INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY CODE

232/ What are the other limitations on copyright?

1. The fair use of a copyrighted work for criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching including multiple copies for classroom use, scholarship, research, and similar purposes is not an infringement of copyright. (Sec. 185, IPC) Note: Decompilation, which is the reproduction of the code and translation of the forms of the computer program to achieve the inter‐operability of an independently created computer program with other programs, may also constitute fair use (e.g. the software program for Windows 7 will be disassembled by a skilled programmer in order to understand much of the structure and operation of the program). ——————————

2011/ What are the tests in patent infringement?

2011 1. Literal infringement Test - Resort must be had, in the first instance, to words of the claim. If the accused matter clearly falls within the claim, infringement is committed. Minor modifications are sufficient to put the item beyond literal infringement. (Godines v. CA, G.R. No. L‐ 97343, Sept. 13, 1993) ——————————

2011/ What are the different kinds of exhaustion?

2011 1. International exhaustion - allows any party to import into the national territory a patented product from any other country in which the product was placed on the market by the patent holder or any authorized party. 2. Regional exhaustion - allows the possibility of importing into the national territory a patented product originating from any other member state of a regional trade agreement. ———————————

2011/ What constitutes infringement of patent?

2011 1. Making, using, offering for sale, selling or importing a patented product or a product obtained directly or indirectly from a patented process; or 2. Use of a patented process without authorization of the owner of the patent (Sec. 76, IPC)

2011/ What is the doctrine of exhaustion?

2011 Also known as the doctrine of first sale, it provides that the patent holder has control of the first sale of his invention. He has the opportunity to receive the full consideration for his invention from his sale. Hence, he exhausts his rights in the future control of his invention. It espouses that the patentee who has already sold his invention and has received all the royalty and consideration for the same will be deemed to have released the invention from his monopoly. The invention thus becomes open to the use of the purchaser without further restriction. (Adams v. Burke, 84 U.S. 17, 1873)

2011/ How does the Doctrine Exhaustion of apply in Philippine jurisdiction?

2011 GR: Patent rights are Exhausted by first sale in the Philippines (Domestic exhaustion). XPN: Except however on drugs and medicines: first sale in any jurisdiction exhausts (International exhaustion) (R.A. 9502).

2011/ Who is a parallel importer?

2011 One which imports, distributes, and sells genuine products in the market, independently of an exclusive distributorship or agency agreement with the manufacturer. Note: Such acts of "underground sales and marketing" of genuine goods, undermines the property rights and goodwill of the rightful exclusive distributor. Such goodwill is protected by the law on unfair competition. (Solid Triangle v. Sheriff, G.R. No. 144309, Nov. 23, 2001)

2012/ What is meant by "equivalent device"?

2012 It is such as a mechanic of ordinary skill in construction of similar machinery, having the forms, specifications and machine before him, could substitute in the place of the mechanism described without the exercise of the inventive faculty.

2012/ What are the limitations to the civil/criminal action?

2012 1. No damages can be recovered for acts of infringement committed more than four (4) years before the filing of the action for infringement. (Sec. 79, IPC) 2. The criminal action prescribes in three (3) years from the commission of the crime. (Sec. 84, IPC)

2012/ Who can file an action for infringement?

2012 1. The patentee or his successors‐in‐ interest may file an action for infringement. (Creser Precision Systems, Inc. v. CA, G.R. No. 118708, Feb. 2, 1998) 2. Any foreign national or juridical entity who meets the requirements of Sec. 3 and not engaged in business in the Philippines, to which a patent has been granted or assigned, whether or not it is licensed to do business in the Philippines. (Sec. 77, IPC)

2012/ What are the remedies of the owner of the patent against infringers?

2012 1. action for infringement - The owner may bring a civil action with the appropriate Regional Trial Court to recover from infringer the damages sustained by the former, plus attorney's fees and other litigation expenses, and to secure an injunction for the protection of his rights. —————————

2012 2. Criminal action for infringement - If the infringement is repeated, the infringer shall be criminally liable and upon conviction, shall suffer imprisonment of not less than six (6) months but not more than three (3) years and/or a fine not less than P100,000.00 but not more than P300,000.00 ————————

2012 3. Administrative remedy - Where the amount of damages claimed is not less than P200,000.00, the patentee may choose to file an administrative action against the infringer with the Bureau of Legal Affairs (BLA). The BLA can issue injunctions, direct infringer to pay patentee damages, but unlike regular courts, the BLA may not issue search and seizure warrants or warrants of arrest.

2012/ What is the "doctrine of contributory infringement"?

2012 Aside from the infringer, anyone who actively induces the infringement of a patent or provides the infringer with a component of a patented product or of a product produced because of a patented process knowing it to be especially adapted for infringing the patented invention and not suitable for substantial non‐infringing use is liable jointly and severally with the infringer as a contributory infringer. It must be proven that the product can only be used for infringement purposes. If it can be used for legitimate purposes, the action shall not prosper.

2012/ What is the "doctrine of file wrapper estoppel"?

2012 This doctrine balances the doctrine of equivalents. Patentee is precluded from claiming as part of patented product that which he had to excise or modify in order to avoid patent office rejection, and he may omit any additions that he was compelled to add by patent office regulations.

2012/ Does the use of a patented process by a third person constitute an infringement when the alleged infringer has substituted, in lieu of some unessential part of the patented process, a well‐ known mechanical equivalent."

2012 Yes, under the doctrine of mechanical equivalents, the patentee is protected from colorable invasions of his patent under the guise of substitution of some part of his invention by some well known mechanical equivalent. It is an infringement of the patent, if the substitute performs the same function and was well known at the date of the patent as a proper substitute for the omitted ingredient. (Gsell v. Yap‐Jue, G.R. No. L‐4720, Jan. 19, 1909)

2013/ What are the defenses in an action for infringement?

2013 1. Invalidity of the patent; (Sec. 81, IPC); 2. Any of the grounds for cancellation of patents: a. That what is claimed as the invention is not new or patentable b. That the patent does not disclose the invention in a manner sufficiently clear and complete for it to be carried out by any person skilled in the art; or c. That the patent is contrary to public order or morality. (Sec. 61, IPC)

2013/ What are the grounds for compulsory licensing and the period for filing a petition?

2013 1. National emergency 2. Where the public interest, at any time after the grant of the patent 3. Where a judicial or administrative body has determined that the manner of exploitation by the owner of the patent or his licensee is anti‐competitive at any time after the grant of the patent 4. In case of public non‐commercial use of the patent by the patentee, without satisfactory reason at any time after the grant of the patent ————————-

2013/ Who can grant a compulsory license?

