Instruction, Professional Issues, and Technology

Describe the perparatory education and training necessary for a career in music education.

A career in music education offers musicians the option to teach a wide variety of subjects like music theory and history in a public, choir, as well as subjects like music theory and history in a public, private, or parochial school. Music educators should hold a minimum of a bachelor's degree in music education, with the proper state teaching certification. Educators whose goal is to teach in college, conservatory, or university settings should aim for a doctorate or terminal degree in music to be considered for most tenured professorships. There are opportunities to teach in a community college with only a Master's degree, but an applicant will be more competitive with a doctorate or terminal degree.

Describe the following licensing resources, and their role for music educators: NMPA, MPA, ASCAP, BMI, SESAC, HFA, U.S. Copyright Office.

NMPA stands for the National Music Publishers' Association, which represents many of the music publishers in the US and helps with copyright holder identification. The MPA, the Music Publisher's Association of the US, similarly represents many print music publishers in the nation and also assists in copyright ownership issues. The ASCAP (American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers), the BMI (Broadcast Music, Inc.), and the SESAC (Society of European Stage Authors and Composers) all function to exercise appropriate performance licensing and distribution to their publishers and members. The HFA, the Harry Fox Agency, primarily serves as a recording license resource for many of the US music publishers. The US Copyright Office is a part of the Library of Congress and provides general information on copyright laws and issues in the United States.

Describe the necessary musical skills for composing a harmonic progression with proper root motion.

There are several musical skills necessary for a student to understand in composing a harmonic progression with proper root motion. Students should understand the circle of 5ths relationship between all 24 diatonic major and minor keys. This systematic organization of keys will help the student in creating key signatures and key relationships within chord progressions. Students should also understand that scales have formulae and spellings, and whole and half tones, as well as understand the concept of diatonic harmony. Without these precursory concepts, the student will have a harder time grasping the basic diatonic harmony of a major scale with Roman numeral designations. Students should also understand all inversions of triads and seventh chords, as the composition of proper root motion assumes the incorporation of appropriate inverted chords. Also important in the composition of harmonic progressions is proper voice leading of all four SATB voices, which in turn informs the proper motion of the chord roots.

Discuss the role of music education in the growing trend of cultural diversity.

As the United States becomes increasingly multicultural and diverse, the role of music education should adjust its aim to encompass music and cultures from around the world. Music education in the US has been historically focused on music of the Western world, such as that of Western classical music, American band music, and Western folk traditions. As more and more students in the American classroom come from diverse backgrounds, music educators should incorporate world music within its curriculum. Elementary music teachers can use Latin, South African, Indian, Chinese, Japaneses music, etc., to illustrate basic arts standards such as singing in groups and learning musical elements. Band, choral, and orchestra directors should include non-Western musical repertoire in concerts, such as those of non-Western composers and arrangers. As the ethnic makeup of the student population diversifies, so should music education diversify to reflect the multicultural aspect of modern society and not the monoculture of the distant past.

Summarize the music philosophy of Bennett Reimer.

Bennett Reimer was a prominent music educator and philosopher whose influential book, A Philosophy of Music Education, promoted an aesthetic model of music education. For Reimer, music exists as an expressive form, and cannot be limited to intellectual or other non-musical pursuits. Its merit is in connecting people to feelings, and Reimer believed that because music is essentially dynamic sound waves, it is the only art form that can kindle mental feelings. Reimer argued for the integration of music in general education for the overall betterment of society's compassion and empathy. The best form of music education involves listening, examining, and actively participating in only musical works, which to Reimer ought to be expressive. In a music curriculum, performance should note be the focus, since performance itself does not encourage active listening and the development of aesthetic feeling.

Define a DAW, its uses, and include three to five popular examples of sequencing software.

DAW stands for Digital Audio Workstation and is a computer-based recording, sequencing, and mixing tool for the modern musician. A complete DAW includes the computer, the digital audio software, a digital audio interface, optional plug-ins, digital signal processing, and possibly additional digital audio interfaces. It is important to choose the right digital sequencing software to have the right tools where needed. Avid Pro Tools is a popular DAW software and has become the standard in recording studios and home studios as well. MOTU Digital Performer is one of the oldest DAWs around and is compatible with both Mac and Windows. Apple Logic Pro is also one of the top DAWs and provides a wealth of interface options but is compatible with Apple products only. Ableton Live is one of the best live recording DAWs and offers many third-party hardware options made especially for the program. FL Studio is a classic DAW for creating loop- and sample-based music.

Compare the style of Impressionism in the visual arts with Impressionism in the musical arts.

Impressionism began as a visual arts movement at the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century with the works of Manet, Monte, Degas, Renoir, Morisot, Pissarro, Sisley, and Cassatt. The painters of the impressionist movement sought to move away from the highly defined traditional paintings of the official salons of the day, and to create works that caught the brief, sensory effect of a particular moment through optical effects of light, color, and atmosphere. The painters used soft brushstrokes, abandoning any sharp lines to evoke a sense of haze and smoke in their work. The Impressionist movement in the visual arts paralleled the musical movement of the 19th and 20th centuries as well. In the music of Debussy, formal elements such as distinct tonalities, cadences, and line were abandoned while soft effects such as non-climatic melodies, complex textures, misty instrumental colors, and continuously changing forms all contributed to fleeting moments of color.

Discuss techniques for teaching musical imitation as an improvisational method.

Improvisation cannot exist without imitation. As the very basis of improvisation, imitation allows students to learn techniques, progressions, melodic contour, and rhythmic patterns of improvisers of the past. Once the student has immersed himself or herself in studying improvisation through imitation, he or she will be much better able to assimilate improvisation techniques for innovative and new musical ideas. Students begin to learn how to imitate from birth. Language acquisition, gestures, and expressions are all learned through imitation. Therefore, as an educator, the process of teaching imitation should focus on musical selection to imitate, allowing the students to explore phrases in various keys and moods. The musical selections should give the students total immersion so that the learned framework becomes a launching point for free exploration in the next step towards full improvisation.

Discuss the conductor's influence on an ensemble's musical expression in performance.

In addition to coordinating the rhythmic timing of players and other musical logistics, part of the conductor's role is to establish the emotional content and musical expression of the performance. A skilled conductor is able to extract the appropriate musical expression from the ensemble with the slightest of gestures. The conductor should utilize his or her entire body in conveying the musical expression of the piece. An energetic musical section might require the conductor to exaggerate movements in a quicker manner, with an animated expression on the face, to draw out a similar energetic mood from the players. Likewise, a somber musical section might require the conductor to conduct with heavier, slower movements, with a grave expression on the face, to draw out a similar dark and solemn sound from the players.

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of intrinsic motivation in the classroom.

Intrinsic motivation is defined in behavioral psychology as motivation that exists for an individual in the activity itself, as opposed to extrinsic motivation in which motivation for an activity exists apart from the activity such as an outside pressure or reward. When students are intrinsically motivated, there will be satisfaction in the activity or task at hand, partly from a natural curiosity and partly from gratification in doing the task. Music educators can facilitate or encourage intrinsic motivation in the classroom; however, this type of motivation is only effective for those students who already have a natural tendency towards the task at hand. For other students who find no internal satisfaction or curiosity for the task at hand, intrinsic motivation will be useless. Intrinsic motivation, when effective, can foster a high quality of learning and creativity in students.

Discuss MIDI technology and give examples of its capabilities within music production

MIDI stands for Musical Instrument Digital Interface and provides a standard "language" of MIDI that allows communication between digital keyboards, computers, and even cell phones. MIDI does not record a digital version of a sound recording, but instead stores performance data of a particular performance. MIDI data includes tempo settings, which notes are to be played, what rhythms are to be played, which instruments are to be played, and the volume levels of the instruments. Since the recorded data are inherently performance instructions, MIDI-stored performances can be changed to sound on different instruments, in different keys, and in different tempi. MIDI technology has become a staple in the music industry, with its simplicity of recording, compact storage size, and a multitude of practical applications in recording, editing, and performing.

Describe factors that affect student participation in a school music program and strategies to counter negative influences.

Outcomes in a student's musical education are the result of a complex interaction of a large variety of variables, both genetic and environmental. The strongest factors impeding positive outcomes are those associated with poverty. Hunger, physical and emotional abuse, and chronic illness can lead to poor school performance, and health-risk behaviors are consistently linked with poor grades and test scores and lower educational attainment. School health programs have been shown to reduce health-risk behaviors and have a positive effect on academic achievement. Supportive teacher-student relationships have also been shown to positively affect social and academic outcomes for students, enabling them to feel secure in the learning environment. Students in high-poverty urban schools may benefit even more than their high-income counterparts from positive teacher-student relationships, given the strong association between poverty and negative outcomes.

