Infant & Child Development Exam 3 Part 1
Social Referencing
*Tendency of a person to look to a significant other in an ambiguous situation in order to obtain clarifying information
Haviland and Lelwica study results?
10 weeks JOY- turned into interest ANGER-froze/no movement, flashed smiles in hopes of changing mother's behavior SADNESS- mouthing (self soothing technique)
Erikson: Autonomy vs Self Doubt
12/18 months-3 years Balance between independence over shame and doubt External control to self control Toilet training & language Terrible twos- negativism (shouting no to everything) in order to show autonomy and resist authority
How has the habituation-dishabituation paradigm been used to discover whether infants can distinguish between different facial expressions?
3 women models used (static photos) 4th model is happy- NO dishabituation 5th model is fearful - YES dishabituation (surprise similar to fear) They can make categories, group similar emotions together, doesn't tell us they know meaning or how to respond
Anticipatory smiling
8-10 months First types of communication in which the infant refers to an object or existence
What must non-human animals have been shown to pass the mirror test?
Apes, european magpies, dolphins Sometimes elephants and gorillas
In the second phase of the study, the voice and face played asynchronously-why? what did infants do under this situation?
At first they couldn't pick one screen to look at, 30 seconds later performed intermodal match
Why might Kenyan children respond differently than western children to mirror test?
Because culture may teach children not to react to such minor vain things as having something on their face Brought up in an interdependent study- must not draw attention to themselves & focus on others instead
What characteristics of Erikson's theory are New-Freudian?
Belief that personality developed in stages For Erikson, those stages were psychosocial not psychosexual Interested in biological drive, but often secondary to social influences on personality development
Erikson: Trust vs Mistrust
Birth-12/18 months develop sense of whether the world is a good/safe place Depends heavily on early experiences balance between trust (form relationships) and mistrust (protection from harm) If trust predominates: Virtue: HOPE If mistrust predominates: trouble forming relationships
What did the researchers conclude about the infant's emotional understanding?
Can pick up on emotional information & respond differently in different emotional situations Social referencing: when in a strange situation, child looks to mom to understand what they should do
Contingency and infants
Cause and effect I do something and something else happens ex. babies realized that mobile tied to leg will shake if they move leg If you take contingency away they get angry (perceiving their effect on the world)
How might a specific emotion become maladaptive for a person?
Cognitive appraisal and emotional response are not in sync Ex. Misconception of surroundings, irrational fears (floor is caving in!)
What are infants capable of experiencing before the 6 true emotions?
Contentment, interest and distress
What emotional displays are infants capable of from birth?
Crying: 4 different kinds (hunger, anger, pain, frustration) Contentment, interest, distress Smile: not considered social until 6 weeks of age (some can smile and laugh while they're sleeping)
What cognitive abilities are required for self-evaluative emotions?
Depend on both self awareness and knowledge of socially accepted standards of behavior. Meeting standards= good self evaluation (pride) Do not meet standards= bad self evaluation (guilt and shame)
3 characteristics of Ecological Self
Differentiated (me vs. other) Situated (in a particular place/space/environment) Agentive (ability to act on world and do things)
Izard: Function of Anger
Directed towards someone else Helps you become motivated in self-defense Best emotion to generate high levels of energy "in bursts" Provides quick, fast, strong, high energy
How do emotions contribute to the development of personality differences between people?
Emotions are dependent on other individuals. Your threshold of emotions can play a role in personality development. Emotions organize thoughts and motivate behaviors that are useful in certain situations. Emotions are universal, but within a society people may respond differently to stimuli
What is a possible explanation for why elephants and gorillas may not pass the test?
Gorillas: eye contact leads to fights, social groomers, easily embarrassed so they take it off in a corner away from mirror Elephants: Used to being dirty and covered in strange materials
What evidence is there that social conformity might play a role in cultural differences in a mirror test?
If he sees that other kids have a dot on, he won't take it off (peer pressure/wanting to fit in)
In what ways does the resolution of stage 1 influence the experience and resolution of stage 2?