2013 1. The Director of Legal Affairs may grant a license to exploit a patented invention, even without the agreement of the patent owner, in favor of any person who has shown his capability to exploit the invention (Sec. 93, IPC). 2. R.A. 9502 (Universally Accessible Cheaper and Quality Medicines Act of 2008) however amended Sec. 93 so that it is the Director General of the IPO who may grant a license to exploit patented invention under the grounds enumerated therein. Note: Clarification either by legislation of judicial interpretation as to who has jurisdiction should be made to avoid confusion. (Salao, Essential of Intellectual Property Law: a Guidebook on Republic Act No. 8293 and Related Laws, 2008)

2013/ What are the modes of obtaining license to exploit patent rights?

2013 1. Voluntary licensing (Sec. 85, IPC) and 2. Compulsory licensing (Sec. 93, IPC)

2013/ What are the rights of a licensor in voluntary licensing?

2013 In the absence of any provision to the contrary in the technology transfer arrangement, the grant of a license shall not prevent the licensor from granting further licenses to third person nor from exploiting the subject matter of the technology transfer arrangement himself (Sec. 89, IPC).

2013/ What is voluntary licensing?

2013 The grant by the patent owner to a third person of the right to exploit a patented invention.

2014/ How is the transfer of rights effected?

2014 1. By inheritance or bequest 2. License contract

2014/ Grounds for cancellation of the compulsory license?

2014 1. Ground for the grant of the compulsory license no longer exists and is unlikely to recur; 2. Licensee has neither begun to supply the domestic market nor made serious preparation therefore; 3. Licensee has not complied with the prescribed terms of the license.

2014/ What should be the form of an assignment?

2014 1. In writing 2. Acknowledged and certified before a notary public or other officer authorized to perform notarial acts 3. Recorded in the IPO

2014/ What are the forms of assignment?

2014 1. Total - assignment of entire right, title or interest in and to the patent and the invention covered thereby. 2. Partial a. Separate rights - assignment of a specific right (ex: right to sell)b. b. Pro Indiviso - assignment of an aliquot part which results in co‐ ownership

2014/ What is the effect if the assignment was not recorded in the IPO?

2014 A deed of assignment affecting title shall be void as against any subsequent purchaser or mortgagee for valuable consideration and without notice unless, it is so recorded in the Office, within three (3) months from the date of said instrument, or prior to the subsequent purchase or mortgage. Even without recordal, the instruments are binding upon the parties.

2014/ Assuming that it is patentable, who is entitled to the patent? What, if any, is the remedy of the losing party?

2014 Francis is entitled to the patent, because he had the earlier filing date. The remedy of Cezar is to file a petition in court for the cancellation of the patent of Francis on the ground that he is the true and actual inventor, and ask for his substitution as patentee. (2005 Bar Question)

2014/ May a licensee maintain a suit for infringement?

2014 GR: Only the patentees, his heirs, assignee, grantee or personal representatives may bring an action for infringement. XPN: If the licensing agreement provides that the licensee may bring an action for infringement or if he was authorized to do so by the patentee through a special power of attorney.

2014/ What is the effect of an assignment of a patent?

2014 The assignment works as an estoppels by deed, preventing the assignor from denying the novelty and utility of the patented invention when sued y the assignee for infringement.

2014/ Cezar works in a car manufacturing company owned by Joab. Cezar is quite innovative and loves to tinker with things. With the materials and parts of the car, he was able to invent a gas‐ saving device that will enable cars to consume less gas. Francis, a co‐worker, saw how Cezar created the device and likewise, came up with a similar gadget, also using scrap materials and spare parts of the company. Thereafter, Francis filed an application for registration of his device with the Bureau of Patents. Eighteen months later, Cezar filed his application for the registration of his device with the Bureau of Patents. Q: Is the gas‐saving device patentable? Explain.

2014 Yes because it is new, it involves an inventive step and it is industrially applicable.

2014/ Supposing Albert Einstein were alive today and he filed with the Intellectual Property Office (IPO) an application for patent for his theory of relativity expressed in the formula E=mc2. The IPO disapproved Einstein's application on the ground that his theory of relativity is not patentable. Is the IPO's action correct?

2014 Yes, the IPO's action is correct. Section 22 of the Intellectual Property Law expressly states that discoveries, scientific theories and mathematical methods are among those matters which are not patentable. (2006 Bar Question)

2015/ S Development Corporation sued Shangrila Corporation for using the "S" logo and the tradename "Shangrila". The former claims that it was the first to register the logo and the tradename in the Philippines and that it had been using the same in its restaurant business. Shangrila Corporation counters that it is an affiliate of an international organization which has been using such logo and tradename "Shangrila" for over 20 years. However, Shangrila Corporation registered the tradename and logo in the Philippines only after the suit was filed. Which of the two corporations has a better right to use the logo and the tradename? Explain.

2015 S Development Corporation has a better right to use the logo and tradename, since it was the first to register the logo and tradename. Alternative Answer: S Development Corporation has a better right to use the logo and tradename, because its certificate of registration upon which the infringement case is based remains valid and subsisting for as long as it has not been cancelled. (Shangrila International Hotel Management v. CA, G.R. No. 111580, June 21, 2001) (2005 Bar Question)

2015/ What are the salient features of the Paris convention of trademarks?

2015 1. National Treatment Principle - foreign nationals are to be given the same treatment in each of the member countries as that country makes available in its own citizens. 2. Right of Priority - any person who has duly filed registration for trademark shall enjoy a right of priority of 6 months (Rule 203, Trademark Rules) 3. Protection against Unfair Competition 4. Protection of Tradenames - protected in all countries without obligation of filing or registration. 5. Protection of Well‐Known Marks

2015/ What are the functions of trademark?

2015 1. To point out distinctly the origin or ownership of the articles to which it is affixed. 2. To secure to him who has been instrumental in bringing into market a superior article or merchandise the fruit of his industry and skill 3. To prevent fraud and imposition. (Etepha v. Director of Patents, G.R. No. L‐20635, Mar. 31, 1966)

2015/ What is a collective mark?

2015 A "collective mark" or collective trade‐name" is a mark or trade‐name used by the members of a cooperative, an association or other collective group or organization. (Sec. 40, R.A. 166)

2015/ What is a trademark and how does it differ from a trade name?

2015 Any visible sign capable of distinguishing the goods (trademark) or services (service mark) of an enterprise. A trade name is a name or designation identifying or distinguishing an enterprise.

2015/ How does the international affiliation of Shangrila Corporation affect the outcome of the dispute? Explain.