Describe how to care for and maintain percussion instruments.

Percussion instruments require regular maintenance and inspection depending on the specific percussion instrument involved. Timpanis should be regularly inspected for an even and smooth head with a balanced action. On some timpani drums, the rim should be greased annually with lubricant such as cork grease, but others (like those that use Teflon tape) should never be lubricated - consult the manufacturer about specific care instructions regarding lubrication. Make sure to keep the timpani covered when not in use. Metal mallet instruments should be wiped regularly with a glass cleaner while wooden bar instruments should be wiped regularly with only a dampened cotton cloth or rag. Frequent inspections should be made to ensure that there are no splintered or cracked bars that need to be replaced. Drums should also be maintained regularly through the cleaning and lubricating of the hardware. Periodically inspect the rim, counterhoop, and head for any serious issues that would warrant repair or replacement.

Discuss how to involve students in caring for and maintaining Orff instruments.

Regular care and maintenance of Orff instruments helps to prolong the life of the instruments. Music educators can involve students in the care and maintenance of the instruments for a learned sense of responsibility as well as an efficient method of cleaning the instruments. Music educators can provide an end-of-the-year event that includes cleaning of all Orff instruments. Students should remove the instrument bars and start with the vacuuming of all dust from the instrument. Next, the students should take a damp rag with an oil soap to wash and clean the boxes and wooden bars. After the instrument has been cleaned, the students can take an oil polish such as common furniture polish to keep the instrument in proper, working condition. Music teachers can also have the students place a sticky note on any broken pins for the teacher to replace.

Discuss various strategies to accommodate students with visual impairments in the music classroom.

Since the student with visual impairment will not have the visual aspect to aid their learning, music educators should focus on other modalities of learning, i.e., aural and tactile methods, to help the visually impaired student succeed. If the student with visual impairment is learning how to play an instrument, the educator should allow ample time for the student to physically explore the instrument and take it apart if possible. The student should also have the chance to explore other examples of the instrument so the student can fully conceptualize the shape and various aspects of the instrument. Also, the music instructor should use the Braille Music Code for lessons on staff notation; students should not be expected to rely solely on their aural awareness of music, but should be able to learn musical notation as well. When demonstrating instrumental technique and movement, the educator should demonstrate the action by placing his or her hand under the student's hand.

Describe issues in vocal health and preventative measures one can take to minimize risk.

Vocal health should be a central priority for singers and non-singers alike. As a unique organ and instrument, the voice plays an essential role in daily communication as well as in music making. An unhealthy voice can become a raspy, hoarse, strained, or raw, presenting difficulty in singing and in speech. Proper hydration should be maintained to clear the mucus and moisturize the throat. Find alternatives to yelling, such as clapping, ringing a bell, or moving close to the person. Reduce background noise so that the voice does not need to be raised. Make sure to get proper rest for both the vocal mechanisms and the body through ample sleep time. Avoid drinking excessive alcohol, smoking, and inhaling chemical fumes that dehydrate and can damage the lungs. Be sure not to sing loudly on any high pitch that feels strained or uncontrolled.

Describe the appropriate sequence in teaching musical units leading to basic composition.

When teaching basic composition, the curriculum should entail several introductory concepts that sequentially lead to the understanding and creation of musical patterns. The beginning lessons should cover elements of notation as well as the understanding and appreciation of musical patterns. The students should learn treble clef, meter, bar line, measure, staff, octave, and intervals. Students should also examine a theme and variation, to learn how musical patterns can function. Students should start with short 8 measure phrases, working on the sequencing and patterning of msuic. The instructor should use highly imaginative examples to demonstrate sound patterning, such as a percussive interpretation of a thunderstorm or the sound a hopping frog might make. As the students learn to integrate their imagination with musical sounds, the lesson sequencing can focus more on musical compositional techniques such as transcriptions, cadences, and different tonalities.

Describe the benefit of attending clinics and conventions as resources in music education.

As a music educator, it is highly beneficial to attend clinics and conventions as resources for music education. Conventions offer ample opportunities to network with fellow music educators, which result in the exchange of teaching ideas, programs, and other helpful pedagogical ideas. Networking also allows the music educator the chance to collaborate with other colleagues, opening the door for inviting guest artists to the music program. Networking also allows the music educator to find a mentor as well as to become a mentor to a new aspiring teacher. Clinics offer a multitude of benefits to both the music educator and to the participating ensemble. Clinics allow both music educators and the ensemble to hear many other ensembles perform, giving both the teacher and student a peer review of the quality and level of student's performances.

Describe the ideal features of a classroom computer for music use.

A classroom computer in any music room proves to be an invaluable resources for the twenty-first century music student. With the music technology at hand, a classroom computer can help to reinforce lesson materials, provide a launching pad for music technology instruction, and offer students a wide array of resources for making music. The classroom computer should have enough RAM and storage to run multimedia programs, be Internet-ready, and have audio input and output features, speakers, and a CD- or DVD-ROM player. The computer should have easy-to-use menu screens and controls so that the students can easily navigate through the programs. The computer should have loudspeakers as well as headphones. The computer should also include MIDI, notation, and sequencing software, as well as electronic instruments with which to experiment and create sound in the DAW software.

Describe the mechanisms of a simple sound system following sound from an input transducer to an output transducer.

A simple sound system used for sound amplification consists of an input transducer, signal processing, and an output transducer. The input transducer can take the form of a microphone, which converts the sound that is picked up into audio signals that travel down cables to the signal processor. A signal processor can take the form of a mixing console through which the audio signals are processed in three ways. First, the audio signal goes through a preampfification system in which the sound that is picked up is amplified up to line level. Then, the audio signal goes through an equalizer in which an audio engineer or console operator adjusts the specific levels of tone quality for the most aesthetically pleasing balance. If necessary, the audio signal undergoes mixing, in which multiple inputs are processed together into one line-level output signal. The output transducer can take the form of a loudspeaker, and the signal line-level output signal is amplified and converted back into sound.

Describe the benefit of getting involved in IEPs for students with special needs.

According to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, schools must provide students who have learning disabilities with the same educational opportunities as their typically developing classmates. After the initial assessment, a unique educational program is developed for each student with special needs, called the Individual Education Program (IEP). The IEP outlines educational goals and other services or strategies needed for the student to achieve those goals. As a music educator, involvement with support staff and faculty regarding a student's IEP greatly enhances the quality of music education a student with special needs receives. The more a music educator understands a student's learning disability and techniques to aid musical learning, the more the student can engage in musical development. The music educator can collaborate with music therapists, special education teachers, and school counselors to better design special educational programs and receive consultant, direct service, and in-service assistance.

Discuss methods of incorporating music theory instruction during a full rehearsal.

As a music educator, it is important to incorporate music theory instruction during full rehearsals, ensuring that a student's musical education is a comprehensive, all-encompassing one, and not one solely focused on performance. A thorough musical education will allow the student an informed and deeper understanding of music. When possible, the music educator should introduce new theoretical concepts before rehearsing a piece; the instructor should not take too much time in explanation, but give one concise, direct introduction, as the immersion within the music will aid in a student's understanding. When the music educator interrupts the rehearsal to do spot checks, the instructor should use appropriate language in explaining the technical or musical problem, to further integrate the concept of music theory into musical performance and understanding. When time allows, the music educator can give brief verbal quizzes, to keep the students accountable for their musical theory learning.

Discuss strategies for motivating students in the music classroom.

As a music educator, it is important to provide motivation for students in the music classroom, since motivated students result in higher engagement and better learning. One effective strategy for motivating students is to become a role model for the students; when the students see the excitement and passion for the lesson material, that energy will be transferred to the students. Another strategy is to know the students well; once the students know that the teacher is involved in their education, they will be motivated to do well. Also, the teacher should use positive reinforcement and constructive criticism. These nonjudgmental remarks should motivate students on ways to improve. The music educator should also use frequent activities where the students have the opportunity to demonstrate their achievements, encouraging them to progress to the next level in cooperation. The teacher should also set realistic performance goals, ones that are appropriately challenging but still attainable.

Describe the risk of long exposure over time to high dB listening experiences.

