2) What are the frequencies for Chlorophyll A and B?
1) Blue and red are absorbed; green is reflected back. 2) Chlorophyll A (violet 400-450 nm & red 650-700 nm); Chlorophyll B (blue 450-500 nm & orange 600-650 nm).
List examples of adaptations for the following animals: 1) Nine-banded armadillo 2) Owls 3) Polar bear 4) Snowshoe hare
1) Body armor, camouflage, can roll into a ball 2) Silent wings, large eyes for depth perception and night vision, flexible necks, sharp talons 3) Hump-over shoulders for catching large prey, white fur, snowshoe feet 4) White fur, snowshoe feet
1) Acids can be (polar/nonpolar). 2) What dictates the structure? 3) How do they arrange? Why is this important?
1) Both. 2) Sequence of amino acids and position of hydrophilic/polar or hydrophobic/nonpolar molecules. 3) Nonpolar ones face away from water (near fatty acids) and polar ones face water; contribute to arrangement of membrane proteins.
1) Outline the taxa for eukaryotes. 2) If two organisms share the same order, they will also share the same (these).
1) Broad to specific: Domain > Kingdom > Phylum > Class > Order > Family > Genus > Species (Does Kevin Play Classic Or Folk Guitar Songs) 2) Same domain, kingdom, phylum, class
1) Define adaptations. 2) (This) shows variation, but more so seen in (this). 3) Why are adaptations good? 4) There is a progressive change as useful characteristics and/or alleles (increase/decrease) in frequency while less useful ones (increase/decrease) in frequency. 5) What results from this?
1) Characteristics developed by natural selection that makes an individual more suited to its environment 2) Species; sexually reproducing species 3) Adaptations give certain members of the population an advantage and enable them to live longer, have more offspring, and pass said characteristic to their offspring 4) Increase; decrease 5) Evolution
1) What is the Genetic Code made up of? Is the genetic code universal? 2) What is the cause of the change in base ratios when comparing DNA and RNA bases?
1) Codons composed of triplet bases; yes (found in all organisms). 2) DNA is made entirely of a double helix while RNA is made of a single helix.
Outline Meiosis II.
1) Consists of Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase II (like mitosis but with haploid cells) 2) The DNA replicated in Interphase prior to Meiosis I. Chromosomes remain replicated here until sister chromatids separate in Anaphase II 3) Results in 4 daughter cells each with haploid nuclei
Describe biochemical molecular clocks: 1) Mutations occur at what rate? 2) Mutations accumulate gradually over time, resulting in a number of differences between two organisms. How can this be determined? 3) The number of differences can be used to deduce what?
1) Constant 2) Mitochondrial DNA 3) How long ago the two separated from a common ancestor
Outline the control of the heartbeat.
1) Control of the heartbeat is involuntary (reflex) 2) Medulla of the brain controls involuntary actions 3) Heart receives impulses from this region via two nerves: Cardiac stimulates the heart rate to increase and Vagus triggers heart rate to slow down (these nerves only influence rate of heartbeat and do not cause heartbeat) 4) Epinephrine is a hormone carried in blood to the pacemaker that increases the rate 5) Pacemaker, epinephrine, and nerves all affect heart rate
Outline DNA sequencing.
1) Copies of DNA to be sequenced are put into a test tube with all of the materials needed for replication (nucleotides and enzymes). 2) A few dideoxyribonucleosides are added that are labeled with fluorescent markers. 3) When these are added to the strand during replication, process stops and marker color will indicate which base is in that position. 4) Different lengths are separated by gel electrophoresis until each nucleotide is identified and its compliment makes up the sequence.
Give evidence of health risks from bad fats.
1) Correlation between trans/saturated fat diets and coronary heart disease. 2) High saturated fats + low carbohydrates = no rise in LDLs (but low saturated fats + high carbohydrates = rise in LDLs). 3) Diets high in cis/unsaturated fats = low rates of heart disease.
1) Define cladogram. 2) What do cladograms show? 3) Traditional methods based on what resulted in inaccurate groups from an evolution perspective? 4) How were groups reclassified?
1) Diagrams dividing clades into separate branches 2) Classification based on structure did not correspond to evolutionary origins 3) Morphology 4) On base and amino acid sequences
1) How can amino acids create a variety of polypeptides? 2) How many different amino acids are there? 3) What dictates variation?
1) Different combinations of amino acids link together in a chain. 2) 20. 3) Length of the polypeptide.
1) Where are fossils found? 2) What are fossils able to link?
1) Different layers of Earth in the sequence expected to evolve 2) Existing forms of organisms with their likely ancestor
Outline the characteristics of RNA as the original genetic material.
1) Early cells needed molecules that could form polypeptides to catalyze reactions and replicate. 2) RNA can do these things: can synthesize tRNA and rRNA to form polypeptides. 3) RNA makes up structure of ribosomes and allows for protein synthesis; polypeptides can be modified into enzymes to catalyze reactions. 4) Short sequences of RNA are able to copy other RNA molecules; if certain enzymes are present RNA can form DNA.
What are advantages of natural classification?
1) Easier identification of species (when an organism is found but the species is not obvious) 2) Similar characteristics because species evolved from a common ancestor (helpful in predicting characteristics)
1) What affects gene expression? 2) Explain how methyl group locks genes. 3) Describe methylation.
1) Environment (e.g UV exposure). 2) Addition of a methyl group to DNA (in animals it is typically cytosine) or methylation locks genes in the "off" position and affects transcription. 3) Affected by the environment and varies in life.
List examples of proteins and their functions: 1) Rubisco 2) Insulin 3) Immunoglobin 4) Rhodopsin 5) Collagen 6) Spider silk
1) Enzyme (attaches to CO₂ for photosynthesis). 2) Hormone (reduces blood glucose). 3) Antibody (of the immune system). 4) Membrane protein (rod cells in retina). 5) Structure and support (rope-like proteins in tendons and ligaments). 6) Tensile strength (stronger than steel).
What is the function of the following and how many polypeptide(s) do each have? 1) Lysozyme 2) Integrin 3) Collagen 4) Hemoglobin
1) Enzyme, 1. 2) Membrane protein, 2. 3) In tendons/ligaments, 3. 4) Carry O₂ in RBC, 4.
Concentration affects enzyme: 1) The more (this and this), the more products are made. 2) Mutual increase is not (this). If enzymes and substrates are plentiful, what happens? 3) Draw the graph and label the point of saturation. What is happening here and why?
1) Enzymes and substrates. 2) Exponential; while substrates bind to active site, it blocks other substrates from binding. 3) See graph. Enzyme activity will plateau as only a certain number of products are made when all enzymes are working at any time.
1) Why are enzymes considered evidence for vitalism? 2) What are immobilized enzymes? 3) What are some advantages of immobilized enzymes?
1) Enzymes can be taken from living things and used outside of the organism. 2) Attached to another materials to restrict movement. 3) Easily separated, reusable, controls temperature and pH, speeds up reaction rate (by exposing substrates to a large amount of enzymes for more reactions).
1) Define speciation. 2) What may occur?
1) Evolution of a new species when an existing population is split, leading to reproductive isolation 2) Each resultant population may be acted on by natural selection, leading to changes in each groups' allele frequency over time until they can no longer interbreed
Outline the role of hormones in the menstrual cycle.
1) FSH (pituitary gland) stimulates development of follicles; follicles stimulate estrogen secretion 2) Estrogen (ovary) stimulates repair of uterine lining from last cycle as well as LH secretion 3) LH (pituitary gland) causes ovulation and follicle to develop into corpus luteum after ovulation 4) Corpus luteum secretes estrogen and progesterone (follicle of ovary); these hormones combined inhibit LH and FSH (negative feedback) 5) Estrogen thickens uterus (endometrium) while progesterone maintains thickening for implantation 6) Endometrium lost causes menstrual bleeding; falling progesterone levels signal for FSH production and starts again (feedback)
What molecules are absorbed: 1) Simple diffusion? 2) Facilitated diffusion? 3) Active transport? 4) Endocytosis?
1) Fat soluble products (fatty acids, monoglycerides) 2) Hydrophilic products (monosaccharides) 3) Mineral ions (Na+, Ca+, Fe III) 4) Cholesterol in lipoproteins
Why do organisms carry out digestion?
1) Food may contain substances that are unsuitable for human tissue and must be broken down and reassembled into a more appropriate form 2) Many molecules are too large and must be broken down by hydrolysis to form monomers in preparation for absorption by passive and active transport; cellulose from plants remains undigested (lack certain enzymes) 3) This process would happen naturally at body temperature, but slower; enzymes increase the rate of breakdown while maintaining a normal body temperature
1) What taxon should have a common ancestor? 2) Unnatural classification is the result of what kind of evolution? 3) What three things are classified together because they can each fly? What does this say about their ancestors? 4) What two things were once classified together because of the presence of cell walls? What does this say about their ancestors?
1) Genus or higher 2) Convergent evolution 3) Birds, bats, and insects; evolved from separate ancestors 4) Plants and fungi; molecular research shows they are different and cell walls evolved from separate ancestors
1) Define enzymes. 2) Define active site. 3) What do enzyme reactions require?
1) Globular proteins that have an active site. 2) Where substrates bind onto the enzyme to form an enzyme-substrate complex; amino acids responsible for catalytic activity bind onto here. 3) Motion and collision between substrates and active sites.
Outline aerobic respiration.
1) Glucose converted to pyruvate by glycolysis (PLOA). 2) Pyruvate enters mitochondria and is converted to acetyl CoA (NADH and CO2 formed). 3) Acetyl group (minus CoA) enter the Krebs Cycle. 4) FAD and NAD+ accept hydrogen to form FADH2 and NADH. 5) FADH2 and NADH donate H to electron transport chain. 6) Electrons release energy as they pass along chain. 7) Oxygen is final electron acceptor and produces water. 8) Protons pumped across inner membrane to build proton gradient. 9) Protons diffuse into matrix of mitochondria through ATP synthase to produce ATP. 10) About 36 ATP produced per glucose.
What are some substances and their indications in a urine test?
1) Glucose or ketones: uncontrolled diabetes 2) Amino acids or proteins: inflammation of kidneys 3) Red blood cells: kidney stones or blockage 4) HCG: pregnancy 5) Steroids, drugs, alcohol: illegal drug use in sports or driving
1) What are the good and bad cholesterols? 2) What fats increase LDL and decrease HDL levels? 3) High LDL levels in the blood can increase one's risk of getting what?