2015 Since Shangrila Corporation is not the owner of the logo and tradename but is merely an affiliate of the international organization which has been using them it is not the owner and does not have the rights of an owner. (Sec. 147, IPC) Alternative Answer: The international affiliation of Shangrila Corporation shall have no effect on the outcome of the dispute. Section 8 of the Paris Convention provides that "there is no automatic protection afforded an entity whose tradename is alleged to be infringed through the use of that name as a trademark by a local entity." (Kabushi Kaisha Isetan v. IAC, G.R. No. 75420, Nov. 15, 1991) (2005 Bar Question)

2015/ Trademark vs Tradename

2015 Trademark - Goods or services offered by a proprietor or enterprise are designated by trademark (goods) or service marks (services); WHILE Tradename - A natural or artificial person who does business and produces or performs the goods or services designated by trademark or service mark. Trademark -Refers to the goods WHILE Trade name - Refers to business and its goodwill. Trademark - Acquired only by registration; WHILE Trade name - Need not be registered.

2016/ What marks may not be registered?

2016 1. Consists of immoral, deceptive or scandalous matter or falsely suggest a connection with persons, institutions, beliefs, or national symbols 2. Consists of the flag or coat of arms or other insignia of the Philippines or any of its political subdivisions, or of any foreign nation 3. Consists of a name, portrait or signature identifying a particular living individual except by his written consent, or the name, signature, or portrait of a deceased President of the Philippines, during the life of his widow except by written consent of the widow —————————————-

2016/ When is non‐use excused?

2016 1. If caused by circumstances arising independently of the will of the owner. Lack of funds is not an excuse. 2. A use which does not alter its distinctive character though the use is different from the form in which it is registered. 3. Use of mark in connection with one or more of the goods/services belonging to the class in which the mark is registered. 4. The use of a mark by a company related to the applicant/registrant. 5. The use of a mark by a person controlled by the registrant. (Section 152, IPC)

2016/ Who may file an opposition to trademark registration and on what ground?

2016 Any person who believes that he would be damaged by the registration of a mark may, upon payment of the required fee and within thirty (30) days after the publication referred to in Subsection 133.2, file with the Office an opposition to the application. (Sec. 134, IPC)

2016/ What marks may be registered?

2016 Any word, name, symbol, emblem, device, figure, sign, phrase, or any combination thereof except those enumerated under Section 123, IPC.

2016/ How are marks acquired?

2016 Marks are acquired solely through registration. (Sec. 122, IPC)

2016/ Is there an infringement of trademark when two similar goods use the same words, "PALE PILSEN"?

2016 No, because "pale pilsen" are generic words descriptive of the color (pale) and of a type of beer (pilsen), which is a light bohemian beer with strong hops flavor that originated in the City of Pilsen in Czechoslovakia. Pilsen is a primarily geographically descriptive word, hence, non‐ registrable and not appropriable by any beer manufacturer (Asia Brewery, Inc. v. CA, G.R. No. 103543, July 5, 1993).

2016/ Is the prior use of the mark still a requirement for registration?

2016 No. Actual prior use in commerce in the Philippines has been abolished as a condition for the registration of a trademark. (RA 8293)

2016/ What is the doctrine of secondary meaning?

2016 This doctrine is to the effect that a word or phrase originally incapable of exclusive appropriation with reference to an article on the market, because it is geographical or otherwise descriptive, may nevertheless be used exclusively by one producer with reference to his article so long as in that trade and to that branch of the purchasing public, the word or phrase has come to mean that the article was his product. (G. and C. Merriam Co. v. Saalfield, 198 F. 369, 373, cited in Ang v. Teodoro, G.R. No. L‐48226, Dec. 14, 1942)

2016/ How are trade names acquired?

2016 Trade names or business names are acquired through adoption and use. Registration is not required. (Sec. 165, IPC)

2016/ Laberge, Inc., manufactures and markets after‐shave lotion, shaving cream, deodorant, talcum powder and toilet soap, using the trademark "PRUT", which is registered with the Phil. Patent Office. Laberge does not manufacture briefs and underwear and these items are not specified in the certificate of registration. JG who manufactures briefs and underwear, wants to know whether, under our laws, he can use and register the trademark "PRUTE" for his merchandise. What is your advice?

2016 Yes, he can use and register the trademark "PRUTE" for his merchandise. The trademark registered in the name of Laberge Inc. covers only after‐shave lotion, shaving cream, deodorant, talcum powder and toilet soap. It does not cover briefs and underwear. The limit of the trademark is stated in the certificate issued to Laberge Inc. It does not include briefs and underwear which are different products protected by Laberge's trademark. JG can register the trademark "PRUTE" to cover its briefs and underwear (Faberge Inc. v. IAC, G.R. No. 71189, Nov. 4, 1992) (1994 Bar Question)

2016/ What are the requirements for a mark to be registered?

2016/ 1. A visible sign (not sounds or scents); and 2. Capable of distinguishing one's goods and services from another.

2017/ What are the types of confusion that arise from the use of similar or colorable imitation marks?

2017 1. Confusion of goods (product confusion); and 2. Confusion of business (source or origin confusion). (McDonald's Corporation v. L.C. Big Mak Burger, Inc., et al., G.R. No. 143993, Aug. 18, 2004) Note: While there is confusion of goods when the products are competing, confusion of business exists when the products are non‐competing but related enough to produce confusion of affiliation.

2017/ What is the so‐called "related goods principle"?

2017 Goods are related when they; 1) belong to the same class or have the same descriptive properties; 2) when they possess the same physical attributes or essential characteristics with reference to their form, composition, texture or quality.

2017/ N Corporation manufactures rubber shoes under the trademark "Jordann" which hit the Philippine market in 1985, and registered its trademark with the Bureau of Patents, Trademarks and Technology in 1990. PK Company also manufactures rubber shoes with the trademark "Javorski" which it registered with BPTTT in 1978. In 1992, PK Co adopted and copied the design of N Corporation's "Jordann" rubber shoes, both as to shape and color, but retained the trademark "Javorski" on its products. May PK Company be held liable to N Co? Explain.

2017 PK Co may be liable for unfairly competing against N Co. By copying the design, shape and color of N Corporation's "Jordann" rubber shoes and using the same in its rubber shoes trademarked "Javorski," PK is obviously trying to pass off its shoes for those of N. It is of no moment that the trademark "Javorski" was registered ahead of the trademark "Jordann." Priority in registration is not material in an action for unfair competition as distinguished from an action for infringement of trademark. The basis of an action for unfair competition is confusing and misleading similarity in general appearance, not similarity of trademarks. (Converse Rubber Co. v. Jacinto Rubber & Plastics Co., G.R. Nos. 27425, 30505, Apr. 28, 1980) (1996 Bar Question)

2017/ What is colorable imitation?

2017 Such a close or ingenious imitation as to be calculated to deceive ordinary persons, or such a resemblance to the original as to deceive an ordinary purchaser giving such attention as a purchaser usually gives, as to cause him to purchase the one supposing it to be the other. (Societe des Produits Nestlé, S.A. v. CA, G.R. No. 112012, Apr. 4, 2001)

2017/ What is the rule of idem sonans?