As a musician, it is extremely important to be aware of the risks of long exposure over time to high dB listening experiences occur almost daily for some musicians through band practice and rock concerts. When the inner ear is exposed to high dB sound over time, irreversible damage can occur in the nerve fibers and structures of the inner ear. Since damage that occurs over time is a gradual process, a musician may not be aware of hearing loss until it has already occurred. Symptoms include distorted or muffled hearing, difficulty hearing high-pitched sounds such as doorbells, bird chirps, and alarm clocks, pain or ringing in the ear after exposure to excessively loud sounds, and trouble understanding group conversations or conversations on the phone.

Describe how the changes of physical, cognitive, and social development during puberty affects music learning.

As students progress through puberty in ages 10-14 for girls and 12-16 for boys, there are many changes physically, cognitively, and socially that affect their music learning. Students will be going through many growth spurts, and their reference for posture or instrument positioning may need to be adjusted accordingly. Also, voice development will affect vocal students as the larynx enlarges and the vocal chords lengthen and thicken. The physiological changes of the vocal mechanisms tend affect boys more than girls, evident in the "cracking" of the voice. During puberty, students will have to work towards singing voice production, pitch accuracy, increasing vocal range, and maintaining a positive attitude towards choral singing. Cognitively, students in puberty are increasingly able to process conceptual ideas and should work on self-regulating musical activities and performances. Socially, students in puberty tend to need more opportunities for self-expression, autonomy, and acceptance in their music learning.

Discuss the role of teacher feedback in music rehearsals as formative assessment of student evaluation.

Assessments in the music classroom can be a time-consuming activity; thus, it is highly useful and efficient to integrate as many informal assessment techniques as possible throughout the music rehearsal. Informal assessments can take the form of teacher feedback, short on-the-spot quizzes, and informal questioning and discussion. Not only will these informal assessments keep the students accountable for their daily musical progress, they will also give the music educator a formative assessment of the student's progress. When giving short on-the-spot performance tests, the teacher has the opportunity to gauge the progress of the individual or section; the educator can provide quick succinct feedback on accuracy, technique, or any other issues that arise. Informal questioning and discussion relating to the analysis of the music also allows the teacher to assess and provide the appropriate feedback to help the students' comprehension of the matter. The more feedback the teacher can provide, the more learning opportunities with be provided for the students.

Compare and contrast Baroque improvisation and jazz improvisation.

Baroque improvisation and jazz improvisation are separated by more than two centuries of musical development, and share widely different origins. Baroque improvisation served a primarily religious element in the churches of the time, while jazz improvisation was born in the bars and alleyways of New Orleans. Instruments used in the Baroque improvisation centered on string instruments can be found, from brass instruments and voices to drum kits and banjos. However, Baroque and jazz improvisations share many similar traits; although the instrumentations differ, both styles feature a more prominent section as well as a supporting harmonic section. Also, both Baroque and jazz improvisation follow a standard form in performance, whether a 32-bar form in jazz or a ritornello form in Baroque music. Throughout both genres, improvisations are based on outlined chord symbols that direct the melody.

Describe the three domains of learning according to Bloom's taxonomy of learning as related to music education.

Bloom's taxonomy refers to the framework for educational goals and objectives for learning as set in the 1950s by Benjamin Bloom (1913-1999) and other educational psychologists. The model outlines hierarchical levels of thinking in three different domains: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. Objectives for the cognitive domain focus on knowledge; for the affective domain, objectives focus on values; and for the psychomotor, objectives focus on physical motor skills. The model for the cognitive domain is most commonly referred to in music education as an assessment tool in forming and evaluating educational goals. The hierarchal levels in order are knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. In the knowledge stage, students must remember or recall information. In the comprehension stage, students must understand and be able to explain ideas and concepts. In the application stage, students apply the information in a new way. In the analysis stage, students must distinguish between different parts of the concept. In the synthesis stage, students must be able to gather the knowledge acquired to support and justify a decision. In the evaluation stage, students become independent to create and improvise original ideas.

Describe how to care for and maintain brass instruments.

Brass instruments require care and maintenance on several fronts. Instruments should always be handled with care. Avoid handling the finish and wipe away any oil, dirt, or other debris with a soft cloth after handling. Be careful to avoid any damage from jewelry, buttons, or zippers. Before storage, use a swab to remove as much moisture as possible from the inside of the instrument, and remove the mouthpiece before storage. For valved instruments, apply a small amount of valve oil before each playing session. Clean and lubricate all slides, removing old lubricant before applying a new layer, and use only a small amount, removing any excess with a soft cloth. Whenever possible, keep the instrument in a cool environment that is neither too dry nor too humid. Perform a regular inspection of all moving parts and the mouthpiece.

Compare and contrast career opportunities for musicians in classical performance and popular music performance.

Career opportunities for musicians in classical performance parallel certain career opportunities for musicians in popular music performance. Both types of musicians can hold permanent and semi-permanent posts in performing ensembles, contract gigs, one-time performances, and teaching positions. Many classical instrumentalists can find jobs with regional symphony orchestras, concert bands, and opera orchestras, while popular music instrumentalists can find jobs with theaters, house bands, jazz orchestras, and studios. Classical vocalists can find jobs with symphony choruses, opera companies, and vocal ensembles. Popular vocalists can find jobs with studios, house bands, and jazz groups. Musicians in both classical and popular performance have union resources that support their members. Career opportunities for classical and popular musicians may differ in demand, as the current musical trend favors the popular musician who can contribute to studio productions, whereas the traditional symphonies, operas, and orchestras struggle with general public interest.

Explain the importance of procedures and routines, and discuss examples of classroom routines.

Classroom procedures and routines are important for structure and organization within a student's day. Daily routines and procedures can also prevent many of the misbehaviors that result from an unorganized schedule and distractions. The lessons will have less interruption from distracted students and will flow much more easily. The music teacher should make sure to establish clear procedures and routines from the first day, taking care to go over each procedure in detail while modeling the procedures to ensure full understanding from the students. The first few weeks may require more time spent establishing procedures and routines, to help the rest of the school year flow more easily. Example classroom routines that are useful in providing structure and organization include how to enter the classroom, beginning work, roll call, announcements, "tardies," absences, teacher's attention signal, leaving one's seat, assignments, supplies, group work, and independent work.

Describe the music philosophy of David Elliot.

David Elliot is a music educator and philosopher whose book, Music Matters: A New Philosophy of Music Education, presents the praxial philosophy of music education, a direct departure from Reimer's aesthetic philosophy of music education. Elliot endorses a practical, procedural approach to music education, one that puts emphasis on the activity of, rather than the feeling that comes from, music making. To Elliot, musical knowledge is not just about familiarity and appreciation of musical works, but is also about the direct, purposeful skill set involved in making music. Central to Elliot's praxial philosophy is the concept of musicianship - one that encompasses music making and music listening. Curriculum should be based on music practice and should start with music making before students can fully comprehend the art of music making when listening to music. Elliot recommends a student apprenticeship model of education where the teacher plays the role of mentor and expert musician.

Describe measures musicians can take to protect their hearing.

The ear and its hearing mechanisms provide a unique and essential role for the musician; deliberate measures should be taken to protect hearing and avoid permanent damage that can occur over time when exposed to high dB listening experiences. Musicians should limit band practices to two hours, as the average sound intensity of a band practice is 90 decibels, a potentially hazardous level of sound if experienced frequently over long periods of time. If musicians must practice at high sound levels frequently or for a long period of time, proper hearing protection should be used, such as earplugs and earmuffs. Musicians should also avoid listening to music on portable music devices at high volume levels, or levels above 85 decibels, for a long period of time. Damage that occurs to the inner ear cannot be medically or surgically corrected and constitutes permanent hearing loss.

Discuss the role of improvisation in musical creativity.

Musical creativity holds improvisation at the core of its internal process through the formation of new ideas, sounds, and direction. Improvisation is the core vehicle of creativity within the musical realm. A musician might explore musical creativity by exploring only the black keys on a keyboard; this keeps the tonal context within a simple pentatonic scale and allows the musician to explore various phrases, ideas, and ranges of the keyboard. Improvisation can also foster freer musical creativity through singing or playing along to an existing track. This structured approach allows the musician to explore different timbres, harmonies, and tones with freedom. The musician must use mental imagery and mystery when improvising, to conceptualize new and different feelings, moods, and sounds. All of these processes contribute to an overall expansion of a musician's musical creativity and improvisational possibility, leading to more independent melodic, harmonic, and rhythmic improvisation.

Describe various notation software and methods for incorporating the software into instructional activities.