1) HDL (good), LDL (bad). 2) Trans and saturated fats. 3) Coronary heart disease.
1) What do mammals have that chordates do not have? 2) What do they have in common?
1) Hair 2) Spinal cords
1) Define analogous structures. 2) What is an example of this?
1) Have different structures but similar functions 2) Bat, butterfly, and bird wings
1) Define homologous structures. 2) What do they have in common? 3) What is an example of this?
1) Have similar structures but different functions 2) Genes from a common ancestor 3) Pentadactyl limbs
Outline the role of the pacemaker.
1) Heartbeat originates from the muscle of the heart (myogenic) 2) When one muscle cell contracts, it stimulates those around it to also contract 3) This is initiated by the pacemaker in wall of right atrium, SA node, with special muscle fibers radiating signals to both atria 4) AV node picks up the stimulation and passes it to ventricles to trigger their contraction
1) What is denaturation caused by? What is the consequence? 2) What process can cause a protein to permanently lose its properties?
1) Heat (NOT cold), changes in pH; Breakdown of the protein alters its structure and thus its function and makes it work slower. 2) Hydrolysis.
Outline thyroxine production.
1) Hypothalamus secretes thyroid releasing hormone (TRH) to pituitary gland 2) Pituitary gland releases thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) to thyroid 3) Thyroid releases thyroxine (T4) which regulates metabolism and controls body temperature 4) Skin arterioles: vasoconstriction (cold) or vasodilation (hot) to divert blood, which carries heat, between internal organs and skin
Temperature affects enzyme: 1) Heat (increases / decreases) the movement of molecules. 2) Both enzymes and substrates will have a greater chance of colliding, and enzyme activity will (increase / decrease). 3) As the enzyme continues to heat, what will occur? 4) Thus, the active site will be altered. What will happen to the enzyme activity? 5) Draw and label a graph.
1) Increase. 2) Increase. 3) Denaturation. 4) Enzyme activity will fall and may stop altogether. 5) See image.
Outline the role of antagonistic muscles in an insect leg.
1) Leg fully flexed and prepared to jump 2) Flexor muscles relaxed; energy stored in tendon and extensor muscle is extended to propel insect in air
Outline the production of antibodies.
1) Macrophage engulfs antigen 2) Antigen is presented on the membrane of the macrophage 3) Helper T-cells bind to antigen on macrophage and are activated 4) Activated Helper T-cells bind and activate B-cells 5) There may be multiple antigens, therefore multiple B-cells 6) B-cells clone by mitosis into plasma cells and memory cells 7) Plasma cells produce antibodies specific to the antigen 8) Memory cells provide long-term immunity by responding with antibodies stronger and faster if the same antigen is present again later
Outline how to analyze a pedigree chart. 1) Determine if pedigree shows sex-linkage. 2) If both parents are affected and child is unaffected, what is the allele? 3) If both parents are unaffected and child is affected, what is the allele?
1) More male OR female affected. 2) Dominant. 3) Recessive.
Outline Meselson-Stahl's experiment.
1) N15 is heavier than N14. 2) Bacteria were cultured until 100% were N15 DNA. 3) After 1 generation, 100% were an intermediate mass (eliminating conservative model). 4) After 2 generations, 50% were intermediate and 50% light (eliminating dispersive model). 5) Each generation had either an intermediate mass OR light with nothing in between (supports semi-conservative model).
Outline features for the following *plants* (roots, leaves/stems, vascular tissue, spore location, shrubs/trees, reproduction): 1) Bryophyta (moss) 2) Filicinophyta (ferns) 3) Coniferophyta (conifers) 4) Angiospermophyta (flowering plants)
1) No roots, simple leaves/stems, no vascular tissue, spores at end of stalk 2) Roots, pinnate leaves and non-woody stems, vascular tissue present, spores on underside of leaves 3) Shrubs/trees with roots, leaves with thick waxy cuticle and woody stems, female cones (seeds), male cones (pollen) 4) Usually have roots, leaves and stems, shrubs/trees, vascular tissue present, seeds from ovules in ovaries where fruit develops, disperse seeds
Outline features for the following *invertebrate animals* (symmetry, mouth/anus, physical aspects): 1) Porifera (sponges) 2) Cnidaria (hydra, jellyfish, coral) 3) Platyhelminthes (flatworm, tapeworm) 4) Annelida (marine worm, leech) 5) Arthropoda (insects, crustaceans, spiders) 6) Mollusca (snails, octopus, squid) 7) Chordata (fish)
1) No symmetry, attached to surface, pores, no mouth or anus 2) Radial symmetry, tentacles, stinging cells, mouth but no anus 3) Bilateral symmetry, flat bodies, unsegmented, mouth but no anus 4) Bilateral symmetry, bristles, segmented, mouth and anus 5) Bilateral symmetry, exoskeleton, segmented, joint appendages 6) Muscular foot and mantle, usually has shell, segmentation not visible, mouth and anus 7) Notochord, dorsal nerve chord, gill slits, post-anal tail
Outline glycolysis.
1) Occurs in cytoplasm. 2) Glucose phosphorylated by ATP. 3) Glucose phosphate is split into two triose phosphates. 4) Oxidation by removal of H, converting NAD to NADH (+H+). 5) Net gain of two ATP and pyruvate produced.
Be able to predict phenotypic and genotypic ratios of offspring of dihybrid crosses involving unlinked autosomal genes. Find the ratios for the following: 1) AaBB x aaBb 2) AaBb x AaBb
1) P (1:1) G (1:1:1:1) 2) P (9:3:3:1) G (1:2:2:4:1:2:1:2:1)
Outlines features of the following *vertebrate animals* (skin, lung, fertilization, reproduction, teeth): 1) Amphibians 2) Birds 3) Bony fish 4) Mammals 5) Reptiles
1) Permeable skin, lungs (small internal folds), external fertilization in water, protective gel on eggs, larval stage lives in water 2) Feathers, lungs (peribronchial tubes), wings instead of front legs, hard shells around eggs, beak (no teeth) 3) Scales, single-slit gills, swim bladder (buoyancy), external fertilization 4) Hairs, lungs (alveoli), birth to live young, mammary glands (secrete milk), teeth of all kinds 5) Dry scaly impermeable skin, lungs (external folds), internal fertalization, soft shells around eggs, one type of teeth
Outline a light-dependent reaction.
1) Photosystem II absorbs light. 2) Photolysis uses light to split water to O and H. 3) Electron raised to higher energy level (photoactivated). 4) Electron passed from photosystem II to carriers causing pumping of protons into thylakoid. 5) Proton gradient used by ATP synthase to produce ATP (photophosphorylation). 6) Electron passes to photosystem I where it is re-excited (photoactivated) and emitted by photosystem I. 7) Electron used to reduce NADP+ to NADPH. 8) Cyclic phosphorylation uses photosystem I, electron carriers, and ATP synthase only.
Gene pool barriers: 1) Describe geographic isolation. 2) Describe hybrid infertility. 3) Describe temporal isolation. 4) Describe behavioral isolation.
1) Physical barrier that separates possible mates 2) Failure to produce functional gametes or reach sexual maturity 3) Different breeding times 4) Difference in mating rituals
1) Define negative feedback. 2) What is an example?
1) Physiological changes that bring value back to its set point 2) Thermostat and air conditioning (thermostat detects room getting too hot so signals air conditioning to turn on to cool room > thermostat detects room getting too cool from air conditioning being on and signals air to turn off so the room warms a bit)
Outline recombinant DNA.
1) Plasmid is removed from bacterium. 2) Restriction endonuclease cuts open section of DNA from plasmid. 3) Restriction endonuclease cuts out a section from DNA of another organism. 4) This DNA can be added to the plasmid and spliced together by DNA Ligase. 5) rDNA can be inserted into host organism and cloned for gene's effect.
Outline process of blood clotting.
1) Platelets release proteins or clotting factors into plasma 2) Clotting factors turn inactive enzyme Prothrombin into active Thrombin 3) Thrombin turns soluble plasma protein Fibrinogen into insoluble fibrous Fibrin 4) Fibrin forms net by binding platelets and blood cells to form solid clot for wound
1) What can affect only humans? 2) What can affect only dogs? 3) What can cross the species barrier (zoonosis)?
1) Polio, syphilis, smallpox, measles 2) Canine distemper virus 3) Lyme disease, West Nile virus, bird flu, bubonic plaque, yellow fever
Outline the process of immunity memory.
1) Primary exposure to antigen with resulting clonal selection and antibody production, individual will develop symptoms 2) Recovered from infection, level of plasma antibodies is raised and protects from short term re-infection, significant number of B memory cells present in lymph nodes 3) Second infection with same antigen 4) Rapid production of antibodies to higher levels due to increased probability of antigen encountering specific B memory lymphocyte
Outline monoclonal antibodies.
1) Produce antibodies on a large scale 2) Specific B cell is selected that can produce the required antibody 3) An animal (rat) is injected with antigen to produce desired B cells 4) Tumor cell is selected which is capable of endless cell division 5) B cell and tumor cell are joined together (hybridized) 6) Resulting hybridoma can synthesize large quantities of antibodies for use in various technologies
Outline oogenesis.
1) Production of female gametes 2) Begins during fetal development as large number of oogonia form by mitosis 3) Oogonia start cell growth and become primary oocytes 4) Primary oocytes begin first meiotic division but stop at Prophase I until puberty 5) At puberty, FSH causes some follicles to develop each month (ovulation) 6) Primary oocyte completes first meiotic division and forms two cells; uneven distribution of cytoplasm causes one cell to be larger than other, smaller cell has polar body and degenerates 7) Larger cell is secondary oocyte that proceeds to Meiosis II but stops at Prophase II 8) Secondary oocyte completes Meiosis II only if it is fertilized; if so, ovum and second polar body are formed
Describe the following: 1) bone/exoskeleton, 2) muscle, 3) tendon, 4) ligament, 5) nerve, 6) synovial joint.
1) Provides anchorage for muscle, acts as lever 2) Provides force, causes movement 3) Attaches muscle to bone 4) Attaches bone to bone 5) Carries impulses to muscles, stimulates and coordinates muscle contractions 6) Each type allows certain movements but not others, may allow forward and back but not side to side or rotation
1) Define mutation. 2) What are oncogenes? 3) What gene affects the cell cycle? 4) What can cause uncontrolled cell division and tumors? 5) What kind of correlation is shared between smoking and cancer?