2017 Two names are said to be "idem sonantes" if the attentive ear finds difficulty in distinguishing them when pronounced. (Martin v. State, 541 S.W. 2d 605) Note: Similarity of sound is sufficient to rule that the two marks are confusingly similar when applied to merchandise of the same descriptive properties. (Marvex Commercial v. Director of Patent, G.R. No. L‐19297, Dec. 22, 1966)

2017/ What are the tests in determining whether there is a trademark infringement?

2017 1. Dominancy test - Focuses on the similarity of the prevalent features of the competing marks. If the competing trademark contains the main or essential or dominant features of another, and confusion is likely to result, infringement takes place. (Asia Brewery v. CA, G.R. No. 103543, 5 July 1993) 2. Totality or holistic test - Confusing similarity is to be determined on the basis of visual, aural, connotative comparisons and overall impressions engendered by the marks in controversy as they are encountered in the marketplace. Note: The dominancy test only relies on visual comparisons between two trademarks whereas the totality or holistic test relies not only on the visual but also on the aural and connotative comparisons and overall impressions between the two trademarks. (Societe Des Produits Nestl, S.A. v. CA, G.R. No. 112012, Apr. 4, 2001)

2018/ What court has jurisdiction over violations of intellectual property rights?

2018 It is properly lodged with the Regional Trial Court even if the penalty therefore is imprisonment of less than six years, or from 2 to 5 years and a fine ranging from P50,000 to P200,000. Note: R.A. 8293 and R.A. 166 are special laws conferring jurisdiction over violations of intellectual property rights to the Regional Trial Court. They should therefore prevail over R.A. No. 7691, which is a general law. (Samson v. Daway, G.R. No. 160054‐ 55, July 21, 2004)

2018/ What constitutes an internationally well‐ known mark?

2018 1. Considered by the competent authority of the Philippines to be "well‐known" international and in the Philippines as the mark of a person other than the applicant or registrant 2. Need not be used or registered in the Philippines 3. Need not be known by the public at large but only by relevant sector of the public.

2018/ What are the rights of a registered mark owner?

2018 1. Protection against reproduction, or imitation or unauthorized use of the mark (infringement of mark) 2. To stop entry of imported merchandise into the country containing a mark identical or similar to the registered mark 3. To transfer or license out the mark.

2018/ What are the elements to be established in trademark infringement?

2018 1. The validity of the mark 2. The plaintiff's ownership of the mark 3. The use of the mark or its colorable imitation by the alleged infringer results in "likelihood of confusion." (McDonald's Corporation v. L.C. Big Mak Burger, Inc., G.R. No. 143993, Aug 18, 2004)

2018/ What is the duration of a certificate of trademark registration?

2018 10 years, renewable for a period of another 10 years. Each request for renewal must be made within 6 months before or after the expiration of the registration.

2018/ What are the remedies of the owner of the trademark against infringers?

2018 Civil — both civil and criminal actions may be filed with the Regional Trial Courts. The owner of the registered mark may ask the court to issue a preliminary injunction to quickly prevent infringer from causing damage to his business. Furthermore, the court will require infringer to pay damages to the owner of the mark provided defendant is shown to have had notice of the registration of the mark (which is presumed if a letter R within a circle is appended) and stop him permanently from using the mark; ———————-

2018/ Is there infringement even if the goods are non‐competing?

2018 GR: No. XPN: If it prevents the natural expansion of his business and, second, by having his business reputation confused with and put at the mercy of the second user. (Ang v. Teodoro, G.R. No. L‐48226, Dec. 14, 1942)

2018/ What does the law provide as regards internationally‐well known marks?

2018 GR: Prohibition on subsequent registration does not include services and goods of different nature or kind. XPN: 1. If the internationally well‐known mark is not registered in the Philippines, the application for registration of a subsequent or similar mark can be rejected only if the goods or services specified in the application are similar to those of the internationally well‐ known mark 2. If the internationally well‐known mark is registered in the Philippines, the application for registration of a subsequent or similar mark can be refused even if the goods or services specified in the application are not identical or similar to those of the internationally well‐known mark

2018/ What is the effect of use of Indications by third parties for purposes other than those for which the mark is used?

2018 Registration of the mark shall not confer on the registered owner the right to preclude third parties from using bona fide their names, addresses, pseudonyms, a geographical name, or exact indications concerning the kind, quality, quantity, destination, value, place of origin, or time of production or of supply, of their goods or services.

2018/ How is the amount of damages in a civil action for infringement ascertained?

2018 The owner of a trademark which has been infringed is entitled to actual damages: 1. The reasonable profit which the complaining party would have made, had the defendant not infringed his said rights; or 2. The profit which the defendant actually made out of infringement; or 3. The court may award as damages a reasonable percentage based upon the amount of gross sales of the defendant of the value of the services in connection with which the mark or trade name was issued.

2018/ What is trademark infringement?

2018 The use without consent of the trademark owner of any a) reproduction, b) counterfeit, c) copy or d) colorable imitation of any registered mark or tradename in connection with the sale, offering for sale, or advertising of any goods, business or services on or in connection with which such use is likely to cause confusion or mistake or to deceive purchasers or others as to the source or origin of such goods or services, or identity of such business; or reproduce, counterfeit, copy or colorably imitate any such mark or tradename and apply such reproduction, counterfeit, copy or colorable limitation to labels, signs, prints, packages, wrappers, receptacles or advertisements intended to be used upon or in connection with such goods, business or services (Esso Standard Eastern v. CA, G.R. No. L‐29971, Aug. 31, 1982)

2018/ What is meant by non‐competing goods?

2018 Those which, though they are not in actual competition, are so related to each other that it might reasonably be assumed that they originate from one manufacturer. Non‐competing goods may also be those which, being entirely unrelated, could not reasonably be assumed to have a common source. In the case of related goods, confusion of business could arise out of the use of similar marks; in the latter case of non‐related goods, it could not. The vast majority of courts today follow the modern theory or concept of "related goods" which the court has likewise adopted and uniformly recognized and applied. (Esso Standard Eastern, Inc. v. CA, G.R. No. L‐29971, Aug. 31, 1982)

2019/ Who are guilty of unfair competition?

2019 1. Any person, who is selling his goods and gives them the general appearance of goods of another manufacturer or dealer, either as to the goods themselves or in the wrapping of the packages in which they are contained, or the devices or words thereon, or in any other feature of their appearance, which would be likely to influence purchasers to believe that the goods offered are those of a manufacturer or dealer, other than the actual manufacturer or dealer, or who otherwise clothes the goods with such appearance as shall deceive the public and defraud another of his legitimate trade, or any subsequent vendor of such goods or any agent of any vendor engaged in selling such goods with a like purpose; ——————————-

2019/ What are the limitations on the actions for infringement?