Notation software provides an important tool in music education, allowing students to notate compositions electronically, transfer the data to other MIDI instruments, and integrate technology into the music classroom. Using notation software helps to reinforce musical concepts and compositional lessons for the students. Many notation programs will transcribe the music as it is played on an attached keyboard or sung into a microphone. Notes can also be manually input by the mouse. The premier notation software Sibelius features high ease of use, varied input/output capabilities, great editing options, and good technical support. Finale is another widely used notation software and features student versions as well as professional versions. MagicScore Maestro features easy notational input, but does not have controls that are as intuitive as other notation software. Forte Home is a great notation software for the beginner but features no virtual piano.

Describe the Every Pupil Responds instructional technique.

Educators use the Every Pupil Responds instructional technique as a way to ensure student inclusion during a lesson. The technique requires students to simultaneously respond to the teacher's question by demonstrating or displaying the appropriate response. This allows the educator to quickly and efficiently check for understanding. The Every Pupil Responds technique can be adapted to fit a variety of situations and keeps students actively involved. Teachers can hand out cards with the answers "yes" or "no," different musical notational signs, or a blank board with which students can write their own responses and hold up. Additionally, teachers can instruct students to point to the correct object or placement on an instrument. If students are seated in pairs, teachers can instruct students to whisper the answer to their neighbor, and then have the entire classroom say the answer out loud.

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of extrinsic motivation in the classroom.

Extrinsic motivation is defined in behavioral psychology as motivation that exists for an individual apart from the activity or task such as an outside pressure or reward, as opposed to intrinsic motivation in which motivation exists in the activity itself. When students are extrinsically motivated, satisfaction lies in an external reward, pressure, or some external prompt. Music educators can facilitate or encourage extrinsic motivation in the classroom, especially when there is a lack of intrinsic motivation. Oftentimes, the classroom structure is based on extrinsic motivation, through rewards such as grades, privileges, and peer esteem. Extrinsic motivation can also exist through a student's sense of future well-being and goals. If the music educator focuses on extrinsic motivators such as tangible rewards or a student's ego, the motivation will disappear when the motivators disappear. Thus, educators should encourage extrinsic motivators such as the student's acknowledgement of the tasks' importance towards a future goal.

Describe the necessity of filtering software for music classrooms.

Filtering software is one method to protect students from obscene, inappropriate, and otherwise harmful websites on the Internet. The filtering software can be set to a variety of levels, from most restrictive to least restrictive. Even at the least restrictive setting, the software blocks pornographic content, obscene subject matter, and other inappropriate websites. The more restrictive settings marginally block more content, but may also block safe educational content through unreliable and inconsistent measures. Some educators have voiced opposition to filtering software, claiming inconsistent and unreliable results, interference of legitimate education websites, and a lack of input across the school district. Opposition also claims that filtering software prevents students from learning how to make their own sound decisions based on real-world knowledge. Despite the challenges of filtering software, it is still a necessary tool in providing a safe and positive learning environment for students.

Describe the software capabilities of Finale, Nightingale, and Overture.

Finale is one of the most widely used notation software packages on the market. It allows music to be input through MIDI-controlled instruments as well as scanning, and then converts the data onto a staff. Finale features a diverse playback instrument library and allows easy sharing between users. Tools like transposition, range checking, production, and sequencing capabilities make Finale an essential tool for the musician. Nightingale notation software is available on the Mac platform only, and offers a simple, basic approach to digital notation. Nightingale offers a PostScript output equal to that of other notation software, with similar features such as MIDI and scanning input, as well as playback, transposition, and orchestration tools. Overture is highly intuitive notation software that features many similar tools such as MIDI and scanning input and diverse editing options, but also includes VST, Virtual Studio Technology, which allows ease of integration between software audio synthesizers, plug-ins, Overture, and other recording systems.

List performance opportunities available for aspiring student musicians.

For aspiring student musicians, there are a multitude of performance opportunities and venues in which to hone their craft. Serious music students who want a deeper music experience may attend a summer music program. Performing art camps provide in-depth lesson, performance opportunities, and practice time, as well as traditional camp activities for social recreation. There are also summer programs on college campuses, which give students a glimpse into life at an undergraduate music college. Other summer programs may be instrument- or genre-specific, such as a jazz summer camp or a summer program for vocalists only. Some summer programs are offered in conjunction with a music festival, in which students immerse themselves in community performances and attend a showcase music festival as well. During the school year, students may audition or compete in local, regional, and national competitions that provide selected contestants with performance opportunities and publicity. Students can also seek out coffee houses that occasionally showcase student musicians.

Describe the philosophy behind non-formal teaching and informal learning in fostering musical self-expression.

In contrast to a formal learning setting in which a music educator introduces educational content to a student, informal training refers to a student's self-led exploration of musical learning with or without an experienced mentor. Non-formal teaching and informal learning can constitute a valuable part of the student's growth as a musician. When students are in charge of their own musical development, they are able to choose the style and direction of their growth. This casual form of learning gives students more autonomy in their education, which encourages them to become more involved in their own learning. Many famous musicians were self-taught, and students can learn what works best for them as individuals, instead of a teacher-dictated method or form. However, educators should be careful about the potential pitfalls of disregarding formal education entirely for non-formal teaching. Since a student is entirely accountable for his or her own musical development, educational outcomes can be highly variable depending on the student. Also, students who learn informally tend to practice only those skills that are their strengths, while their weaker skills go neglected.

Describe the elements of music needed in order to successfully perform a piece of music.

In order to successfully perform a piece of music, a student must know more than correct notes and rhythm. The student should also analyze all aspects of the melody, rhythm, harmony, and form of the piece. A thorough analysis of the melody, for example, can inform the performer of where the climax is, allowing the performer to appropriately time the musical tension and release of the overall piece. Knowing the rhythmic form also allows the performer to note any subtle transitions the composer may be suggesting. The harmony of the musical work also holds cues as to the structure of the work, allowing the performer to bring the appropriate mood in transitions and development of the work. The performer should also examine the historical context of the piece; knowing the intention and purpose of the composition can inform the musician as to how to execute dynamics, articulations, and releases, depending on the given mood.

Discuss the recent trend of student-led parent-teacher conferences.

In recent years, there has been a trend toward student-led parent-teacher conferences. The rationale behind this method holds that when students step up as a catalyst for parent-teacher communication, students gain accountability for their educational development, awareness of the importance of open communication, and leadership skills, among other benefits. In the student-led parent-teacher conference model, teachers act as facilitators while students are responsible for answering any teacher or parent questions pertaining to academic achievement, student portfolios, educational development, and grades and assessment. Some teachers have students fill out self-assessment surveys before a conference to help students evaluate their learning, their strengths, weaknesses, skills, and habits, and their social interaction with classmates. This approach to parent-teacher conferences helps parents see their children taking initiative for their own educational process, and helps to transfer that open communication during conferences to the home environment.

Describe the exemptions provided for educators under the "fair use" provision as defined in the 1976 Copyright Act.

In the "fair use" provisions as set by the 1976 Copyright Act, educators are exempt from certain copyright laws, given the appropriate use and distribution of the copyrighted materials. When reproducing materials for use within the classroom, teachers are allowed to make copies of up to 10 percent of the entire work for each student, but cannot reproduce an entire copyrighted work for the classroom. When recording copyrighted materials, educators are exempt from the compulsory license only if the educator makes a single recording. If the educator wants to make more than one copy but fewer than 500 copies of the recording, the educator must obtain a license from the Harry Fox Agency. The educator is allowed to rearrange a musical work in a reasonable way for educational purposes. The educator is allowed to perform a copyrighted song only if for demonstration in the classroom; all other performances require a license.

Discuss techniques for teaching musical variation as an improvisational method.

Much of improvisation consists of variation: thematic variation, melodic variation, rhythmic variation, stylistic variation, and harmonic variation are all examples of improvisational techniques. When teaching musical variation to students, the instructor should begin with only slight variations within a controlled framework. The students may start exploring variation through melodic variation first; all other aspects of which to diverge. Melodies may introduce appoggiaturas, silence, and added neighbor notes, until the melody is so varied that the only recognizable aspects are the constant harmonies. Music educators can also use the call-and-response technique for group improvisation, with each call and response of the students a continued variation of the riff. Educators should incorporate improvisations by students in every concert or project as an extra motivator as students learn how to improvise through techniques such as variation.

Describe the preparatory education and training necessary for a career in music business, and list example job titles.