If you solve stage 1 positively, you are more likely to solve stage 2 positively (not true in all cases)
How do his findings support proposal that infants can perceive the ecological self?
Infants without wristbands were able to reach object, they perceived themselves in space "I am here and I can touch that" situated ecological self Infants with wrist bands displayed the Agentive ecological self, they perceived that they were not able to grab object with the wrist bands so they didn't reach out for object
What characterizes a healthy resolution at each psychosocial stage?
Maturation Balance of both sides
What is the standard way of measuring self awareness?
Mirror and dot test
Why do parents in fast changing societies have a harder time with supporting healthy trust vs mistrust? (erikson)
More difficult to be confident in ability to raise child because you can't raise child same way parents raised you
Haviland and Lelwica study
Mothers were trained to pose different facial/emotional expression and infant responsiveness was recorded
Dishabituation
Process by which an individual attends to a new stimulus after habituating to a previous stimulus
Intermodal matching
Recognize emotion in face and be able to match it to an emotion in voice Filmed someone speaking sad with sad facial expression and someone speaking happy with happy facial expression: 2 video monitors at same time, one playing sad film with just one face and other playing happy film with just face - soundtrack playing for only one of the videos
Scaffolding infants perceptions of self
Recognize intentions Exaggerate consequences Model actions
What emotions are people capable of at six months?
Six true universal emotions: Joy, Surprise, Anger, Fear, Sadness, Disgust Arise from--> Distress: (sadness, disgust, anger, fear) Contentment: (joy) Interest: (Surprise)
How do people provide information about the self for an infant (or a person at any age)
Social reciprocy Self knowledge responses/reflections
What are the two different kinds of smiles and when are infants capable of showing them?
Spontaneously after birth: as a result of subcortical nervous system activity and appears more frequently during REM sleep. They also tend to smile as they are drowsy and hear high-pitched sounds. 2nd month: Social smiling develops as visual recognition develops 8-10 months: Anticipatory smile as first type of communication
Why are true emotions possible at 6 months?
These emotions are reactions to events that are meaningful to the infant. The emergence of these basic (primary) emotions are related to the biological clock of maturation. As brain development progresses, the complexity of their emotions increases
What did the majority of Kenyan children do when presented with the mirror test?
They do not take the dot off. Only 2 out of 68 passed the test because it has social aspics not just cognitive-most stare in fright
Why does P Rochet contend that an infant's ability to perceive affordances of an object is evidence that they can perceive qualities of themselves? (self perception)
To perceive an object, one must be able to perceive self Must have knowledge of own body first Ex. rooting reflex: likely to turn check when stroked (others vs self)
According to Erikson, what causes a person to move on from one stage to the next?
When they reach equilibrium Find a balance between two stages Ex. find balance between mistrust and trust
What do Izard and Ekman mean by 1 to 1 correspondence in emotional expression and experience?
When what we feel physiologically matches our facial expressions
How does the intermodal matching study of emotion perception tell us something about what infants understand about emotional displays they hear/saw? (rather than just discriminate)
(Arlene Walker & Gibson) In terms of affordances: going to respond differently/behave differently to different people with different emotions Likely to be specified from environment for you Vocally- can hear anger in other's voices Facial expression: can see anger or happiness
Did the infant pass the intermodal match test?
2 months: enjoyed happy video no matter what sound was playing and couldn't look away FAIL 5-7 month: Looked at film that matched soundtrack PASS
According to the cognitive/constructivist approach to emotions, when are people first capable of experiencing and expressing true emotions?
About six months of age emotions turn into true emotions
What evidence does P Rochat provide to support his proposal that an implicit sense of self is developing at birth?
Affordances
Izard: Function of Sadness
Dominant response in grief Strengthen bonding between two people feeling bad Signals something is wrong with an individual (makes others want to help) Slowed down behaviors signal to others something is wrong and make us stop and think about the situation
Erikson: "crisis"
Each stage is a crisis Turning point in life when one has the potential to move forward or regress Opportunity- not all negative "one door closes another opens"
Why is Erikson's theory referred to as psychosocial?