2019 1. Right of prior user - registered mark shall be without affect against any person who, in good faith, before filing or priority date, was using the mark for purposes of his business. (Sec 159.1, IPC) 2. Relief against publisher - injunction against future printing against an innocent infringer who is engaged solely in the business of printing the mark. (Sec. 159.2, IPC) 3. Relief against newspaper - injunction against the presentation of advertising matter in future issues of the newspaper, magazine or in electronic communications in case the infringement complained of is contained in or is part of paid advertisement in such materials. (Sec. 159.3, IPC)

2019 / What is the right protected under unfair competition?

2019 A person who has identified in the mind of the public the goods he manufactures or deals in, his business or services from those of others, whether or not a registered mark is employed, has a property right in the goodwill of the said goods, business or services so identified, which will be protected in the same manner as other property rights. (Sec. 168.1, IPC)

2019/ What distinguishes infringement of trademark from unfair competition?

2019 INFRINGEMENT OF TRADEMARK - 1. Unauthorized use of a trademark; 2. Fraudulent intent is unnecessary. 3. Prior registration of the trademark is a prerequisite to the action. UNFAIR COMPETITION - 1. The passing off of one's goods as those of another. 2. Fraudulent intent is essential. 3. Registration is not necessary. (Del Monte Corp. v. CA, G.R. No. 78325, Jan. 23, 1990)

2019/ Is the law on unfair competition broader than the law on trademark?

2019 Yes. For the latter (trademark infringement) is more limited but it recognizes a more exclusive right derived from the trademark adoption and registration by the person whose goods or business is first associated with it. Hence, even if one fails to establish his exclusive property right to a trademark, he may still obtain relief on the ground of his competitor's unfairness or fraud. Conduct constitutes unfair competition if the effect is to pass off on the public the goods of one man as the goods of another. (Mighty Corporation v. E. & J. Gallo Winery, G.R. No. 154342, July 14, 2004)

2022/ What are the elements of an action for unfair competition?

2022 1. Confusing similarity in the general appearance of the goods; and Note: The confusing similarity may or may not result from similarity in the marks, but may result from other external factors in the packaging or presentation of the goods. 2. Intent to deceive the public and defraud a competitor. Note: The intent to deceive and defraud may be inferred from the similarity in appearance of the goods as offered for sale to the public. Actual fraudulent intent need not be shown. (McDonald's Corporation v. L.C. Big Mak Burger, Inc., et al., G.R. No. 143993, Aug. 18, 2004)

2022/ What are the grounds for the cancellation of collective marks?

2022 1. The Court shall cancel the registration of a collective mark if the person requesting the cancellation proves that only the registered owner uses the mark, 2. Or that he uses or permits its use in contravention of the agreements referred to in Subsection 166.2, 3. Or that he uses or permits its use in a manner liable to deceive trade circles or the public as to the origin or any other common characteristics of the goods or services concerned (Sec 167.3). Note: The registration of a collective mark, or an application therefor shall not be the subject of a license contract.

2022/ What should an application for registration of a collective mark contain?

2022 1. The application shall designate the mark as a collective mark 2. Accompanied by a copy of the agreement, if any, governing the use of the collective mark (Sec. 167.2, IPC)

2022/ What is a collective mark?

2022 A "collective mark" or "collective trade‐name" is a mark or trade‐name used by the members of a cooperative, an association or other collective group or organization. (Sec. 40, R.A. 166)

2022/ What are the limitations on use of trade name or business name?

2022 A person may not: 1. Use any name or designation contrary to public order or morals 2. Use a name if it is liable to deceive trade circles or the public as to the nature of the enterprise identified by that name. (Sec. 165.1, IPC) 3. Subsequently use a trade name likely to mislead the public as a third party. (Sec. 165.2, b, IPC) ——————————

2022/What is a trade name or business name?

2022 Any individual name or surname, firm name, device nor word used by manufacturers, industrialists, merchants, and others to identify their businesses, vocations or occupants (Converse rubber Corp. vs. Universal Rubber Products, GR No. L‐27425, L‐30505, April 28, 1980).

2022/ How is the change in the ownership of a trade name made?

2022 It shall be made with the transfer of the enterprise or part thereof identified by that name. (Sec. 165.4, IPC)

2022/ The NBI found that SG Inc. is engaged in the reproduction and distribution of counterfeit "playstation games" and thus applied with the Manila RTC warrants to search respondent's premises in Cavite. RTC granted such warrants and thus, the NBI served the search warrants on the subject premises. SG Inc. questioned the validity of the warrants due to wrong venue since the RTC of Manila had no jurisdiction to issue a search warrant enforceable in Cavite. Is the contention of SG Inc. correct?

2022 No, unfair competition is a transitory or continuing offense under Section 168 of Republic Act No. 8293. As such, petitioner may apply for a search warrant in any court where any element of the alleged offense was committed, including any of the courts within Metro Manila and may be validly enforced in Cavite. (Sony Computer Entertainment Inc. v. Supergreen Inc. G.R. No. 161823, Mar. 22, 2007)

204/ What are covered by intellectual property rights?

204 1. Copyright and Related Rights 2. Mark (trade, service and collective) Geographic indications 3. Industrial designs 4. Patents 5. Layout designs (Topographies) of Integrated Circuits 6. Protection of Undisclosed Information. (Sec. 4.1, Intellectual Property Code [IPC])

204/ What is undisclosed information?

204 1. Is a secret in the sense that it is not, as a body or in precise configuration and assembly of components, generally known among, or readily accessible to persons within the circles that normally deal with the kind of information in question. 2. Has commercial value because it is a secret 3. Has been subjected to reasonable steps under the circumstances, by the person lawfully in control of the information, to keep it a secret. (Article 39, TRIPS Agreement)

204/ What is a patent?

204 A statutory grant which confers to an inventor or his legal successor, in return for the disclosure of the invention to the public, the right for a limited period of time to exclude others from making, using, selling or importing the invention within the territory of the country that grants the patent.

204/ Patentable Invention

204 Any technical solution of a problem in any field of human activity which is new, involves an inventive step and is industrially applicable. (Kho v. CA, G.R. No. 115758, Mar. 11, 2002).

204/ Trademark

204 Any visible sign capable of distinguishing the goods (trademark) or services (service mark) of an enterprise and shall include a stamped or marked container of goods.

204/ What is a technology transfer arrangement?

204 Contracts or arrangements involving the transfer of systematic knowledge for the manufacture of a product, the application of the process, or rendering a service including management contracts, and transfer, assignment or licensing of all forms of intellectual property rights, including licensing of computer software except computer software developed for mass market. (Sec. 4.2, IPC)

204/ What is a geographic indication?

204 It's an indication which identifies a good as originating in the territory, where a given quality, reputation or other characteristic of the good is essentially attributable to its geographical origin. (Art. 22, Trade‐Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights)

204/ Copyright

204 Literary and artistic works which are original intellectual creations in the literary and artistic domain protected from the moment of their creation.