Music business covers the legal, financial, ethical, and artistic aspects of managing a music business. For a career in music business, many students undertake an undergraduate degree in music business, finishing what a B.A. in Music Business. Some students may continue higher education, achieving an MBA in Music Business as well. A degree will help to qualify a student in music business, but it is more important to get hands-on training through an internship and a foot in the door for the highest likelihood of success in the industry. Jobs within music business include artist manager, booking agent, business manage, recording studio owner, music publisher, Internet marketing specialist, media promotion specialist, concert or event promoter, arts and entertainment writer, publicist, product manager, recording studio manager, artist and repertoire scout, account executive, finance assistant, artist liaison, tour manager, booking agent, independent radio promoter, and music licensing supervisor.

Discuss the practical advantages of collaborating with colleagues in terms of implementing a music curriculum.

Music education cannot exist in isolation. A single instructor, though dedicated and focused in delivering a high-quality curriculum, cannot meet the educational demands of all the students alone. Collaboration is advantageous in music education for various reasons. When collaborating with veteran colleagues, a music teacher can learn valuable educational strategies that only come with long-term experience. Music selection, behavior management, and instructional assessment are all areas that a willing, humble, and open collaboration can enhance. Students will also benefit when music teachers collaborate with instructors from other school subjects, whether math, English, or history. When educational objectives are reinforced within another classroom, learning is heightened, and the students learn that no one subject exists in the world in isolation - everything is interconnected. A music educator can also collaborate with the school librarian in asking for current resources, and the librarian can better understand what unique set of strengths and talents; by collaborating with colleagues, the music curriculum can become an inspired agent for student transformation.

Describe practical teaching techniques to accommodate kinesthetic learners.

Students whose primary learning style is that of kinesthetic learning need specific teaching techniques to help them succeed. Kinesthetic learners learn best by doing, and need to integrate movement with the introduction of new educational concepts and ideas. Music educators should implement teaching techniques that require students to move while learning new educational content. Lesson segments should be kept short with frequent breaks to stand up and move. When introducing concepts such as rhythm and meter, the music educator should require accommodate those who are kinesthetic learners. When teaching specific instrumental techniques, the instructor should make sure that the kinesthetic learner demonstrates the movement or technique, rather than merely verbally or visually explaining the concept. Educators con also implement frequent games, field trips, and seating changes.

Discuss the role of the music educator in exercising appropriate professional conduct in situations involving the community and family.

Music educators are entrusted to oversee the development and well-being of students, and as such, have certain moral and ethical obligations to both the students, and as such, have certain moral and ethical obligations to both the students as well as the community and family. The music educator should act in the highest professional manner with a commitment to the music education profession, while understanding his or her influence on the community and family. Music educators should obey all local, state, and federal laws, and should never put students in physical or emotional harm. When the music educator is in a non-school setting he or she should continue to act with the highest level of judgement, since personal misconduct can lead to public disapproval and thus an interruption in the student's musical development and trust. Also, the music educator should never disclose a student's personal information to any person other than school personnel, for risk of a confidentiality breach. The music educator should always maintain appropriate communication with the family, and never for personal gain or advantage.

Discuss the role of the music educator in maintaining student confidentiality and appropriate professional conduct through communication, transport, and contact with students.

Music educators are entrusted to oversee the growth, development, and well-being of the students, and as such, have certain moral and ethical obligations. The music educator should act in the highest professional manner with a commitment to the music education profession, to the students, to the community, and to the family. Since music educators can be seen as role models to developing a student's musical growth, all boundaries between student and teacher should be honored so that both parties can be held above reproach. The music educator should act in a way to ensure an emotionally and physically safe and healthy environment for the students. When travelling to field trips and concerts, the students must ride in a district-approved vehicle and never in a personal vehicle. When greeting teachers, the teacher should exercise minimal physical contact, again, to be above reproach.

Discuss various techniques in teaching musical aesthetics and expression.

Music educators can use various techniques to teach musical aesthetics and expression in their students. Instructors should use the technique of modeling often, to demonstrate various physical and aural attributes of an expression to the student. The students should have various visual and aural models of expressive representation to be able to integrate the technique and sound into his or her own expressive voice. The music educator can also use guided listening to teach musical aesthetics to students. As another method of modeling, the student will be able to listen to the individual expression of other performers in developing one's own musical aesthetic. The music educator can also analyze, reflect, and evaluate musical performances together with the students, so that the students will be able to think critically and creatively in analyzing, reflecting, and evaluating their own unique musical aesthetic and expression.

Discuss how music instruction can be integrated with common core subjects.

Music educators have the unique opportunity of integrating subjects outside of the fine arts with musical instruction. While focusing on musical instruction, the students can be fully immersed in musical learning as well as language arts, history, math, and science. When discussing musical phrasing, music educators can relate questions and answers in music to questions and answers in English. The students can also examine how individual phrases within music reinforce the work as a whole, the same way an individual sentence or paragraph relates to a written text as a whole. Teachers can use repertoire selections to reinforce historical knowledge as well, whether it be the Industrial Revolution during the Romantic era, or the Greek and Roman renewal of the Renaissance era. Basic musical elements require a mathematical understanding such as the division of meters and the relationship of subdivided beats. Concepts in science such as humidity, fluid dynamics, and physics can be integrated with instrument knowledge such as woodwind care and sound wave properties.

Discuss a sample semester assessment plan including both individual and group development.

Music educators should use assessment strategies that include both individual student achievement as well as group ensemble achievement. A comprehensive rubric provides accountability for each student's musical growth within an ensemble setting. A sample semester assessment plan should include individual grading criteria such as performance of technical scales and musical excerpts, correct pitch matching, and correct rhythm matching. Students should be able to demonstrate historical and contextual knowledge of the appropriate music, and should demonstrate thoughtful analysis and evaluation of music. Group grading criteria can include attendance at performances, attendance at local concerts, chamber music participation, and solo/ensemble festival participation. Classroom criteria can include rehearsal preparation and readiness. The weight of each section could be graded as follows: individual performance: 30 percent; other: 10 percent.

Describe cost-effective strategies to minimize the financial cost of a music program.

Music programs in the current decade face many financial challenges within school districts; when faced with budget cuts, music programs must find ways to minimize the financial impact of their annual operating costs. Loaning music from other programs or libraries can reduce spending on new scores and music. Some movie theaters screen performances of operas, symphonies, and other concerts at a lower cost than a live theater performance. Consider distributing course materials electronically when possible, as printing costs that may seem small in isolation will accumulate over the course of a year. In a program that provides instruments that will be shared among students, ensure regular maintenance and instrument care to prevent damages that can mean expensive repair or replacements. A director should attempt to design performances and outreach efforts in a way that will create value for the community, while creating political and financial support for the school.

Discuss techniques for meaningful parent-teacher conferences emphasizing two-way communication.

Parental involvement is one of the most important factors in student success in school. When parents participate in their children's educational process, children learn from their most important support figures and gain encouragement, self-esteem, and a role model for a lifetime. One-way music teachers can influence and nurture parental support in their students' education through parent-teacher conferences can be used to open two-way communication in helping parents support their student's learning process. First, teachers must help parents be aware of conference dates and goals. Multiple announcements through various mediums and providing information in many different languages will help parents plan for conferences. Flexibility is key in planning sessions so that parents have the option of early morning, afternoon, or early evening times, as well as the option for extended sessions. Teachers can also coordinate free services through the PTA, such as transportation, childcare, and refreshments. Two-way communication can be achieved through providing opportunities for dialogue, flexibility, and an open and receptive attitude.

Describe the career opportunities in performing arts medicine.

Performing arts medicine includes all disciplines that oversee and promote the health of the performing artist. Career opportunities can include medical professionals, artist educators, and administrators who strive to advocate the health of performing artists. Medical health professionals evaluate and treat any medical problems that may occur in dancers, singers, instrumentalists, and actors at all stages of their careers. The medical health professional may suggest physical therapy, occupational therapy, speech therapy, psychological shrives, or other forms of arts-specific rehabilitation. The focus of many performing arts medical professionals is to prevent re-injury, and the treatment may also cover technique, repertoire, instrument state, and emotional state adjustments as related to the injury. Career opportunities are also present in the continuing education and advocacy for injury prevention and healthy habits for the performing artist.

Describe practical teaching techniques to accommodate visual learners.

Students whose primary learning style is that of visual learning need specific teaching techniques to help them succeed. Visual learners learn best by seeing educational content. When teachers are explaining educational content or instructions, they should also provide a visual explanation, either through a projector or handouts, or by demonstrating the concepts visually. Educators can also encourage visual learners to make flashcards, a helpful tool to visually learn content. Another practical tool for visual learners are pictures, diagrams, and concept maps. These all allow students to visually integrate the learning content internally. When demonstrating instrumental technique or posture, the educator should make sure that all students can see, to accommodate for those who are also visual learners. Without a visual model, visual learners will have a harder time assimilating the new concepts and skills.