Ego identity- development of self through conscious experiences
Izard and Ekman: Nativist and Functional approach to emotions
Emotions are part of our collective evolution Emotions are not exclusive to humans, though some emotion may be Nativists believe that emotions are automatic/biologically determined-not learned 1:1 correspondence between expression of emotion and the physiological state of the individual
How is Erikson's theory different from Freud's?
Entire lifespan vs. childhood 8 stages vs. 5 stages Social development vs. unconscious experiences Emphasis on ego vs. emphasis on id
Izard: Function of Joy
Facilitates bonding Lessons distance between two people Remains useful throughout life Relieves stress When you smile it changes blood flow in your brain so you feel better
Izard: Function of Disgust
Motivates you to keep poisonous/noxious things out of your body Otivated to keep bad things away Social cohesion within a group
What kind of parenting will support a healthy resolution of trust vs mistrust?
Secure attachment Sensitive, responsive and consistent caregiving Confidence translates to child
What cognitive ability develops around the same time as self conscious emotions?
Self awareness
What is the relationship between self-conscious emotions and self awareness?
Self awareness is necessary for self conscious emotions. Jealousy, embarrassment, and empathy all depend on one's self awareness Children must be aware of themselves and understand they are different from others to feel emotion involving others
What kinds of emotions become possible by around 18 months? (and what emotions fit this category)
Self conscious emotions & a greater capacity for regulating emotions These changes are due to a greater myelination of the frontal lobes Embarrassment, empathy and jealously happen around 18 months
What kind of emotions become possible at age 3?
Self-evaluative emotions (pride, shame, guilt)
Rochat observed infants' reaching behaviors with and without heavy wristbands. What was the point of the wrist bands?
Show how the wristbands were too heavy to allow babies to reach for an object. Those that had no wristband had no problem reaching for object. Perceiving body's effectivity- adjusting behavior based on change of body dynamics
Mirror and dot test
Tests self awareness Paint a red spot on the forehead of child (big enough for him to see it easily) Put him in front of a mirror Baby without self recognition/awareness: Will try to touch spot of baby in the mirror "other" baby, as he would be trying to clean or check the spot on the virtual baby Toddlers with self awareness: Generally able to recognize themselves on mirror images & show a different reaction to touch his own forehead to clean and check spot
Habituation
The decline in the tendency to respond to an event that has become familiar through repeated exposure
How did the infants do when the face was presented upside down? What does this tell us about their intermodal perception of emotions?
They FAILED. This tells us a 5 month old can pick up emotions and find meaning
What do infants begin to find funny at 9-10 months?
They laugh at the unexpected (showing that they know what should be expected) Why? connections between the frontal cortex, the hypothalamus and the limbic system (which processes sensory input), facilitate relationships between cognitive and emotional spheres
What behaviors did he observe in the infants? Did the wrist bands have an effect? Did it effect all infants?
They were more likely to reach if older/more muscle strength Wrist band meant they were less likely to reach (toppled over, bad sitting ability)
In the third phase, why was the face presented upside down?
To take away information they thought they were using (emotional information)
What does it mean that Erikson's theory is New-Freudian?
Took aspects of Freudian theory & applied to his own
What research has been used to support the nativist approach to emotions?
Traveled to different countries and showed pictures of faces with emotion title Consistent results- fear, enjoyment, sadness, disgust, surprise Showed videos to different cultures to elicit emotions (japan vs US)
Cogwheeling
Used to describe each individual as being part of a community of individuals all going through the same thing at the same time "community of lifespans" Ex. all people going through alzheimer's disease
WEIRD
Western Educated Industrialized Rich Democratic Description of who we have the most data and information from for mirror test Most evolved data showing mirror test doesn't strictly account for cognitive functioning but also deals with social aspects such as cultural differences
Do people from different cultures go through the same psychosocial stages?
Yes based on different survival needs, equilibrium reached in different paths
Izard: Function of Fear
functionally helpful in terms of survival Comes on in emergency situations when your life is threatened Fight or flight response
Social Smiling
signals child's active positive participation in the relationship. Infants will begin to smile at familiar faces 2nd month