204/ Tradename

204 The name or designation identifying or distinguishing an enterprise.

204/ What is the nature of undisclosed information/trade secret?

204 Those trade secrets are of a privileged nature. The protection of industrial property encourages investments in new ideas and inventions and stimulates creative efforts for the satisfaction of human needs. It speeds up transfer of technology and industrialization, and thereby bring about social and economic progress. Verily, the protection of industrial secrets is inextricably linked to the advancement of our economy and fosters healthy competition in trade. (Air Philippines Corporation v. Pennswell, Inc., G.R. No. 172835, Dec. 13, 2007)

204/ What are the distinctions among trademark, patent and copyright?

204 ////////

205/ What is prior art?

205 1. Everything which has been made available to the public anywhere in the world, before the filing date or the priority date of the application claiming the invention; 2. The whole contents of a published application, filed or effective in the Philippines, with a filing or priority date that is earlier than the filing or priority date of the application. Provided, that the application which has validly claimed the filing date of an earlier application under Section 31 of the IPC, there shall be a prior art with effect as of the filing date of such earlier application: Provided further, that the applicant or the inventor identified in both applications are not one and the same. (Sec. 24, IPC)

205/ What is the test of non‐obviousness?

205 A: If any person possessing ordinary skill in the art was able to draw the inferences and he constructs that the supposed inventor drew from prior art, then the latter did not really invent.

205/ What are the patentable inventions?

205 Any technical solution of a problem in any field of human activity which is new, involves an inventive step and is industrially applicable. It may be, or may relate to, a product, or process, or an improvement of any of the foregoing. (Sec. 21)

205/ What is inventive step?

205 GR: An invention involves an inventive step if, having regard to prior art, it is not obvious to a person skilled in the art at the time of the filing date or priority date of the application claiming the invention. (Sec. 26, IPC) XPN: In the case of drugs and medicines, there is no inventive step if the invention results from the mere discovery of a new form or new property of a known substance which does not result in the enhancement of the known efficacy of that substance. (Sec. 26.2, as amended by R.A. 9502)

205/ What are the conditions for patentability?

205 NIA 1. Novelty - An invention shall not be considered new if it forms part of a prior art. (Sec. 23, IPC) 2. Involves an inventive step - if, having regard to prior art, it is not obvious to a person skilled in the art at the time of the filing date or priority date of the application claiming the invention. 3. Industrially Applicable - An invention that can be produced and used in any industry, shall be industrially applicable (Sec. 27, IPC).

205/ Who has the burden of proving want of novelty of an invention?

205 The burden of proving want of novelty is on him who avers it and the burden is a heavy one which is met only by clear and satisfactory proof which overcomes every reasonable doubt. (Manzano v. CA, G.R. No. 113388. Sept. 5, 1997)

205/ What is meant by "made available to the public" and what are its effects?

205 To be "made available to the public" means at least one member of the public has been able to access knowledge of the invention without any restriction on passing that knowledge on to others. GR: When a work has already been made available to the public, it shall be non‐ patentable for absence of novelty. XPN: Non‐prejudicial disclosure - the disclosure of information contained in the application during the 12‐month period before the filing date or the priority date of the application if such disclosure was made by: ——-

206/ What is the term of a utility model?

206 7 years from date of filing of the application (Sec. 109.3, IPC).

206/ When does an invention qualify as a utility model?

206 If it is new and industrially applicable. A model of implement or tools of any industrial product even if not possessed of the quality of invention but which is of practical utility. (Sec. 109.1, IPC)

206/ Who may apply for a patent?

206 Any person who is a national or who is domiciled or has a real and effective industrial establishment in a country which is a party to any convention, treaty or agreement relating to intellectual property rights or the repression of unfair competition, to which the Philippines is also a party, or extends reciprocal rights to nationals of the Philippines by law. (Sec. 3, IPC)

206/ Are computer programs patentable?

206 GR: Computer programs are not patentable but are copyrightable. XPN: They can be patentable if they are part of a process (e.g. business process with a step involving the use of a computer program).

206/ What is the "first to file" rule?

206 If two (2) or more persons have made the invention separately and independently of each other, the right to the patent shall belong to the person who filed an application for such invention, or Where two or more applications are filed for the same invention, to the applicant whi has the earliest filing date. (Sec. 29, IPC)

206/ What are not patentable inventions?

206 PAD‐SCAD 1. Discoveries, scientific theories and mathematical methods 2. In the case of Drugs and medicines, mere discovery of a new form or new property of a known substance which does not result in the enhancement of the efficacy of that substance 3. Schemes, rules and methods of performing mental acts, playing games or doing business, and programs for computers ————————-

206/ Cheche invented a device that can convert rainwater into automobile fuel. She asked Macon, a lawyer, to assist in getting her invention patented. Macon suggested that they form a corporation with other friends and have the corporation apply for the patent, 80% of the shares of stock thereof to be subscribed by Cheche and 5% by Macon. The corporation was formed and the patent application was filed. However, Cheche died 3 months later of a heart attack. Franco, the estranged husband of Cheche, contested the application of the corporation and filed his own patent application as the sole surviving heir of Cheche. Decide the issue with reasons.

206 The estranged husband of Cheche cannot successfully contest the application. The right over inventions accrue from the moment of creation and as a right it can lawfully be assigned. Once the title thereto is vested in the transferee, the latter has the right to apply for its registration. The estranged husband of Cheche, if not disqualified to inherit, merely would succeed to the interest of Cheche. (1990 Bar Question)

206/ What are the steps in the registration of a patent?

206 The procedure for the grant of patent may be summarized as follows: 1. Filing of the application 2. Accordance of the filing date 3. Formality examination 4. Classification and Search 5. Publication of application 6. Substantive examination 7. Grant of Patent 8. Publication upon grant 9. Issuance of certificate (Salao, Essentials of Intellectual Property Law: a Guidebook on Republic Act No. 8293 and Related Laws., 2008)

206/ Who is entitled to a patent?

206 1. Inventor, his heirs, or assigns. 2. Joint invention - Jointly by the inventors. (Sec. 28, IPC) 3. 2 or more persons invented separately and independently of each other - To the person who filed an application; 4. Two or more applications are filed - the applicant who has the earliest filing date or, the earliest priority date. First to file rule. (Sec. 29, IPC) ————————

206/ What are other forms of patentable inventions?

206 1. Industrial design - Any composition of lines or colors or any three‐dimensional form, whether or not associated with lines or colors. Provided that such composition or form gives a special appearance to and can serve as pattern for an industrial product or handicraft. (Sec. 112, IPC) Note: Generally speaking, an industrial design is the ornamental or aesthetic aspect of a useful article. (Vicente Amador, Intellectual Property Fundamentals, 2007) ———————

206/ Who is considered a person of ordinary skill?