1) Random changes in the base sequence of DNA caused by mutagens. 2) Cancer (can form after a mutation). 3) Oncogenes. 4) Mutations. 5) Positive correlation.
1) What is the mitotic index? 2) What is the equation?
1) Ratio between number of cells in mitosis (PMAT) and total number of cells. 2) Index = # mitotic cells ÷ # total cells × 100.
Outline functions of noncoding DNA sequences.
1) Regulators of Gene Expression (Promoters). 2) Introns: cut out between transcription and translation. 3) Telomeres: repetitive ends of eukaryotic chromosomes, protect end genes since replication does not go all the way. 4) Genes for tRNA are used in translation and protein synthesis.
Outline systemic and pulmonary circulation.
1) Right atrium 2) Atrium-ventricular valve 3) Right ventricle 4) Semilunar valve 5) Pulmonary artery 6) Lungs 7) Pulmonary vein 8) Left atrium 9) Atrium-ventricular valve 10) Left ventricle 11) Semilunar valve 12) Aorta/arteries 13) Tissues 14) Vena cava/veins
Outline a light-independent reaction.
1) Rubisco fixes CO₂ to RuBP (carboxylation of RuBP) to make glycerate 3-phosphate (G3P). 2) G3P becomes reduced to triose phosphate using NADPH and ATP. 3) Triose phosphate is emitted for synthesis of complex carbohydrate. 4) ATP used to regenerate triose phosphates back into RuBP.
1) Describe leptin. 2) How was leptin tested?
1) Secreted by adipose tissue (fat) and acts on hypothalamus to inhibit appetite 2) Treatment of obese mice (if injected leptin, eating decreased); testing on humans (unsuccessful because humans lack hormone receptors for leptin)
1) Describe melatonin. 2) How does the signal move?
1) Secreted by pineal gland and controls circadian rhythms; stimulated by darkness and inhibited by light 2) Signal goes from eye to hypothalamus > supra-chiasmatic nucleus (SCN) or "biological clock" sends signals to the pineal gland
1) Label the hormones in a menstrual flow chart. 1) Estrogen has a (+/-) feedback effect. Why? 2) What is the first half of the phase called? Second half?
1) See image. 1) Positive feedback, to raise levels of LH and FSH for ovulation 2) Follicular Phase, Luteal Phase
1) Define selective breeding. 2) Domestic animals have not always existed in their current form. Why is this important? 3) If one can breed selected traits (this), nature can do the same (that). 4) Charles Darwin gathered evidence of the evolution of domesticated animals and has proven what?
1) Selecting traits that are most beneficial and repeatedly breeding animals with these traits 2) This shows that selection can cause evolution 3) Artificially, naturally 4) That despite differences in domesticated animals, the relationship between breeds can show how sexual reproduction causes species to change
Structural level of proteins: 1) Describe the primary group. 2) Describe the secondary group. 3) Describe the tertiary group (and the types of bonds). 4) Describe the quaternary group.
1) Sequence of amino acids, determines next three levels. 2) Formed by H-bonds between oxygen of carboxyl group of one amino acid and H of another's amino group; no R groups involved; may be α-helix or β-pleated sheet. 3) Folds over itself due to interactions of R groups and backbone (amino and carboxyl groups); important for the specificity of enzymes. a) Disulfide bonds: covalent bonds between sulfurs. b) H-bonds: polar and non-polar amino acids. c) Ionic bonds: positive and negative. d) Van der Waals: forces hydrophobic inward and hydrophilic outward. 4) Multiple peptide chains combine for a single structure; may contain a non-peptide structure called a "conjugated protein" (e.g heme to form hemoglobin).
1) Define placenta and its structure. 2) Describe its functions.
1) Site of exchange between fetus and mother; composed of fetal and maternal tissue with villi and microvilli to increase surface area; fetal blood through capillaries within placental villi; maternal blood flows through intervillous space 2) Secretes estrogen and progesterone to maintain uterine lining and rich blood supply after first trimester; water (osmosis) from mother to fetus; oxygen (diffusion) and glucose (fascilitated diffusion) from mother to fetus; antibodies (endocytosis) from mother to fetus; passing of hormones from mother to fetus; removal of waste products such as urea and CO₂ (diffusion) from fetus to mother
1) The number of chromosomes are same for each member of a (this). Different numbers make interbreeding unlikely. 2) How many diploid chromosomes in the following: threadworm, rice, humans, chimpanzee, dog?
1) Species 2) t4, r24, h46, c48, d78
Outline fertilization.
1) Sperm enters oviduct and swims toward egg 2) Sperm attracted to egg (chemotaxis) 3) Sperm release hydrolytic enzymes from acrosome penetrating zona pellucida of egg (acrosome reaction) 4) Membrane of egg and sperm fuse 5) Cortical reaction occurs releasing granules, small enzyme containing vesicles, to outside of egg to cause zona pellucida to harden and prevent polyspermy (multiple sperm) 6) Nucleus of secondary oocyte completes meiosis II and nuclei of egg and sperm fuse to form a zygote
Outline spermatogenesis.
1) Spermatogonia cells divide by mitosis to form more cells 2) Spermatogonia cells grow to form larger cells called primary spermatocytes that will divide by meiosis 3) Primary spermatocytes produce two secondary spermatocytes after first division of meiosis 4) Second division of meiosis produces four haploid spermatids 5) Spermatids differentiate into sperm/spermatozoa (one feature is growth of tail) 6) Sertoli cells (stimulated by testosterone) provide nutrients to developing sperm in seminiferous tubule
Outline Meiosis I.
1) Start with diploid cell 2) Interphase: DNA replicates so all chromosomes consist of 2 sister chromatids 3) *Prophase I*: same as mitosis (nuclear envelope and centriole movement) but pairing of homologous chromosomes and crossing over occur before chromatin condenses into chromosomes 4) *Metaphase I*: paired homologous chromosomes line up side by side or bivalent (rather than in line as in mitosis); independent assortment makes order random 5) *Anaphase I*: homologous chromosomes separate (segregation), sister chromosomes are still attached 6) *Telophase I*: same as mitosis (chromosomes move to opposite ends of cell and two nuclei form) 7) Results in 2 haploid cells
PH affects enzyme: 1) Enzymes have an optimum pH, where (this happens). 2) If pH increases: (basic/acidic). If pH decreases: (basic/acidic). Activity drops due to (this). 3) Draw and label a graph.
1) The active sites no longer has the required shape. 2) Basic, acidic, denaturation. 3) See image.
1) Define activation energy. 2) What lowers it? 3) On a graph, be able to tell where reactions with and without an enzyme take place.
1) The energy required for reaction to occur. 2) Enzymes. 3) See graph.
1) What did William Harvey do? 2) What did he conclude?
1) Tried to determine how reproduction occurred by dissecting mated deer 2) Found nothing in fetus; concluded that mating did not lead to conception or reproduction; limitations were no tools or microscopes; he was supposed to see tiny embryos
1) What does mitosis produce? 2) Benefits of mitosis? 3) Consequences of mitosis?
1) Two genetically identical nuclei through DNA replication and chromatid separation. 2) Asexual reproduction, embryonic development, tissue repair, growth. 3) Uncontrolled cell division may result in tumors.
1) Define binomial nomenclature. 2) The first name is the (species/genus). How is it written? 3) The second name is the (genus/species). How is it written? 4) How would they be written or typed?
1) Two names used to refer to each organism that is universal 2) Genus, uppercase first letter 3) Species, lowercase entirely 4) Same way but also italicized
Outline Hershey-Chase's experiment.
1) Use T2 phage for experiment. 2) Phage infects bacterium by attaching and injecting its genetic material into it. 3) Label phage DNA with radioactivity. Phage infects E. coli. Found radioactive DNA was only in bacteria and not in phage 4) Label phage protein with radioactivity. Phage attached to bacterium. Radioactive protein found in phage but not in bacteria. 5) Showed that genetic material which infects the bacteria is DNA.
1) How to find one's body mass index (BMI)? 2) What is a nomogram?
1) Weight (kg) ÷ Height (m²). 2) Diagram in which a line is drawn to connect to center of three things (weight - BMI - height).
Outline synaptic transmission.
1) When a message is sent from one neuron to another 2) Electrical impulse travels along neuron to end (pre-synaptic knob) where synapse is between neurons and receptor/effector cells 3) Ca ions enter pre-synaptic knob and promote movement of vesicles filled with neurotransmitters (acetylcholine) to move toward membrane 4) Exocytosis allows vesicle to release neurotransmitters into synapse 5) Neurotransmitters diffuse across fluid-filled gap (synapse) to next neuron 6) When neurotransmitters reach membrane of next neuron it binds to receptors on post-synaptic membrane proteins causing them to open 7) Na diffuses in and causes action potential down to next neuron or activates effector 8) Enzymes break down neurotransmitters in previous synaptic gap or get reabsorbed by presynaptic neuron
Outline resting potential.
1) When axon is NOT sending a signal and is polarized 2) Outside is positive, inside is negative 3) Active transport of K ions in and Ca ions out
What is the role of water in animals?
1) When hot, water or sweat absorbs heat from body or environment. Hydrogen bonds will break and water will evaporates. Heat is released for cooling effect. 2) When anxious, adrenaline causes sweating or coldness because brain anticipates intense activity.
Outline action potential.
1) When nerve impulses propagate along axon of neuron 2) Na-K pumps maintain polarity 3) Disturbance of membrane opens Na ion channels and Na ions rush inside of cell passively (facilitated diffusion) causing depolarization where inside is positive and outside is negative 4) Na ion channels shut 5) K ion channels open so K ions rush out passively (facilitated diffusion) helping to repolarize where outside is positive and inside is negative 6) Process continues down length of axon
How many chromosomes do humans have?
23 chromosomes (1 pair of sex chromosomes, 22 pairs of autosomal chromosomes).
Define centriole.
A pair of cylindrical organelles near nucleus in animal cells that are involved in formation of spindle fibers during prophase.
Define ecosystem.
A community and its abiotic factors
Describe urea and its significance.
A component of urine produced in liver as way of excreting excess nitrogen from amino acids. Made naturally or synthetically without liver/enzymes through chemical reactions in lab with ammonia and CO₂. Helped helped falsify vitalism which states organic compounds can only be made with a vital principle to function. Nitrogen source in crop fertilizer.