Describe principles of sequencing a music curriculum.

Principles of sequencing a music curriculum can be based on three different techniques: content sequencing, task sequencing, or sequencing of elaboration. When sequencing based on content, the instructor should analyze the content for the main item and then organize the general content into a hierarchal structure. The most general and inclusive content should be presented first, leading the way to more detailed ideas while all the while relating them to former learning content. When sequencing based on a task, the instructor should analyze the skill involved and order the learning progression from simple, more elementary tasks towards more complex skills that build on previous tasks. When sequencing based on elaboration, the students are given an overall view of the knowledge, and then presented with basic content first, progressing towards more detailed information while keeping the organizing overall theme in place.

Describe Laban's theory of movement education.

Rudolf von Laban (1879-1958) was a Hungarian dancer and theorist whose foundational movement theories for dance have been adopted by music educators for movement-based music education. Laban believed that all people should learn the four elements of movement to develop mindfulness and creativity. These four elements, or "effort" elements, are flow, weight, time, and space. Flow refers to free and tense movements; weight refers to heavy and light movements; time refers to quick and slow movements; and space refers to direct/straight and indirect/arcing movement. Laban also outlined eight basic actions: punch, slash, dab, flick, press, wring, glide, and float. Although these movement theories were originally intended for dance education, music educators have used these ideas to develop curriculum that incorporates effort elements and actions to express and interpret music, as well as in performance. These movements have also been adopted by conductors to convey musical gesture.

Discuss simple and compound musical form, giving examples of each.

Simple musical form describes a tonal work that can be seen as a complete and self-contained work that is not divisible into other, smaller self-contained works. Examples of simple musical forms include binary and ternary forms. In each of these forms, there are thematic sections labeled A or B, but neither of these thematic sections can be further divisible into other simple forms. Compound musical form describes a tonal work that can be seen as a composite form that is made up of other, smaller simple forms such as binary and ternary forms. An example of a compound form is the Minuetto and Trio form to create an overall ternary compound form. Other examples of compound musical forms are sonata movements, symphony movements, string quartets, and suites.

Describe how to care for and maintain stringed instruments.

Stringed instruments require care and maintenance on several fronts. The instrument should be handled with care, and players should avoid directly handling the fragile varnish, which can be damaged by oils on the hands. When playing, care should be taken to avoid damage by jewelry, buttons, or zippers. Immediately after each use, remove oil, rosin dust, and other debris with a soft cloth. Special treated cloths can be used, but must not be used on strings or the hair of the bow. String instruments should, whenever possible, be kept in a well-regulated environment away from excessive exposure to direct light, too hot or too cold temperatures, and too dry or too humid environments. Failure to observe these precautions can result in bending, cracking, glue joint separations, arching distortion, and many other problems.

Describe practical teaching techniques to accommodate aural learners.

Students whose primary learning style is that of aural learning need specific teaching techniques to help them succeed. Aural learners learn best by hearing educational content, so teachers should frequently use precise terms when explaining an idea. Aural learners also learn through talking and discussion, so a useful teaching technique is allowing students to discuss ideas and content among themselves. Aural learners may need to question and talk through ideas to help thoroughly comprehend educational content, so teachers should not brush off students' questions, but allow ample time for student questions and answers. Another technique to accommodate aural learners, who need to hear ideas and talk through them, is to have spoken quizzes and tests, to allow aural learners the opportunity to talk through a concept. A helpful technique particularly for aural music learners is to listen to a recording of one's own rehearsals to be able to hear for mistakes and areas for improvement.

Discuss various strategies to help students with dyslexia understand written musical notation.

Students with dyslexia tend to have difficulty with visual tracking, visual stress, visual-motor comprehension, sound discrimination, and symbol-sound relationships. Without the proper guidance from the music educators, the student with dyslexia may feel alienated from the educational curriculum, as well as from peers and the overall learning process. The music educator should begin by removing any barriers to the student's learning and helping to build on the student's strengths. Musical notation can be enlarged so that visual processing for the student will be easier. The student can also use color-coded overlays to prevent visual stress from the all-white background as well as to highlight certain aspects of the score. The music educator should also use a multi-sensory approach to teaching musical notation, including Dalcroze and Kodaly techniques, visual and aural demonstrations of rhythm, visual and tactile demonstrations of notation, technology, pattern learning, and graphics within the notation.

List four to six professional organizations for music educators and describe the focus of each.

The American String Teachers Association is the largest professional organization for string teachers and offers journals, books, posters, and conferences, providing ongoing training for string teachers and promoting orchestra programs in schools and communities. The Association of Teaching Artists is a professional organization for "teaching artists" in all arts disciplines - music, dance, theater, visual arts, poetry, etc. - that provides a network and place for collaboration among all its members. The Jazz Education Network is a relatively new professional organization for jazz teachers, with conferences and festivals throughout the nation. The Music Teachers National Association is a professional organization supporting music teachers across the nation, providing conferences, festivals, and programs. The National Association for Music Education has 50 state affiliates and supports music educators in schools. The American Orff-Schulwerk Association is an organization dedicated to preserving the Orff-Schulwerk approach to music education.

Describe the Dalcroze method and its impact on modern music education.

The Dalcroze method was developed around 1900 by Swiss composer, musician, and pedagogue Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, who developed a system of music education through movement called eurhythmics, in which students use a kinesthetic approach to experience musical concepts. In the Dalcroze method, the body is seen as the instrument, and students discover expression, musicality, tempo, dynamics, style, and phrase structure through physical dialogue with the music. Without the ability to physically respond to music, Dalcroze believed that no human could be fully musical. The approach uses eurhythmics, solfege, and improvisation to facilitate musical development in children. In a typical eurhythmics class, students will incorporate movement of their feet, arms, and bodies to music that is either improvised by the teacher or played from a recording. This method was brought to the United States in the early 1900s and slowly found its ways into mainstream primary-level music education.

List and describe four to six music education journals.

The Journal of Research in Music Education is a major peer-reviewed research journal on the field of music education published by Sage Publications for the National Association for Music Education. The Music Educators Journal is a peer-reviewed journal published by Sage as part of the National Association for Music Education, featuring scholarly and practical articles on music teaching. The International Journal of Music Education is another scholarly peer-reviewed journal published quarterly by Sage as part of the International Society of Music Education. The Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education is an academic journal covering peer-reviewed original research in the field of music education that is published quarterly by the University of Illinois Press for the Council for Research in Music Education. The Journal of Band Research features scholarly articles on band music, history, and methodology, and is the official publication of the American Bandmasters Association.

Describe the Kodaly method and its impact on modern music education.

The Kodaly method was developed by Hungarian composer, musician, ethnomusicologist, and educator Zoltan Kodaly (1882-1967), who believed that music is an innate part of every human's experience and that musical literacy should be an integral part of every child's education. For Kodaly, the main goal of musical education is singing; since music belongs to every human, and every culture has folk songs, the voice is then the most accessible instrument. To facilitate musical literacy for the masses, Zoltan Kodaly advocated the use of the moveable-do system, hand signs for solfege syllables, rhythmic syllables, and solfa notation. The use of hand signs provides both a visual and kinesthetic tool for children so that the musical elements of pitch and intervals are first experienced and then identified. The Kodaly method uses a five-step instructional sequence: Preparation, Make Conscious, Reinforcement, Practice, and Create, and is foundational in early music education philosophies today.

Discuss the various music performance outcomes according to the National Standards that help to dictate assessment components.

The National Association for Music Education has published Performance Standards of musical outcomes and student abilities by grade level. These Performance Standards should provide a guideline for the music educator for assessment criteria. Students should be able to sing alone and with others, demonstrating correct technical and musical ability and in a wide range of styles. Students should be able to improvise basic melodies and basic accompaniments on their instrument or through singing. Students should be able to compose and arrange music within specific contexts with or without technology. Students should be able to read and notate music appropriate to their level. Students should be able to listen to music and then analyze or describe it. Students should be able to evaluate music and musical performances. Students should also be able to relate music to non-musical fields such as history, visual art, literature, and others.

Describe the musical content standards for grades 5-8 as outlined in the National Standards for Arts Education.