206 A person who is presumed to: 1. Be an ordinary practitioner aware of what was common general knowledge in the art at the relevant date. 2. Have knowledge of all references that are sufficiently related to one another and to the pertinent art and to have knowledge of all arts reasonably pertinent to the particular problems with which the inventor was involved. 3. Have had at his disposal the normal means and capacity for routine work and experimentation. (Rules and Regulations on Inventions, Rule 207)

208/ What is an abstract?

208 A concise summary of the disclosure of the invention as contained in the description, claims and merely serves as technical information.

208/ What are the conditions in availing of priority date?

208 1. The local application expressly claims priority; 2. It is filed within 12 months from the date the earliest foreign application was filed; and 3. A certified copy of the foreign application together with an English translation is filed within 6 months from the date of filing in the Philippines. (Sec. 31, IPC)

208/ What is priority date?

208 An application for patent filed by any person who has previously applied for the same invention in another country which by treaty, convention, or law affords similar privileges to Filipino citizens, shall be considered as filed as of the date of filing the foreign application. (Sec. 31, IPC) UST GOLDEN NOTES 2011

208/What is a claim?

208 Defines the matter for which protection is sought. Each claim shall be clear and concise, and shall be supported by the description.

208/ What is the concept of applications?

208 Divisional applications come into play when two or more inventions are claimed in a single application but are of such a nature that a single patent may not be issued for them. The applicant, is thus required to "divide", that is, to limit the claims to whichever invention he may elect, whereas those inventions not elected may be made the subject of separate applications which are called "divisional applications". (Smith‐Kline Beckman Corp. v. CA, GR No. 126627, Aug. 14,2003)

208/ What are the rights conferred by a patent application after the first publication?

208 The applicant shall have all the rights of a patentee against any person who, without his authorization, exercised any of the rights conferred under Section 71 in relation to the invention claimed in the published patent application, as if a patent had been granted for that invention, provided that the said person had: 1. Actual knowledge that the invention that he was using was the subject matter of a published application; or 2. Received written notice that the invention was the subject matter of a published application being identified in the said notice by its serial number Note: That the action may not be filed until after the grant of a patent on the published application and within four (4) years from the commission of the acts complained of (Sec. 46, IPC).

208/ How is disclosure made?

208 The application shall disclose the invention in a manner sufficiently clear and complete for it to be carried out by a person skilled in the art.

208/ What is unity of invention?

208 The application shall relate to one invention only or to a group of inventions forming a single general inventive concept. (Sec. 38.1) If several independent inventions which do not form a single general inventive concept are claimed in one application, the application must be restricted to a single invention. (Sec. 38.2, IPC)

208/ Leonard and Marvin applied for Letters Patent claiming the right of priority granted to foreign applicants. Receipt of petitioners' application was acknowledged by respondent Director on March 6, 1954. Their Application for Letters Patent in the US for the same invention indicated that the application in the US was filed on March 16, 1953. They were advised that the "Specification" they had submitted was "incomplete" and that responsive action should be filed with them four months from date of mailing, which was August 5, 1959. On July 3, 1962, petitioners submitted two complete copies of the Specification. Director of patents held that petitioners' application may not be treated as filed. Is the director correct?

208 Yes, it is imperative that the application be complete in order that it may be accepted. It is essential to the validity of Letters Patent that the specifications be full, definite, and specific. The purpose of requiring a definite and accurate description of the process is to apprise the public of what the patentee claims as his invention, to inform the Courts as to what they are called upon to construe, and to convey to competing manufacturers and dealers information of exactly what they are bound to avoid. To be entitled to the filing date of the patent application, an invention disclosed in a previously filed application must be described within the instant application in such a manner as to enable one skilled in the art to use the same for a legally adequate utility. (Boothe v. Director of Patents, G.R. No. L‐24919, Jan. 28, 1980)

209/ What is the duration of a patent, utility model and industrial design?

209 1. Patent - 20 years from date of filing of application without renewal. (Sec. 54, IPC) 2. Utility Model - 7 years from the filing date of the application without renewal. (Sec. 109.3, IPC) 3. Industrial Design - 5 years from the filing date of the application, renewable for not more than two (2) consecutive periods of five (5) years each. (Sec. 118.2, IPC)

210/ What are the grounds for cancellation of a utility model?

209 1. The invention does not qualify for registration as a utility model 2. That the description and the claims do not comply with the prescribed requirements 3. Any drawing which is necessary for the understanding of the invention has not been furnished 4. That the owner of the utility model registration is not the inventor or his successor in title. (Sec. 109.4, IPC)

209/ What are the grounds for cancellation of an industrial design?

209 1. The subject matter of the industrial design is not registrable; 2. The subject matter is not new; or 3. The subject matter of the industrial design extends beyond the content of the application as originally filed (Sec. 120IPC).

209/When shall the patent take effect?

209 A patent shall take effect on the date of the publication of the grant of the patent in the IPO Gazette. (Sec. 50.3, IPC)

209/ What if the ground/s for cancellation relate to some of the claims or parts of the claim only?

209 Cancellation may be effected to such extent only. (Sec. 61.2, IPC)

209/ What is the remedy of a true inventor?

209 He may only ask the court to substitute him as a patentee or to cancel the patent and ask for damages when the application of the false inventor is granted. He may not the IPO of processing the false application.

209/ What are the remedies of persons not having the right to a patent?

209 If a person other than the applicant is declared by final court order or decision as having the right to a patent, he may within 3 months after such decision has become final: 1. Prosecute the application as his own 2. File a new patent application 3. Request the application to be refused; or 4. Seek cancellation of the patent.

209/ What are the grounds for the cancellation of patents?

209 NDCI 1. The invention is Not new or patentable; 2. The patent does not Disclose the invention in a manner sufficiently clear and complete for it to be carried out by any person skilled in the art; or 3. Contrary to public order or morality.(Sec. 61.1, IPC) 4. Patent is found Invalid in an action for infringement (Sec. 82, IPC)

210/ What are the exceptions to the rights conferred by a patent?

210 1. In general a. GR: If put on the market in the Philippines by the owner of the product, or with his express consent. XPN: Drugs and medicines ‐ introduced in the Philippines or anywhere else in the world by the patent owner, or by any party authorized to use the invention (Sec. 72.1, as amended by R.A. 9502) b. Where the act is done privately and on a non‐commercial scale or for a non‐commercial purpose. (Sec. 72.2, IPC) c. Exclusively for experimental use of the invention for scientific purposes or educational purposes (experimental use provision). (Sec. 72.3, IPC) —————————

210/ What are the rights conferred by a patent?