Define evolution.
A cumulative change in heritable characteristics of a population
Define sex linkage.
A gene located on X chromosome and usually associated with gender. Females may be carriers since they carry two X but males will express the trait if it is present on X. Examples: Hemophilia (Xʰ) and color blindness (Xᵇ). There is no Y-linkage (ignore multiple choice options with Y superscript).
Define linkage groups.
A group of genes inherited together because they are found on the same chromosome. Important because it has been observed that some genes were almost always inherited together; more genes than chromosomes, and therefore, more than one gene is on each.
Define population.
A group of organisms of the same species that live in the same area at the same time
Define cyclins.
A group of proteins that ensure cell only moves to next stage of cell cycle when appropriate; until cyclins reach threshold concentration a cell will not progress to next stage (only when new cells are needed).
Define gene.
A heritable factor that consists of a length of DNA (not an entire chromosome) and influences a specific characteristic.
Describe condensation reaction.
A hydroxyl from one molecule and hydrogen from another break off to form water and remaining monomers join.
Outline amniocentesis.
A hypodermic needle is inserted through the abdomen to extract sample amniotic fluid from the amniotic sac, during the 14th-16th week of pregnancy. Amniotic fluid contains cells of fetus. Cells are cultured and divided to examine chromosomes. Useful to detect chromosomal abnormalities.
Define polysome.
A string of ribosomes.
Describe hydrolysis.
A water molecule is added and broken into a hydroxyl and a hydrogen that separates macromolecules into monomers.
Outline the Calvin cycle.
ATP (from photolysis) and H (carried by NADPH) are used to fix CO₂ to make organic molecules for plants; occurs in stroma.
Define ventilation.
Act of breathing, maintains O₂ and CO₂ levels in lungs to ensure proper gas exchange
Outline elongation.
Addition of amino acids to growing polypeptide chain; strand of mRNA is made 5' → 3'.
Outline the response to low glucose levels.
After fasting, α cells in pancreas islets produce hormone glucagon > Glucagon circulates in blood and stimulates hydrolysis of glycogen in muscle and liver cells > Glucose is produced and enters bloodstream > Raises blood sugar levels
Outline the response to high glucose levels.
After meal, β cells in pancreas islets produce hormone insulin > Insulin is secreted and absorbed into blood > Protein channels allow glucose to diffuse in cells > Liver and muscle cells convert glucose to glycogen but other cells use for cell respiration > Lowers blood sugar levels
Analyze the following cladogram: - vertebrate (*SHARK*) - two pairs of limbs (*BULLFROG*) - mammary glands (*KANGAROO*) - placenta (*HUMAN*)
All have vertebrae. Shark is oldest. Human has all four traits. Appearance of mammary glands separated kangaroo and human from bullfrog and shark. Both kangaroo and human are mammals.
Describe autosomes.
All other chromosomes aside from sex chromosomes.
Define genotype.
Alleles possessed by an organism.
What are three nitrogenous waste products?
Ammonia, urea, uric acid
Compare amylose and amylopectin.
Amylose: insoluble in water, no branch. Amylopectin: soluble in cold water, branch.
Define carrier.
An individual with one copy of a recessive allele that causes a genetic disease in individuals that are homozygous for the allele.
What are genes in plasmids associated with?
Antibiotic resistance, can be transferred from one to another, transfer genes between species.
Define antigen.
Any "non-self" substance, commonly proteins on pathogens that cause an antibody response
Describe Type I Diabetes.
Autoimmune disease in which body attacks β cells of pancreas so they do not produce enough insulin; controlled by injections of insulin; 10% of diabetics usually young
Outline antibiotic resistance.
Bacteria reproduce quickly so mutations may occur and thus more variation. If a form of bacteria inherits a mutation that makes it resistant to antibiotics and they are continued to be used, the resistant form is going to survive while the non-resistant form dies. The resistant form has no competition and can reproduce (passing the resistant allele on to offspring and the proportion of resistant allele increases). Bacteria can also pass genes to other bacteria species through plasmids.
What are the three domains of life?
Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya
Scientists use three key features to identify chromosomes. What are they?
Banding pattern, centromere position, size.
After replication, each new DNA is made-up of one new strand and one original parent strand. What is the significance of this?
Because of this, a part of the original DNA is conserved so DNA replication is said to be semi-conservative.
Describe uric acid
Birds and insects; same as urea but added benefit of being excreted as a paste (better for reducing body mass for flying organisms)
List functions of proteins.
Blood clotting, cell adhesion, muscle contraction, packing DNA, transport of gas and nutrients.
Define catabolism.
Breakdown of complex molecules by hydrolysis of macromolecules into monomers (e.g reverse of anabolism processes, digestion of food, cell respiration).
List functions of lipids.
Buoyancy, energy storage, neuron insulation, water-proofing.
What do corners on molecular structures represent? In what clock direction to count them?
Carbon; clockwise.
Describe Type II Diabetes.
Cell receptors do not respond to insulin (insulin resistance); injecting is useless so blood sugar is controlled by diet; 90% of diabetics can be due to heredity, obesity, lack of exercise
What happens during anaphase?
Centromeres divide. Sister chromatids separate and begin moving along spindle fibers to opposite poles of cell.
Define polygenic inheritance.
Characteristics influenced by two or more genes. Many traits are discrete or set but some show continuous variation as they change over time due to other genes' influence. Example: Skin color (determined by multiple genes that affect pigment intensity); wheat color (varies from white to dark red and is determined by three genes); height (continuous change as you grow, may be influenced by nutrition and environment).
Describe neonicotinoids.
Chemical pesticides similar in structure to nicotine; block transmission by binding to receptors of post-synaptic membranes (cholinergic) so acetylcholine cannot bind and allow transmission of impulse
How do plants absorb light energy?
Chlorophyll (green pigment molecules) in plants absorbs light energy and harvests it.
Compare a chloroplast and a mitochondria.
Chloroplast / Mitochondria: 1) *Chloroplast envelope / Outer mitochondrial membrane*: compartmentalize organelles in cytoplasm. 2) *Thylakoid membrane / Inner mitochondrial membrane*: carry out electrons, have ATP synthase, generate ATP, chemiosmosis. 3) *Stacked membranes / Invaginated membranes*: maximize surface area. 4) *Low volume inter-membrane spaces*: rapid generation of hydrogen concentration gradient. 5) *Stroma (calvin cycle) / Matrix (krebs cycle)*: fluid medium for diffusion (molecules and enzymes).
What happens during telophase?
Chromatids - now chromosomes - unravel back to chromatin. Nuclear envelope reforms.
What happens during prophase?
Chromatin condenses and centrioles move to opposite poles. Microtubules extend from centrioles to form spindle fibers. Nuclear envelope deteriorates.
Describe stem-cuttings.
Clone plants artificially. If roots develop from stem, cuttings can be used to become a new plant. Factors include length of cut, number leaves, cut above/below node, placement, type of compost, temperature.
What is the role of water in plants?
Cohesion allows water molecules to attach to each other to move up xylem. Adhesion allows water molecules attach to the wall of xylem. Transports upwards movement up from roots.
Define organic molecules. What are some exceptions?
Compounds containing carbon that are found in living organisms. Exceptions include: CO carbon monoxide, CO₂ carbon dioxide, CO₃ carbon trioxide, HCO₃ hydrogen carbonate or bicarbonate.
Define chiasma.
Connect alleles of both homologous chromosomes.
What is the DNA structure for a prokaryotic chromosome?
Consists of a loop of naked DNA. Plasmids are usually present in prokaryotes, but not in eukaryotes.
Define gene pool.
Consists of all genes and different alleles present in an interbreeding population. Allele frequency changes in a population over time results in evolution.
Describe a dichotomous key.
Consists of pairs of choices, each choice in a pair leads to another pair of choices or gives the identification
What are three examples of heterotrophs?
Consumers, detritivores, saprotrophs
Define osmoregulation.
Control of internal solute concentration of blood, tissue, or cytoplasm of a living organism (e.g human)
Define cellular respiration.
Controlled release of energy in form of ATP from organic compounds in cells.
Describe polymerase chain reaction.
Copies and amplifies small amounts of nucleic acid. Tag DNA Polymerase is used to add complementary nucleotides because it can function in a wide range of temperatures.
Covalent bonds occur (between/within) water molecules. Hydrogen bonds occur (within/between) water molecules.
Covalent occurs within. Hydrogen occurs between.
How is there genetic variation during meiosis?
Crossing over (of alleles during prophase I), independent assortment or random orientation (of chromosomes during metaphase I)
What happens during cytokinesis?
Cytoplasm divides between the two cells.
Describe gel electrophoresis.
DNA fragments move due to polarity; smaller fragments move further than large fragments.
Outline sickle cell disease.
DNA sense strand is altered from GAG to GTG. mRNA codon is changed from GAG to GUG. Different tRNA binds to the codon with an amino acid in the polypeptide. Structure of polypeptide is altered. Active site may no longer function properly. An altered hemoglobin protein molecule causes blood cells to be sickle-shaped. Consequences include sickled cells cannot carry oxygen well, breathing and circulation problems.
What is an organic compound made by all plants?
DNA.
Compare DNA and RNA.
DNA: deoxyribose sugar, thymine as base, two stands, AT/CG. RNA: ribose sugar, uracil as base, one strand, UA/GC.
Outline Florey-Chain's experiment.
Developed penicillin (an antibiotic produced naturally by certain blue molds) and tested on mice before humans; extensive testing on humans is dangerous and unethical
Describe inhaling.
Diaphragm contracts and flattens; external intercostals contract (internal relax) lifting ribcage; increased volume; decreased pressure
Describe exhaling.
Diaphragm relaxes and arches up; internal intercostals contract (external relax) pulling ribcage down; abdominal muscles contract; decreased volume; increased pressure
Describe osmosis.
Diffusion of water rather than solute. Goes from high to low solvent or low to high solute. Requires a semi-permeable membrane.
Outline the movement of food molecules in the human body.
Digestive system > absorption > circulatory system > assimilation > tissue
Define zygote.
Diploid cell that is the result of fusing gametes.
How to measure rate of photosynthesis?
Directly: production of O₂ as a product from photosynthesis (counting bubbles produced by aquatic plants); uptake of CO₂ as a reactant (testing the pH of water of aquatic plants, less CO₂ = high pH). Indirectly: increase in biomass as a result of producing organic molecules from photosynthesis.