The National Standards for Arts Education covers nine general content standards for grades 5-8. Students in this age bracket should be able to sing independently and in a group accurately in two or three parts, with expression in a variety of genres. Students should be able to perform instruments independently and in groups with accuracy, expression, and good technique. Students should be able to improvise short melodies and simple harmonic accompaniments in a consistent style, meter, and tonality. Students should be able to read standard notation including 16th and dotted notes, and understand compound meters. Students should be able to describe and analyze specific elements of music in listening. Students should be able to evaluate their own and other students' performances based on their own criteria. Students should be able to compare and contrast music with other fine arts and other disciplines. Students should be able to classify and describe various genres and styles of music in history and other world cultures.

Describe the musical content standards for grades 9-12 as outlined in the National Standards for Arts Education.

The National Standards for Arts Education covers nine general content standards for grades 9-12. Studnets in this age bracket should be able to sing a large and varied vocal repertoire in four or more parts with expression, technical accuracy, and good ensemble skills. Students should be able to perform a large and varied instrumental repertoire with technical accuracy, expression, and good ensemble skills. Students should be able to improvise original and stylistically appropriate harmonizing parts in a consistent style, meter, and tonality. Students should be able to compose for a variety of instruments and voices. Students should be able to read standard and nonstandard notation in full vocal and instrumental scores. Students should be able to describe and analyze in detail specific elements of music in listening. Students should be able to critically evaluate performances, improvisations, and compositions. Students should be able to meticulously compare and contrast music with other fine arts and other disciplines. Students should be able to identify and describe various genres and styles of music in history and other world cultures through aural examples.

Describe the musical content standards for grades K-4 as outlined in the National Standards for Arts Education.

The National Standards of Arts Education covers nine general content standards for grades K-4. Students in this age bracket should be able to sing independently and in a group on pitch and rhythm, with dynamics, articulation, and phrasing. Students should be able to perform instruments in groups with easy rhythmic, melodic, and choral patterns, while maintaining a steady tempo. Students should be able to improvise simple musical answers and accompaniment for familiar melodies. Students should be able to compose simple short songs to accompany readings or dramatizations. Students should be able to read basic notation to eighth notes, basic dynamic markings, and understand 2/4 and 4/4 meters. Students should be able to move purposefully to music and be able to identify a variety of instrumental sounds. Students should be able to explain their personal preferences to certain music with proper music terminology. Students should be able to identify similarities and differences in the various arts and other disciplines. Students should be able to identify various genres or roles of music in their daily life.

Describe the Orff-Schulwerk method and its impact on modern music education.

The Orff-Schulwerk method was developed by German composer, musician, and educator Carl Orff (1895-1982) and his close collaborator Gunild Keetman (1904-1990), who believed that music should be actively experienced and is best learned through a child's natural tendency to play. In the Orff approach, students explore music through the integration of drama, speech, and movement. Students are encouraged to play an active part in their musical development through improvisation on pitched and unpitched musical instruments. The Orff-Schulwerk method emphasizes rhythm development through chanting and bodily rhythm patterns and movement, and melodic development through improvisation or speaking patterns and specialized Orff instruments. The pentatonic scale is the most common scale used in the method, as it is most accessible on the Orff instruments. The Orff-Schulwerk approach is common in today's elementary music classrooms and is found in schools around the world.

Describe the use of the Socratic method in guided listening to teach students self-assessment and to develop one's own musical expression.

The Socratic method refers to the philosophy of education as set by the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates, which advocates the use of questions in developing a student's critical thinking and intellect. Rather than lecturing or telling the student educational content, the questions compel the student to use critical thinking for a solution or answer. The music educator can utilize this philosophy of education in all areas of music education, and especially in guided listening to teach students self-assessment, critical thinking, and how to develop one's own musical expression. Music educators can ask guided questions such as "How does the expressive elements of this performance inform your own playing?" to foster a sense of self-assessment in the student's music listening. Asking open-ended questions rather than yes/no questions will further develop the student's critical thinking abilities and intellectual curiosity, translating the analysis of guided listening to his or her own musical practice and growth.

Describe the Suzuki method and its impact on modern music education.

The Suzuki method was developed by Japanese violinist, educator, and composer Shinichi Suzuki (1898-1998), who believed that musical development is best structured through a mother tongue approach, where children hear and learn to play music from an early age, as with speech. The Suzuki method emphasizes substantial parent involvement, an early start, listening, and repetition, similar to a child's language development. Creating an encouraging environment immensely helps a child's musical development. Students typically begin learning music by ear, and after developing competence on an instrument, learn to read music notation. The Suzuki learning sequence follows the language learning sequence, since children learn how to speak before they learn to read. The Suzuki method offers a sequential repertoire for musical development on a variety of instruments and is found in many schools through the use of the Suzuki repertoire, memorization of pieces, repetition, learning by rote, and continual parental involvement.

Discuss music scholarships for junior and senior high school music students.

The United States Marine Band, "President's Own." offers a concerto competition to high school woodwind, brass, or percussion students. Winners of the Marine Band Concerto Competition are awarded a performance as guest soloist with the United States Marine Band and a cash prize. The Williams Chorale Bacardi Fallon Scholarship Competition offers cash prizes and a performance opportunity to the top contestants of the competitions. The VSA Arts International Young Soloists Program gives monetary awards and performances in Washington, D.C., to students with disabilities. The Tri-M Music Honor Society Chapter of the Year Music Scholarships award top student chapters the opportunity for summer music study. The Glenn Miller Birthplace Society Scholarship gives high school winners the chance to perform at the Glenn Miller Festival.

Describe the aesthetic approach to the philosophy of music education.

The aesthetic philosophy for the inclusion of music in the general curriculum emerged during the national education reform of the 1950s. As schools sought to redefine general education in the U.S., music educators saw the need for a new philosophy of music education beyond what the utilitarian philosophy could provide. Influential theorists of aesthetic arts education include Bennett Reimer, Michael Mark, Elliot Eisner, Charles Leonhard, Robert House, and Maxine Greene. These scholars argued that music ought to be studied in and for itself; only through music and the arts can students develop the sensitivity, feeling, and symbolic communication represented by musical understanding. Any extra-musical benefits pale in comparison to the pure enjoyment and interaction of making music. To supporters of the aesthetic philosophy for the inclusion of music education, no other field of study can develop the musical perception, mental sensations, and the appreciation for beautiful sound except music study itself.

Describe the literary and musical background of the ballade genre.

The ballade refers to a literary and musical form in which words are set to three stanzas with seven or eight lines each. The original literary form of the ballade usually featured a narrative that could be comic, romantic, tragic, or historical. Although ballades have been around since the Medieval ages, renewed interest in the Romantic era helped the genre to flourish in the 18th and 19th centuries. Poets who often wrote ballades that were set to music include Goethe, Schiller, Fontane, Heine, Platen, and Chamisso. Notable ballade composers who set literary ballades to music include Schubert, Schumann, Liszt, Wagner, and Strauss. By the middle of the 19th century, composers started to write purely instrumental ballades; Chopin wrote four piano ballades, most likely based on poems by Mickewicz, both Liszt and Brahms wrote instrumental piano ballades.

Discuss military performance opportunities for musicians.

The military offers a wealth of opportunities for the musician. The Army, Navy, Air Force, and Coast Guard all have full-time music ensembles. Ensembles are characterized as either Premier bands or Regional bands. The 10 Premier bands are based in Washington, D.C., or are attached to the academy of the relevant branch. Premier band ensemble members have a guaranteed post, without the potential for transfer to other locations. Regional bands are housed on bases domestically and abroad. Each "band" represents several different performing ensembles. The U.S. Air Force Band, for example, oversees six entities: The Concert Band, Singing Sergeants (chorus), Airmen of Note (jazz ensemble), Air Force Strings, Ceremonial Brass, and Max Impact (rock). Military music careers are some of the most secure jobs in music, and provide extensive opportunities to tour, record, and perform at high-profile ceremonies, as well as college to repayment, health care, and other benefits. Downsides relate to the fact that musicians are still military personnel and subject to the same disciplinary, bureaucratic, and legally binding service requirements as other military personnel.

Describe the use of adaptive technology for helping students with disabilities in music education.

The modern music classroom has paved the way for inclusive learning for students with disabilities. The use of adaptive or assistive technology allows students with disabilities and students with injuries the opportunity for music education and achievement. Many iPad applications act as a touch-sensitive synthesizer to convert movement to audio, allowing students with limited mobility or digits to create music. If a visually impaired student must move between instruments, the use of a simple string to guide the student can greatly widen the possibilities for performance. Also, sheet music can be enlarged for students with low vision, or even translated to Braille for students who are blind. For students who have trouble holding an instrument or reading all the keys, music educators can use adaptive toggles, joysticks, clamps, and other tools to allow the student to be able to play. Hearing-impaired students can use cochlear implants, hearing aids, or vibration-based technologies to play in an ensemble.