Define mitosis.
Division of nuclei into two genetically identical daughter nuclei (includes PMAT).
Define sister chromatid.
Each two threadlike strands into which a chromosome divides longitudinally during cell division; both contain a DNA double helix.
Explain effects of photosynthesis on the earth.
Early atmosphere had no O₂. Prokaryotes began photosynthesis and introduced O₂. O₂ corresponds to evolution of multicellular organisms contributing to photosynthesis.
Describe how embryos clone.
Early in development, an embryo is made up of pluripotent stem cells; theoretically, the embryo can divide and each group of cells can develop into a separate individual (fragmentation); coral can do this naturally
Compare endergonic and exergonic reactions.
Endergonic: energy enters. Exergonic: energy exits.
Outline the ATP cycle.
Energy from exergonic reactions (photosynthesis) -> ATP. Energy from endergonic reactions (hydrolysis) -> ADP+P.
Describe the small intestine.
Enzymes (amylase, lipase, and endopeptidases) are secreted by walls and pancreas to complete most of digestion; villi absorbs products
Define crossing over.
Exchange of alleles between non-sister homologous chromosomes in prophase I.
Define molecular biology.
Explains living processes in terms of chemical substances involved where various biochemical processes of living organisms are broken down into component parts.
Outline non-disjunction.
Failure for homologous chromosomes to separate during Anaphase I or for sister chromatids to separate during Anaphase II, may result in one too many chromosomes in a gamete. If that gamete is fertilized, there will be more or less chromosomes in resulting diploid cell. - One example of non-disjunction is Down Syndrome, which can result from three chromosome 21 called trisomy. - If this occurs with sex chromosomes, an additional X chromosome results in Klinefelter's Syndrome. - If the one that is without the sex chromosome is fertilized this results in Turner's Syndrome, ONLY if the other gamete has an X.
What are the three pieces of evidence for evolution?
Fossils, homologous structures, selective breeding
What kinds of bonds do carbon compounds form? List examples.
Four covalent bonds; carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Describe ammonia.
Freshwater fish and amphibian larvae; highly diluted so only animals in aquatic environments with access to large volume of water
What happens during interphase?
G1/S/G2. Includes photosynthesis, cellular respiration, transcription, translation.
How are the liver, gallbladder, pancreas, and intestine connected?
Gallbladder and pancreas are connected to liver, leading to intestine
Each (segment of DNA) has a sequence of (this) that produces a particular order of (these) and ultimately a (that).
Gene, nucleotides, amino acids, polypeptide.
Describe the situation of Galapagos finches.
Geospiza fortis are an example of a population that are recognizably different but not to the point where they are different species. A medium ground finch with few predators and competitors and a stubby beak that eats mostly seeds. A drought occurred that killed plants and limited seeds, so the finches grew hungry. Finches with larger beaks survived (because they could feed on larger seeds) while smaller-beaked finches could not and died of starvation; other species source food were not affected and their beak size did not change.
List examples of monosaccharides.
Glucose, fructose, galactose, deoxyribose, ribose.
What are four examples of large molecules?
Glycogen, lipids, nucleic acids, starch
Define a clone and the process of cloning.
Group of genetically identical organisms or cells derived from single parent cell. 1) Egg is taken from donor and nucleus is removed. 2) Mitochondrial DNA is taken from the organism to be cloned. 3) This is fused with egg using electricity. 4) New cell is implanted into the female organism.
Define polyploidy.
Having more than two sets of homologous chromosomes and occurs most commonly in plant as a result of errors during meiosis; cannot reproduce with original species creating a reproductive barrier but can self-fertilize forming a new species. A single polyploid individual, if fertile, could lead to speciation if the plant reproduces. Example: allium is a genus that includes onions, leeks, garlic, and chives; similar opulations of this genus that have been reproductively isolated by polyploidy.
Define heterozygous.
Having two different alleles on a gene.
Define homozygous.
Having two identical alleles on a gene.
What is an example of an autosomal dominant disease? Autosomal recessive disease?
Huntington's Disease; Cystic Fibrosis.
Describe the stomach.
Hydrochloric acid kills most bacteria by having the lowest pH; creates optimum environment for proteases, specifically pepsin, to begin protein digestion
Describe an antiparallel double helix.
Hydrogen bonds connect bases from one strand to complimentary bases on other.
Outline the relationship between normal and sickled hemoglobin.
Hᵇ (normal) and Hᵇˢ (sickled) are co-dominant alleles. The expressions of this disease are only present in individuals who are homozygous. This is good because: Malaria completes its life cycle on normal RBC but cannot on sickled cells. However, they are susceptible to the negative effects of sickle cell anemia. An individual can get protection from both if they are heterozygous.
Example: Palomino horses are the result of crosses between horses with black coats and white coats. The alleles for black coats and white coats are codominant. Which of the following could give palomino offspring? I. palomino x palomino II. palomino x white III. white x white
I and II
Define multiple alleles.
If there are more than two alleles of a gene.
Define punctuated equilibrium.
Implies long periods without much change and short periods of fast change; mass extinction leads to rapid change and new species (e.g. volcanic eruption, meteor impact)
Define punctuated equilibrium.
Implies long periods without much change and short periods of fast changes; mass extinction promotes rapid change and new species; gaps in fossil record support this idea (volcanic eruption, meteor impact causing sudden climatic environmental changes).
Describe findings of Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins.
Improved resolution of camera to make better X-ray diffraction patterns. Cross in center indicated helical shape, angles of cross show pitch; distance between bars showed distance of turn of helix, distance from middle to top showed a repeating pattern and distance of repeats.
Describe the situation with moths.
In unpolluted areas, trees are covered in lichens so peppered moths can camouflage. Sulfur dioxide pollution from factories kills lichens and trees are blackened by soot and coal residue. Melanic moths (the dark variety) are well camouflaged against dark trees and have an advantage over the peppered variety. The melanic variety replaced the peppered variety, but only in polluted areas.
Define osmoconformers.
Internal solute concentration fluctuates with the aquatic environment of which the organism lives in (e.g squid)
What are the roles of introns and exons?
Introns are removed for mature eukaryotic mRNA formation, and are not usually present in prokaryotes. Exons can be missing from various mRNA; this allows for a large variety of proteins to be produced.
Outline initiation.
Involves assembly of components to carry out process; RNA Polymerase (an enzyme and therefore a protein) binds with DNA region called a promotor; RNA Polymerase unwinds DNA.
Describe William Henry's experiment.
It was believed that blood was made from digested food and taken to tissue. Blood is replenished by eating again and the function of the heart was to produce heat. William Henry did a study that unnecessarily large vessel size and amount of blood moving through the body could not be replaced quickly. He proposed that blood circulates and is pumped by the heart.
Describe the alleles of blood types.
Iᴬ and Iᴮ are co-dominant to one another, but dominant to i.
What side of the heart has oxygenated blood Deoxygenated blood?
Left (oxygenated). Right (deoxygenated).
What part of the heart has oxygen rich blood? From where?
Left atrium, rich blood from pulmonary track of lungs.
Describe sex-linked alleles.
Letters X and Y are used to symbolize the X and Y chromosomes and the allele is superscripted ONLY on X chromosome.
What is the most frequent energy source?
Light
Outline photolysis.
Light splits a water molecule into oxygen and hydrogen to make ATP; occurs in thylakoids.
What is the structure of DNA for a eukaryotic chromosome?
Linear strands of DNA wrapped around histone proteins.
Describe HCG.
Maintains corpus luteum in ovary to keep producing progesterone until placenta forms to take over progesterone production; prevents menstruation; produced by embryo & tested for by pregnancy tests
Describe progesterone.
Maintains endometrium; formation of cervical plug, growth of placenta; uterus enlargement; cessation of ovulation/menstruation
Describe urea.
Mammals and marine fish and adult amphibians; conversion from ammonia to urea requires energy but less water
Define chromatin.
Material in which chromosomes of organisms other than bacteria are composed of (consist of proteins, RNA, and DNA).
Water has higher levels of ranges than methane. Compare the rage of methane as a liquid over water as a liquid.
Methane: 0-22ºC, Water: 0-100ºC.
Define metastasis.
Movement of cancerous cells from primary tumor to set up another tumor in other parts of the body.
Outline translocation.
Movement of ribosomes along mRNA; shifts site that tRNA occupies.
Define oncogenes
Mutant genes that promote unchecked cell growth.
Antibiotics have no effect on what?
No effect on eukaryotic cells or viruses (no metabolic pathways so they rely on host cells to carry out processes).
How does a haploid cell contribute to meiosis?
Nucleus has one of each chromosome and thus one allele for each gene.
What are the more important elements?
O, C, H, N.
Compare oxidation and reduction.
OIL: Oxidation Is Lost Electrons. RIG: Reduction is Gained Electrons.
Define behavioral isolation.
Occurs when there are differences in mating rituals that prevent mating.
Define temporal isolation.
Occurs when two or more species reproduce at different times.
Define geographic isolation.
Occurs when two populations are separated by geographic barriers (rivers, mountains, oceans).
Describe co-dominant alleles.
One letter of alphabet is chosen, this letter and a superscript letter represent co-allele.
Define recessive allele.
Only has effect on phenotype when present in homozygous state.
List three ways classifying is helpful.
Organization (data helps identification); prediction (shared traits in a group); suggestion (evolutionary links and similar traits suggests level of closeness)
What happens as respiration occurs in seeds?
O₂ is used and CO₂ is produced by absorbing KOH. This creates suction of fluid in manometer. Respiration is measured by displacement of fluid in tube. Movement of fluid is proportional to temperature.
Define homologous chromosomes.
Pair (one from each parent) of chromosomes that have the same size, band sequence, shape, and gene BUT may have different alleles.
Define codominant alleles.
Pair of alleles that have a joint effect on the phenotype when present in a heterozygote.
If blood glucose levels are too high or lower than set point, what happens?
Pancreas sends signals to target organs for response
Describe Gregor Mendel's experiment.
Parent generation: crossed pea plants until pure breeds. F1 generation: crossed to get all heterozygous for each trait. F2 generation: crossed and results in ratio predicted on punnett squares.
Define phenotype.
Physical characteristics of an organism.
Define karyogram.
Pictures with homologous chromosome pairs arranged by size (largest to smallest) with sex chromosomes last.
Define centromere.
Point on chromosome that holds chromatids together and attaches to spindle fibers during cell division.
Define reproductive isolation.
Populations separated by geographic barrier, time, or behavior that are unable to reproduce; results in speciation.
Define locus.
Position a gene occupies on one type of chromosome.
Define pathogen.
Possess several different antigens on their surface that trigger the production of different types of antibodies
Describe roles of testosterone in males.
Prenatal development of male genitals, development of secondary sexual characteristics, maintenance of sex drive
Describe roles of estrogen and progesterone in females.
Prenatal development of reproductive organs, development of secondary sexual characteristics
Define antibody.
Protein molecules that are produced in response to a specific antigen
Outline termination.
RNA Polymerase reaches a sequence of bases called a terminator that signals end of gene; RNA Polymerase detaches from mRNA and DNA rewinds; Multiple ribosomes can go through translation on a single mRNA strand (proteins made on ribosomes that are attached to RER are packaged for use in lysosomes or secreted by exocytosis for use in other cells; proteins made on free ribosomes are used within cell).
Outline transcription.
RNA polymerase unwinds helix and temporarily separates DNA and adds RNA nucleotides to produce strand of mRNA that is complementary to DNA strand. This occurs in the nucleus.
What is the importance of Calvin's experiment?
Radioactive carbon was used. Determined results. Autoradiograms.
Define mutations.
Random changes in DNA base sequences. New alleles are formed by this. Can be neutral, helpful, or harmful. Results from radiation (gamma, UV, X-rays), chemicals (benzoapyrene in tobacco, mustard gas, nitrosamines).
How is there genetic variation after meiosis?
Random fertilization (fusion of gametes from each parent where alleles are combined to 1 individual).
What color is blood?
Red, veins appear blue due to changes in light frequencies. Dark red blood is oxygen poor, bright red blood is rich.
Define excretion.
Removal of metabolic waste products from the body
Describe jet lag.
SCN and pineal gland remain on circadian rhythm of departure point and takes short time for body to reset its clock
Describe the Y-chromosome.
SRY gene on Y chromosome causes embryonic gonads to develop as testes and secrete testosterone
Define dominant allele.
Same effect on phenotype whether in homozygous or heterozygous state, masks effect of recessive alleles.
Outline DNA profiling.
Sample DNA is obtained. DNA is amplified by PCR. DNA is cut into fragments using restriction endonuclease. Separate DNA fragments by gel electrophoresis. Used for crime scenes and forensics.
Outline chorionic villus sampling.
Sample of chorionic villi is extracted from placenta, 8th-10th week of pregnancy. Useful to detect chromosomal abnormalities.
Describe histamine.
Secreted from basophils (type of white blood cell) and mast cells (in connective tissue) in response to allergens
Draw and label a diagram for capillaries, arteries, and veins.
See image (*arteries and veins*: yellow is Tunica Adventitia, orange is Tunica Media, pink is Tunica Intima; *capillaries*: peach is single layer of endothelial cells, purple is nucleus, 10um thick wall allows rapid diffusion)
Outline the chi-squared test.
See image for the actual equation. Purpose is to determine if there is a statistical difference between what is expected and what is observed in a population. Expected value means the ratio or percentage of a Punnet square. - *H0*: populations show a 'goodness of fit' when χ2 is equal or less than table value. - *H1*: populations do NOT show a 'goodness of fit' when χ2 is greater than table value.
Annotate a pressure and cardiac cycle graph.
See image.
Annotate a skeletal muscle structure.
See image.
Annotate a sperm cell.
See image.
Draw an oscilloscope (resting and action potential) and label parts.
See image. (1) At rest > (2) stimulus applied > depolarization > (3) voltage rises > (4) voltage falls > repolarization > action potential > (5) end action potential > (6) return to rest > threshold reached
Draw and label a nucleotide.
See image. *Circle*: phosphate. *Solid line*: covalent bonds. *Pentagon*: sugar (deoxyribose). *Rectangles*: bases (Adenine : Thymine & Guanine : Cytosine). *Dotted line*: H-bonds. *One length across* : nucleotide.
Draw absorption and action spectrum graphs of chlorophyll.
See image. X-axis for both: wavelength (nm) for 400-700 nm. Y-axis for absorption: % absorption with 0-100%. Y-axis for action: photosynthesis for % of max rate 0-100%.
What is the equation for photosynthesis? What is also produced?
See image. ATP also produced.
Draw the molecular structure of a fatty acid.
See image. Hydrocarbon chain: C-H, carboxyl group: O=C-OH.
Draw a nephron.
See image. It is the functional unit of kidney.
Define motor neurons and label parts.
See image. Nerves that transmits electrical impulses.
Draw a graph of CO₂ concentration as a limiting factor.
See image. Shifted to the right.
Draw a graph of light as a limiting factor.
See image. Shifted to the right.
Describe and recognize a diagram for stabilizing selection.
See image; an evolved population forms from the original population
Describe and recognize a diagram for disruptive selection.
See image; extreme types selected for and adapt to different niches, reproductive barriers become established between extreme types
Describe and recognize a diagram for directional selection.
See image; favors one end with a progressive change in that direction, others will differ enough not to interbreed and become a new species
What types of neurons are in the nervous system?
Sensory, relay, motor
Define gametes.
Sex cells (sperm and egg).
Define gradualism.
Slow change from one form to another; stable conditions lead to low levels of natural selection and make it a long process
Define continuous variation.
Small changes observed in a population across a geographical range and matches the concept of gradual divergence
As temperature increases, what happens?
Solubility decreases.
Define independent assortment.
Sorting of chromosomes during making of gametes in metaphase I. Because of independent assortment, new combinations are produced as gametes provide genetic variation that is the driving force behind evolution.
What happens during metaphase?
Spindle fibers attach to chromosomes then move them to align at equator of cell.
Define speciation.
Splitting of an existing population causing formation of new species.
Compare composition of starch, glycogen and cellulose.
Starch and glycogen: made up of α-glucose, bond points down causing it to spiral for more storage. Cellulose: made up of β-glucose, alternating pattern allows for more linear structure and strength.
Describe oxytocin.
Stimulates uterine contraction, causes release of milk; stimulates prostaglandin secretion by placenta; prostaglandins stimulate release of oxytocin (positive feedback)
List examples of polysaccharides.
Storage: glycogen stores carbohydrates in animals in liver/muscle, starch stores carbohydrates in plants. Structure: cellulose in plant cell wall for structure/support, chitin in cell wall of fungi and exoskeleton of insects.
List examples of disaccharides.
Sucrose, maltose, lactose.
Define metabolism.
Sum of all enzyme reactions that occur within a living organism.
Define nucleosomes.
Supercoils chromosomes and helps regulate transcription in eukaryotes.
Define anabolism.
Synthesis of complex molecules including macromolecules by condensation reaction (e.g protein synthesis from amino acids on ribosomes, DNA replication, monosaccharides to polysaccharides).
Outline translation.
Synthesis of polypeptides on ribosomes that occurs in cytoplasm. 1) Consists of Initiation, Elongation, Translocation, & Termination; occurs from 5' to 3'. 2) Small ribosome subunit binds onto mRNA. 3) Sequence of triplet nucleotide base on mRNA is called a codon. 4) Ribosome moves along mRNA until it reaches start codon (AUG). 5) Anticodon of tRNA binds with complementary base pairs to codon of mRNA. 6) tRNAs carry a specific amino acid that is coded for by codon. 7) Large ribosome subunit binds to small subunit. 8) Second tRNA binds to next codon (two tRNAs can bound to ribosome at same time). 9) Amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds. 10) Ribosome continues to move along mRNA. 11) tRNA is displaced and another attaches to vacant binding site. 12) Stop codon is reached (UGA or UAG). 13) Polypeptide is released and tRNA and mRNA detach from ribosome. 14) Ribosome splits into subunits.
What is electron tomography?
Technique used to show 3-D image of mitochondria and visualize increased surface of inner membrane; showed cristae may not be infolds but flat compartments within mitochondria.
Define test cross.
Testing for a suspected heterozygote by crossing it with a known homozygous recessive.
Describe the situation between Bt-corn and Monarch Butterflies.
The Bt-gene has been transferred into corn to produce a toxin to kill pest/insects that eat the corn, but it has also affected insects. Bt-toxin is produced in all parts including pollen. Monarch butterfly larvae feed on milkweed that sometimes grows close to corn crops and the wind blows pollen from corn onto milkweed leaves that can poison larvae.
Define meiosis.
The reduction division of diploid cells (2 sets of chromosomes) resulting in 4 haploid cells (1 set of chromosomes)
Define gradualism
The slow change from one form to another; stable conditions lead to low levels of natural selection making it a long / gradual process.
Define photosynthesis.
The use of light energy to make carbon compounds.
Why is it called "A" human genome, and not "THE" human genome?
There are variations in sequences since not all DNA are genes.
One function of membrane proteins is an enzyme. What does this mean?
These are integral proteins that include disaccharidases that break down other disaccharides
Define chromosomes.
Threadlike structure of nucleic acids and proteins that form when chromatin condenses; found in the nucleus of most living cells and carries genetic information in the form of genes.
Due to the lack of a nucleus and introns in prokaryotes, what can occur?
Translation can occur immediately after transcription.
How has John Cairns contributed to science?
Tried to determine number and direction of replication, found accurate length of chromosomes during supercoiling in mitosis. Used autoradiography (label chromosome by growing cultures in medium containing thymidine) + Isolation (of chromosomes by lysing cells and placing under electron micrograph). He showed a way of visualizing chromosomes- impossible to get an accurate length of chromosomes during supercoiling in mitosis; Autoradiography- allows chromosomes to be seen when they are uncoiled so their size can be measured.
A zygote has how many alleles of each gene?
Two.
Describe Edward Jenner's experiment.
Unethical by today's standards. Purposely infected a young boy with cowpox (not as severe, similar to smallpox) then smallpox to see if he would be resistant. Could be contained unlike yellow fever.
Define allele.
Various forms of a gene (e.g A, B, i). Differ from one another by DNA base sequences.
Describe the large intestine.
Water absorption, leaving solid feces to be egested out of anus
Describe hydrogen bonds.
Weak polar attraction between H⁺ of one molecule and O⁻ of another molecule. Results in dipole.
Describe absorption in digestion.