Describe the basic administrative duties involved in running a music program.

The responsibilities of a music educator include more than just designing and implementing a music curriculum; they also include the logistical aspects of running a music program. Music educators must be able to balance the budget allotted for the music program through the school. This involves buying and maintaining the appropriate number of instruments and music materials needed for the students without exceeding the program funds. Accurate and thorough bookkeeping combined with a strategic view of inventory maintenance will help a music educator maintain a healthy budget. Music educators must log inventory and keep track of all materials and instruments. Administrative duties also include scheduling student rehearsals, practices, lessons, contests, conferences, and performances. Music educators can use scheduling programs for better organization and delegate students' own scheduling. Contests, conferences, and performances should be planned well ahead of a season's start date so that educators can plan promotional materials, marketing, and performance curriculum.

Describe the knowledge and skills needed to become a music therapist.

The undergraduate music therapy curriculum contains coursework encompassing a thorough study of music, psychology, the biological, social, and behavioral sciences, and disabilities, in addition to general studies. Through required fieldwork, music therapy students learn to assess client needs, develop and implement treatment plans, and evaluate and document clinical changes. Strong communication and interpersonal skills are absolutely mandatory in order to establish caring and professional relationships with people of all ages and abilities. Successful music therapists will be empathetic, creative, and open-minded, in order to better understand patients and themselves. Students considering a career in music therapy should look to gain experience in allied health through volunteer opportunities or summer work in nursing homes, camps for children with disabilities, and other settings where they can learn to serve the needs of people with disabilities.

Describe the utilitarian approach to the philosophy of music education.

The utilitarian philosophy for the inclusion of music in general educational curriculum stems from the writings of Plato and Aristotle in Ancient Greece. Good character, civic responsibility, cultural awareness, and a quality of nobility were only some of the non-musical benefits of music study. For music educators who embrace a utilitarian philosophy of music education, music is a tool to develop extra-musical benefits, whether for other intellectual fields, for the development of character, or for social entertainment. Arguments in favor of this utilitarian philosophy point to the persistence, control, and aural awareness students need in order to develop musical performance skills. Students develop fine motor skills when executing instrumental performance. Comprehension skills are reinforced when students master various levels of musical complexity. Singing helps students develop deep breathing and a strong diaphragm. For supporters of a utilitarian rationale, music is a key component of a comprehensive education.

Describe the various job opportunities within music technology and the knowledge and skills needed.

There are various job opportunities within the field of the music technology, as there are many specialized occupations that are constantly growing and changing. Audio equipment technicians oversee the audio and visual equipment for venues as diverse as concert halls, theaters, theme parks, and sporting events. Audio equipment technicians ensure the correct wiring and placement of microphones, soundboards, video screens, projectors, cables, and speakers. Sound engineers produce and edit sound effects, files, and other media for theater productions, art venues, and other entertainment scenes. Recording engineers operate sound recording equipment and help in mixing and editing the resulting files for production. Music technology careers also include Internet publishing, multimedia production, music software design, music hardware design, CD audio production, sound design, computer-based education and training, and music publishing.

Describe methods of inputting music into desktop music publishing software.

There are various methods of inputting music into desktop music publishing software. Many programs will notate the music as played by a MIDI instrument such as a keyboard or guitar. Some programs can also notate music that is sung into a microphone. This method allows the most organic processing from live music to notation, but may require some cleaning up after the music has been notated into the program. Another way of inputting music into desktop music publishing software is by manually placing each note and rest through the mouse. This method allows for more meticulous control of each note placement, but can be highly time-consuming. Some desktop music publishing software can process scanned print music into the proper notational format within the software. This method is highly efficient for multiple pages of sheet music, but will have to be cleaned once the scanned music has been transferred into the program.

Describe situations in which a music license is necessary or unnecessary for student recordings.

Under the 1976 Copyright Act, music teachers are exempt from copyright recording laws only if they make a single copy of a student performance of a copyrighted work for educational purposes or for documentation. If a teacher makes duplicates of the recording, then a music license is necessary. In this case, a licensing fee is required for each copy of the recording that is duplicated and distributed. Music educators must contact the Harry Fox Agency to acquire the correct music license for distribution. The licensee must pay a fee to the copyright holder of 9.1 cents per song that is five minutes or shorter, or 1.75 cents for every minute or fraction of the song that exceeds five minutes. This licensing fee applies to each copyrighted work. Although festivals and recording companies may pay royalty fees, it is ultimately the music educator's responsibility to ensure that all royalties are paid to prevent undue consequences from copyright law enforcement.

Discuss various strategies to accommodate students with physical disabilities in the music classroom.

When a music classroom is able to accommodate students with physical disabilities, there are numerous benefits for both the disabled students as well as the average student. Inclusion promotes social awareness and acceptance, increased motor development, and higher mental acuity. Music educators can accommodate students with physical disabilities in a number of ways. The music classroom should be ADA-accessible and free from obstacles or other hazards. Also, the instructor can acquire adaptive instruments that allow students with physical disabilities the opportunity to develop motor and aural skills on a real instrument. Instructionally, educators should be sure to include lessons that require minimal physical strength; this inclusive teaching strategy will encourage confidence and self-esteem for students with physical disabilities. Educational goals should be appropriately sequenced to facilitate outcomes that are realistic and achievable.

Discuss the appropriate steps to take when a student exhibits behavior problems.

When a student misbehaves in a classroom setting, it is always important for the music educator to reflect on the misbehavior. If an adjustment in teaching style or lesson sequencing will redirect the misbehavior, then the educator should start there. The teacher should also observe for any learning impairments that may trigger behavior boundaries of behavior. If the student is misbehaving regardless of various strategies of engaging teaching techniques and sequencing, then the educator should address the misbehavior, taking care not to condemn the student but rather the behavior. The music educator should make sure not to interrupt the flow of the lesson but to address the misbehaving student with as little verbal response as possible; the teacher can use silence, physical cues, close proximity, and quickly stating the student's name as reminders to focus. If these techniques are not effective, then the teacher should thoroughly address the misbehavior after class.

Discuss proper microphone technique for vocal amplification.

When singing into a microphone, a singer may have immaculate vocal technique but still not sound ideal. Vocal amplification requires proper microphone technique to maximize the aesthetic balance of a loudspeaker. A good sound starts with an ideal fit between the voice and the microphone. A high-pitched voice would fit with a microphone that adds warmth through the mid and low ranges, whereas a deeper and darker voice would fit better with a microphone that lightens the sound with treble an upper-mid prominence. Also, the singer should sing into the center of the microphone, not across the top or at a wrong angle. The singer should not strain to sing into the microphone, but should think of the microphone as an extension of the ears. Singers should sing at a consistent distance away from the microphone, to ensure maximal sound pick-up. If there is a sudden increase in singing volume, however, the singer should back away slightly so as not to blast the sound system.

Discuss certain strategies to prevent student behavior issues in group setting.

When teaching a group of more than 15 students, certain strategies will benefit the educational environment. If there are instructions, they should clear and concise. When students understand instructions for a task, they are more likely to stay focused and on task. Follow the instructions with reinforcement by modeling the activity, asking the students to repeat the instructions back, or having the students do an example of the activity together, to ensure that students understand and can proceed with the activity. If instructions are not made clear, problems such as student frustration or loss of group control could occur. In addition, always establish rules, awards, and consequences for the classroom. It is essential that students have guidelines to operate within so that when behavior issues do arise, the educator can act simply and according to guidelines rather than out of emotion.

Explain how to care for and maintain woodwind instruments.

Woodwind instrument should be handled with care, taking precaution to avoid damage by jewelry, buttons, or zippers. Instruments should be kept dry while in storage. After each playing session the instrument should be wiped clean, making sure to use an appropriately sized swab; this is especially important for the small-bored piccolo and oboe. On a monthly basis, apply key oil to key pivot points. Similarly, apply a small amount of cork grease to tenons and neck corks, taking care to remove any excess grease. Wipe down the finish of the instrument to remove fingerprints and oils from fingers, moisture, and other debris. Never use alcohol on any plastic parts, and never use excessive force when constructing the instrument. Thoroughly clean out the mouth between eating and playing; clean mouthpieces weekly. For reed instruments, discard reeds that are chipped or cracked; do not leave reeds on the mouthpiece, and check metal ligatures for signs of damage, as an out-of-round ligature can damage a mouthpiece. The instrument should be kept out of direct light and excessively warm, cold, or humid environments.