When food passes through the cell layer and into villi tissue
Describe assimilation in digestion.
When molecules become part of human tissue
Describe antagonistic muscles.
When one muscle contracts and other relaxes (e.g intercostals, diaphragm)
Outline overpopulation.
When populations produce more offspring than the environment can support and the carrying capacity is exceeded. Consequence is that members of the population will compete for resources. Some characteristics allow competitive advantage over others. This is good because individuals are better fit and able to survive. According to Charles Darwin, the struggle for survival of populations comes from overproduction of offspring
Define divergent evolution.
When species have very different characteristics but share a common ancestor (e.g homologous structures through continuous variation like pentadactyl limbs)
Define convergent evolution.
When species share similar characteristics but have different ancestors (e.g analogous structures like bat and butterfly wings)
What are ribosomes made up of? What occurs inside of them?
rRNA and proteins; tRNA passes the chain to the tRNA on the A site. tRNA arrives and accepts the chain. E site is where the tRNA has no amino acid and detaches.
What three anaerobic bacteria groups are involved in methanogenesis?
- *First* makes organic material - *Second* makes organic acid, alcohol - *Third* or archaean bacteria makes acetate, hydrogen, carbon dioxide - *Final* product is methane
1) What determines a gas's warming impact? 2) Describe water vapor 3) Describe carbon dioxide. 4) Describe methane.
1) Concentration of gas and ability to absorb long-wave radiation 2) Enters very rapidly, but does not last long before condensing and returning to Earth 3) Absorbs less long-wave radiation than methane, but higher in concentration 4) Can absorb more radiation, but not as high in concentration as either water vapor or carbon dioxide
1) Which molecules can pass through the bilayer? Which cannot? 2) Why is this useful?
1) Small + uncharged + nonpolar molecules = pass. Large + charged + polar molecules = no pass. 2) Helps maintain concentration and exclude certain molecules.
Define species.
A group of organisms which can interbreed and produce fertile offspring
Outline Pasteur's experiment for spontaneous generation.
Broth 1 was boiled was to kill any organisms in it. Broth 2 was not boiled and used as a control with fungi and other organisms appearing.
How is carbon dioxide produced? What does it diffuse out of?
By cellular respiration and diffuses out of organisms into the atmosphere and water; non-photosynthetic cells (in producers, animal cells, saprotrophs) make it
What are examples of interactions between biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem?
Cycles
How do heterotrophs use energy and where do they get this energy from? What are three inorganic nutrients?
Heterotrophs use energy in organic materials obtained from other organisms; Na-Ca-K
What is done to transplant tissue that prevents osmosis from occurring? Give an example.
It is bathed in a solution with same osmolarity as the cytoplasm. Example: normal saline rinses wounds, keeps skin moist, frozen to slush to preserve donor organs.
What was Gorter-Grendel's conclusion?
Membrane is made up of a phospholipid bilayer.
Describe isotonic.
No net water movement.
Draw and label the fluid mosaic model.
See image.
Define habitat.
The environment in which a species lives
Compare plant and animal cells.
*Plants*: - Cell wall of cellulose. - Large vacuole stores water/waste. - Chloroplasts for photosynthesis. - No centrioles. - Rigid shape. - Carbohydrates stored as starch. *Animals*: - No cell wall. - No central vacuole. - No chloroplast. - Has centrioles. - Globular shape. - Carbohydrates stored as glycogen.
Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
*Prokaryotes*: - Genetic material in a loop located in cytoplasm. - Naked DNA. - Mitochondria not present. - Small ribosomes (70S). - Few or no organelles. - Bacteria. *Eukaryotes*: - Genetic material in strands located in contained nucleus. - Chromosomes of DNA and proteins. - Mitochondria always present. - Large ribosomes (80S). - Many organelles to compartmentalize functions. - Animal and plant cells.
Compare the following types of stem cells: embryonic, cord, and adult.
- *Embryonic*: unlimited potential (any cell in body), risk of tumors, fewer chance of mutations, genetically different than patient receiving them, kills embryos unless 1 or 2 cells are taken. - *Cord*: easy to get and store, collection and storage services available, no rejection, limited capacity so only develops into blood cells, limited quantities from one baby, cord discarded with or without cells taken. - *Adult*: difficult to obtain (deep in tissue), less growth potential, less chance of tumor developing than from embryo, limited capacity, no rejection, removal does not kill adult that they are taken from.
List examples of atypical cells. What makes them atypical?
- Aseptate fungal hyphae (thread-like, multiple nuclei, different cells). - Striated muscle (fiber-like, multiple nuclei, unusually large). - Giant algae (one cell, one nucleus). - Red blood cells (no nucleus).
Describe characteristics for cells to have been created.
- Nonliving synthesis of simple organic molecules through chemical reactions (amino acids). - Assembly of organic molecules into polymers (proteins). - Ability of polymers to self-replicate (RNA). - Packaging of molecules to membranes that separate internal from external environments (phospholipid bilayer).
Explain how a photosynthetic Chlamydomonas cell carries out its functions of life.
- Nucleus divides to produce genetically identical nuclei when reproducing asexually. - Cytoplasm allows metabolic reactions to occur. - Cell membrane controls what chemicals enter and leave. - Contractile vacuoles fill and expel water for homeostasis. - Chloroplasts where CO₂ is converted to compounds for growth and photosynthesis. - Eyespot is light sensitive and responsive so it swims toward light. - Flagella allows movement.
Explain how a non-photosynthetic Paramecium cell carries out its functions of life.
- Nucleus divides to produce nuclei when reproducing. - Food vacuoles store nutrients. - Cell membrane controls what chemicals enter and leave. - Contractile vacuoles fill and expel water for homeostasis. - Cytoplasm where metabolic reactions occur. - Cilia allows movement through water and responds to changes in environment.
Outline two diseases that are eased with the help of stem cells.
- Stargardt's disease: involves the degeneration of the retina where stem cells replace damaged cells. - Leukemia: blood stem cells replace damaged bone marrow from treatment.
1) What is the degree of freedom? 2) What do H₀ and H₁ represent?
1) (row-1)(column-1) 2) H₀ (two species are distributed independently when χ² is equal or less than the table value) or H₁ (two species are associated when χ² is greater than the table value)
What are four common characteristics of cells?
1) *Membrane* that separates internal and external environments. 2) *Genetic material* that instructs cell activities. 3) *Chemical reaction* that catalyzes through enzymes. 4) *Energy release* that power cell activities.
Explain four stages of a stem cell (by which they turn into other cells).
1) *Totipotent*: any cell (even another organism) but only for the first few divisions after fertilization. 2) *Pluripotent*: all cells within an organism except embryonic cells. 3) *Multipotent*: cells within members of a close family. 4) *Unipotent*: cells of its own type.
1) 1cm = ____mm. 2) 1mm = ____μm. 3) 1cm = ____μm. 4) Iμm = ____nm.
1) 10. 2) 1,000. 3) 10,000. 4) 1,000.
Carbon fluxes in gigatonnes (year⁻¹): 1) Photosynthesis/respiration 2) Ocean uptake/loss 3) Combustion of fossil fuels 4) Deforestation/land changes 5) Burial in marine sediments
1) 120 2) 90 3) 6 4) 2 5) 0.2
If conditions allow, what environments and/or compounds could allow for cells to continue in their cycle?
1) Areas of deepsea hydrothermal vents or volcanoes. 2) Organic reactions that are aqueous under water. 3) Warm conditions that allow for high reaction rates. 4) Evaporation of water allows for organic molecules to become more concentrated. 5) Clay minerals that act as a catalyst.
What are the three main points of the Cell Theory?
1) Cells are the smallest unit of life. 2) All living things are made up of cells. 3) All cells come from pre-existing cells.
Outline the steps for the quadrant method.
1) Choose an area of study 2) Mark areas with a set size 3) Select sample quadrants 4) Count the number of organisms in each sample quadrant 5) Calculate the average number of each of the two organisms 6) Multiply the average by the total number of quadrants for each organism 7) Compare results
1) Describe causes of increase in greenhouse gases. 2) Describe effects of increase in greenhouse gases.
1) Combustion of organic matter (more carbon dioxide), deforestation (less photosynthesis) 2) Threat of an increase in average global temperatures, rising sea levels, melting ice caps, increased ocean volume from thermal expansion, changes in ocean currents, increased number of pest species in the Arctic (melting)
Outline protein synthesis.
1) DNA copies itself to form mRNA in nucleus. 2) mRNA moves to ribosomes. 3) tRNA brings amino acids to ribosomes where it bends and forms polypeptide chain. 4) Chain goes to RER and forms a protein. 5) Protein leaves RER in a vesicle and moves to Golgi. 6) Protein is tagged to either remain in cell or leave to do its specified function.
1) Describe multicellular organisms. 2) How did emergent properties form? 3) Whole is (</>) than sum of parts.
1) Differentiable, have same DNA but different genes. 2) When different types of cells interact to allow more complex functions when working together. 3) Greater than (>).
1) Describe integral proteins and peripheral proteins. 2) What are some functions?
1) Embedded in the membrane. Attached to the membrane. 2) Channels for passive transport (hydrophilic particles by facilitated diffusion), pumps for active transport (use ATP and change shape), cell-to-cell communication (receptors for neurotransmitter synapses), enzymes (active site on outside), hormone binding site.
1) What restricts the length of food chains? 2) What is found at the top of the food pyramid? 3) True or false: There is not enough energy at lower levels to support large numbers.
1) Loss of energy 2) Less energy, less biomass, fewer organisms 3) True
1) What is the equation for magnification? 2) How to calculate the magnification of an image using a scale bar? 3) How to calculate the specimen size using a scale bar? 4) How to calculate the specimen size using the magnification?
1) Magnification = Image ÷ Actual. 2) Measure length of scale bar using ruler > convert to same units as scale bar > image scale (after converting) ÷ actual scale (given). 3) Measure length of specimen using ruler > measure length of scale bar using ruler > specimen length ÷ bar length > this number × given scale number. 4) Measure length of specimen using a ruler > convert to μm > length of specimen ÷ magnification.
1) Without cell division, what three things cannot exchange fast enough to meet the needs of the cell? 2) Nutrients, heat, and waste are related to what rate of exchange? 3) Heat, waste, CO₂, and O₂ are related to what rate of exchange? 4) (SA/V) is related to metabolism.
1) Materials, heat, waste. 2) Surface area. 3) Volume. 4) Volume.
Outline endocytosis.
1) Membrane encloses around target particles. 2) Membrane sinks inward and seals back on itself. 3) Membrane layer encloses particles in a vesicle. 4) Vesicle breaks away from membrane and moves toward cytoplasm. 5) There are two types: phagocytosis (cellular eating) and pinocytosis (cellular drinking).
1) How is methane produced? 2) Why are methane concentrations not very high?
1) Methane (CH₄) is produced by Archaean anaerobic bacteria in environments where there is little to no oxygen (mud, swamps, wetlands, guts of termites or ruminant mammals - cattle sheep, waste in landfills) by bacteria that feast on decomposing organic matter 2) It is naturally oxidized to carbon dioxide and water
What are the main functions of life?
1) Nutrition: obtained from food for energy and growth. 2) Growth: an irreversible increase in size. 3) Metabolism: the sum of all chemical reactions in an organism. 4) Response: to changes in the environment. 5) Homeostasis: keeping a stable internal environment. 6) Reproduction: producing offspring sexually or asexually. 7) Excretion: the removal of waste products of metabolism. 8) Movement: method of movement (fixed position, drifting in air or water).
1) What are the trophic levels? 2) Define trophic level. 3) What does it represent?
1) See image 2) An organism's position in a food chain/web 3) Chemical energy in carbon flows through a food chain from being eaten by other organisms
Draw and label a prokaryotic cell. Describe its organelles and their functions.
1) See image. 2) See the following: a) *Cell wall*: provides support and protection, no cellulose. b) *Naked DNA*: passed between gene transfer, no proteins. c) *Plasma membrane*: regulates and separates environments. d) *Cytoplasm*: jellylike organelle that holds everything together. e) *Ribosomes*: makes proteins by joining amino acids, smaller than in eukaryotes. f) *Pili*: attach to any surface and onto other bacteria. g) *Flagella*: movement and mobility. h) *Binary fission*: reproduction (divide-grow), identical cells. "Fuzzy Cute Bunnies Pick Carrots 'N Play Rough."
Draw and label a eukaryotic cell. Describe its organelles and their functions.
1) See image. 2) See the following: a) *Nucleolus*: makes ribosomes and RNA nucleotides. b) *Nucleus*: houses genetic material. c) *Ribosomes*: make proteins. d) *Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)*: houses ribosomes, protein synthesis. e) *Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)*: lipid manufacture, metabolism, detoxification. f) *Golgi apparatus*: specialize and package proteins, forms vesicles. g) *Lysosomes*: intercellular digestion. h) *Microtubules*: provide structural support and movement. i) *Mitochondria*: aerobic respiration. j) *Chloroplast*: photosynthesis. k) *Central vacuole*: in plants, store water and waste. "My Cool New Nikes Run Really Slow Going Like Mike Cole."
1) What kind of radiation penetrates and passes through atmosphere? 2) Some reflects off of the atmosphere and never enters. 3) Short wave radiation is absorbed by (this) and converted to (this). Some heat is lost to (this) or even (this) by atmospheric gases that (do this) and scatter heat to earth.
1) Short wave UV radiation (light) 2) 25% 3) By the ground and converted to long wave infrared radiation (heat) > heat is lost to space while some contained or trapped by atmospheric gas that absorb and scatter heat to earth
What are three ways in which energy is lost?
1) Some organisms are not eaten 2) Some parts are eaten but not digested and are lost as waste 3) Much of what is eaten and digested is used in cellular respiration and lost as heat, which cannot be converted to other forms of energy
Outline the greenhouse effect.
1) UV radiation (sunlight) passes through the atmosphere and warms the earth 2) Infrared radiation is given off by earth 3) Most escapes to outer space and cools earth 4) Some are trapped by the greenhouse gases, reducing cooling
1) Describe stem cells. 2) Why are there ethical issues regarding these cells?
1) Undifferentiated with the ability to divide into various cell types. 2) In order to obtain a stem cell, it requires the death of embryo cells.
Outline exocytosis.
1) Vesicles carry materials to plasma membrane. 2) Vesicle fuses with membrane and joins bilayer. 3) Materials are expelled or secreted from cell. 4) Membrane flattens.
Define community.
A group of populations living and interacting with each other
Define mesocosm.
A small area where parts of the natural environment are kept under controlled conditions
In a manometer, what is the material found in the bottom of the test tube in which plant seeds are stored?
Alkali used to absorb carbon dioxide made by seeds; oxygen is released and causes the level on the manometer to rise or fall
Define detritivores.
An organism that ingests nonliving organic matter
Define consumers.
An organism that ingests other organic matter that is living or recently killed
Define saprotrophs.
An organism that lives on/in nonliving organic matter, secreting digestive enzymes that absorb products of digestion
How do autotrophs make organic materials?
Autotrophs use an external energy source to produce organic materials from inorganic raw materials from the abiotic environment
What kind of organism absorbs carbon dioxide and water? How?
Autotrophs, from the atmosphere and water by diffusion
How much percentage of energy is passed between levels?
Between 10-20% but only if it is stored as chemical energy (e.g. btm 100% > 10% > 1% > 0.1% top)
Outline carbon fixation.
Carbon dioxide is produced. Autotrophs absorb the carbon dioxide. This reduces carbon dioxide. Water turns acidic.
What are the four greenhouse gases?
Carbon dioxide, water vapor, nitrous oxide, methane
How does carbonic affect a coral's ability to make an exoskeleton?
Carbon is stored in the form of calcium carbonate. Calcium carbonate makes up coral exoskeletons and mollusk shells that is fossilized as limestone. Hydrogen from carbonic acid reacts with hydrogen carbonate, reducing the concentration and affecting a coral's ability to make an exoskeleton.
What are three properties of glycoproteins?
Cell ID tags, embyros, immunity.
What is the chi-squared test?
Determines possible statistical difference between the amount of organisms expected (E) and organisms observed (O) 1) Given information (observed) 2) Find E: row total x column total ÷ grand total = E 3) χ² = Σ [ (O-E)² ÷ E ]
What leaves ecosystems as heat? What must be recycled?
Energy leaves ecosystems as heat but nutrients must be recycled (carbon and nitrogen cycles)
Why does atmospheric carbon dioxide fluctuate seasonally?
From changes in plant growth: carbon dioxide concentrations fall when plants absorb the gas during the growing season and rise during winter when plants are not growing
What is the biological order of life?
From smallest to largest: atom > molecule > cell > tissue > organ > body system > organism > species > population > community > ecosystem > biosphere.
Describe the function and position of cholesterol.
Helps maintain consistency of plasma membrane. Mostly hydrophobic and situate around fatty acid tails, but has hydroxyl that is hydrophilic and situates between phosphate heads.
Describe the position of phospholipids in the fluid mosaic model.
Hydrophilic polar heads point ouwards; hydrophobic nonpolar tails point inwards.
Outline combustion. What is the equation?
If fossilized organic matter is heated to a certain temperature in the presence of oxygen, it will combust > (fuel + heat + O₂ = CO₂ + H₂O + light)
How does water turn acidic?
In aquatic habitats, CO₂ can dissolve into water as a gas or combine with water to make carbonic acid (H₂CO₃); carbonic acid can dissociate into hydrogen and hydrogen carbonate (H⁺ and HCO₃⁻)
How is peat formed?
In waterlogged areas, the water covers dead organic matter and becomes acidic so aerobic decomposers such as saprotrophs are unable to fully breakdown organic matter > partially decomposed organic matter accumulates and becomes compressed to form peat
What are oppositions to global warming based on?
Most are based on anomalies rather than an overall trend
Define passive transport.
Movement of molecular substances across a cell membrane without energy (includes simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis).
What are three requirements of ecosystems in order to maintain stability?
Nutrient availability, detoxification of waste products, energy availability
Describe simple diffusion.
Particles go from high to low areas of concentration. A greater difference in concentration means faster rate of diffusion. Large, charged molecules cannot pass without proteins.
Describe facilitated diffusion.
Particles go from high to low areas of concentration. A greater difference in concentration means faster rate of diffusion. Molecules can diffuse through but require transport proteins to facilitate movement.
What is the process of fossilization?
Plants and animals die and sink down to the bottom of sea > plants and animal layer gets covered with mud > over time, sediment creates more pressure, compressing the dead plant and animal cells into oil > oil moves up through porous rocks and creates a reservoir > (peat + time + pressure + heat = coal)
Define differentiation.
Process by which a cell is specialized to perform a specific function, and such characteristic helps replace and repair damaged cells.
Define active transport.
Process by which membrane proteins use energy ATP to pump molecules from low to high areas concentration against the concentration gradient. Requires proteins and changes molecule's shape during process.
Define autotrophs.
Producers found at the beginning of all food chains
What was Davson-Danielli's model?
Proteins (on either side of bilayer) appear dark, phospholipids appear light.
Draw a diagram which includes CO2 in atmosphere, plants, consumers, decomposers, and fossil fuels.
See image.
Draw and label a plant cell.
See image.
Describe when and why there has been an increase in carbon dioxide levels.
Sharp increase around 1950 that correlates to industrialization and combustion of large amounts of fossil fuels; strong correlation between rising carbon dioxide levels and increasing average global temperatures
What was Singer-Nicolson's model?
Showed various protein sizes (globular-shaped). Colored tags on membrane proteins showed they were free to move rather than fixed on periphery. Noncontinuous periphery layer.
Outline the significance of ratio in cells.
Smaller cells have a greater surface area to volume ratio, thus making them more efficient. As the cell grows, the ratio decreases. There is an optimum ratio where exchange of nutrients and wastes by diffusion becomes inadequate (greater ratio is better).
Describe vesicles.
Thanks to fluidity, the cell membrane is able pinch a piece off itself and create a vesicle. It is used to transport materials into and out of cell.
Define ecology.
The study of relationships between living organisms and between organisms and their environment
What is the function of unicellular organisms?
To carry out all functions of life.
Descibe hypotonic.
Water moves inward to the point where the cell swells.
Describe hypertonic.
Water moves outward to the point where the cell shrinks.
Outline coral bleaching.
When corals are stressed by changes in conditions (such as in temperature, light, or nutrients), they expel symbiotic algae living in their tissues, causing them to turn completely white
How does carbon flow though a food web?
When organisms eat other organisms, but only if it is stored as chemical energy