210 1. Subject matter is a product - Right to restrain, prohibit and prevent any unauthorized person or entity from making, using, offering for sale, selling or importing the product. 2. Subject matter is a process - Right to restrain prohibit and prevent any unauthorized person or entity from manufacturing, dealing in, using, offering for sale, selling or importing any product obtained directly or indirectly from such process (Sec. 71, IPC). 3. Right to assign the patent, to transfer by succession, and to conclude licensing contracts. (Sec. 71.2, IPC)

210 3. Use by Government - A government agency or third person authorized by the government may exploit invention even without agreement of a patent owner where: a. Public interest, as determined by the appropriate agency of the government, so requires; or b. A judicial or administrative body has determined that the manner of exploitation by owner of patent is anti‐competitive. (Sec. 74, IPC) —————————-

210 4. Reverse reciprocity of foreign law - Any condition, restriction, limitation, diminution, requirement, penalty or any similar burden imposed by the law of a foreign country on a Philippine national seeking protection of intellectual property rights in that country, shall reciprocally be enforceable upon nationals of said country, within Philippine jurisdiction. (Sec. 231, IPC)

222/ What are the elements of originality?

222 1. It is inndependently created by the author, and 2. It possesses some minimal degree of creativity

222/ What are the elements of copyrightability?

222 1. Originality - Must have been created by the author's own skill, labor, and judgment without directly copying or evasively imitating the work of another. (Ching Kian Chuan v. CA, G.R. No. 130360, Aug. 15, 2001) 2. Expression - Must be embodied in a medium sufficiently permanent or stable to permit it to be perceived, reproduced or communicated for a period more than a transitory duration.

2022/ What are the criminal penalties for unfair competition, infringement, false designation of origin and false representations?

222 A penalty of imprisonment from 2 years to 5and a fine ranging from P50,000 to P200,000 (Sec. 170, IPC.)

222/ When does copyright vest?

222 Works are protected from the time of their creation, irrespective of their mode or form of expression, as well as of their content, quality and purpose.

222/ Can trademark registration be cancelled?

222 Yes, by any person who believes that he will be damaged by the registration of the mark: 1. Within 5 years, from the date of the registration of the mark; or 2. At any time; a. If the registered mark becomes the generic name for the goods or services, or a portion thereof, for which it is registered; b. If the mark has been abandoned; c. If its registration was obtained fraudulently or contrary to the provisions of the IPC; d. If the registered mark is being used by, or with the permission of, the registrant so as to misrepresent the source of the goods or services on or in connection with which the mark is used; e. Non‐use of the mark within the Philippines, without legitimate reason, for an uninterrupted period of 3 years.

222/ What is copyright?

222/ A right over literary and artistic works which are original intellectual creations in the literary and artistic domain protected from the moment of creation. (Sec. 171.1, IPC)

223/ What are copyrightable works?

223 1. Literary and Artistic Works BOLD‐MAN‐GAS‐PAP‐CO a. Books, pamphlets, articles and other writings b. Lectures, sermons, addresses, dissertations prepared for Oral delivery, whether or not reduced in writing or other material form c. Letters d. Dramatic, choreographic works e. Musical compositions f. Works of Art g. Periodicals and Newspapers h. Works relative to Geography, topography, architecture or science; ————————————-

223/ What is the difference between collection of work and collective work?

223 COLLECTION OF WORK It is not necessary that there is an agreement. Individual contribution is capable of copyright protection. COLLECTIVE WORK There is an agreement whereby the authors bound themselves not to be identified with the work.

223/ P & D was granted a copyright on the technical drawings of light boxes as "advertising display units". SMI, however, manufactured similar or identical to the light box illustrated in the technical drawings copyrighted by P&D for leasing out to different advertisers. Was this an infringement of P&D's copyright over the technical drawings?

223 No, P&D's copyright protection extended only to the technical drawings and not to the light box itself. The light box was not a literary or artistic piece which could be copyrighted under the copyright law. If SMI reprinted P&D's technical drawings for sale to the public without license from P&D, then no doubt they would have been guilty of copyright infringement. Only the expression of an idea is protected by copyright, not the idea itself. If what P&D sought was exclusivity over the light boxes, it should have instead procured a patent over the light boxes itself. (Pearl and Dean Inc. v. Shoe Mart Inc., GR No. 148222, Aug. 15, 2003)

223/ Juan Xavier wrote and published a story similar to an unpublished copyrighted story of Manoling Santiago. It was, however, conclusively proven that Juan Xavier was not aware that the story of Manoling Santiago was protected by copyright. Manoling Santiago sued Juan Xavier for infringement of copyright. Is Juan Xavier liable?

223 Yes. Juan Xavier is liable for infringement of copyright. It is not necessary that Juan Xavier is aware that the story of Manoling Santiago was protected by copyright. The work of Manoling Santiago is protected from the time of its creation. (1998 Bar Question) Note: There will still be originality sufficient to warrant copyright protection if "the author, through his skill and effort, has contributed a distinguishable variation from the older works." In such a case, of course, only those parts which are new are protected by the new copyright. Hence, in such a case, there is no case of infringement. Juan Xavier is no less an "author" because others have preceded him.

225/ What are the subjects not protected?

225 1. Idea, procedure, system, method or operation, concept, principle, discovery or mere data as such 2. News of the day and other items of press information 3. Any official text of a legislative, administrative or legal nature, as well as any official translation thereof 4. Pleadings 5. Decisions of courts and tribunals - this refers to original decisions and not to annotated decisions such as the SCRA or SCAD as these already fall under the classification of derivative works, hence copyrightable 6. Any work of the Government of the Philippines ————————-

225/ Rural is a certified public utility providing telephone service to several communities in Manila. It obtains data for the directory from subscribers, who must provide their names and addresses to obtain telephone service. Feist Publications, Inc., is a publishing company that specializes in area‐wide telephone directories covering a much larger geographic range than directories such as Rural's. Feist extracted the listings it needed from Rurals's directory without its consent. Are directories copyrightable?

225 No, directories are not copyrightable and therefore the use of them does not constitute infringement. The Intellectual Property Code mandates originality as a prerequisite for copyright protection. This requirement necessitates independent creation plus a modicum of creativity. Since facts do not owe their origin to an act of authorship, they are not original, and thus are not copyrightable. A compilation is not copyrightable per se, but is copyrightable only if its facts have been "selected, coordinated, or arranged in such a way that the resulting work as a whole constitutes an original work of authorship." Thus, the statute envisions that some ways of selecting, coordinating, and arranging data are not sufficiently original to trigger copyright protection. Even a compilation that is copyrightable receives only limited protection, for the copyright does not extend to facts contained in the compilation. (Feist Publications, Inc. v. Rural Telephone Service Co., 499 U.S. 340)

225/ What is the presumption of authorship?

225 The natural person whose name is indicated on a work in the usual manner as the author shall, in the absence of proof to the contrary, presumed to be the author of the work. This is applicable even if the name is a pseudonym, where the pseudonym leaves no doubt as to identity of the author. (Sec. 219.1, IPC) The person or body corporate, whose name appears on the audio‐visual work in the usual manner shall, in the absence of proof to the contrary, be presumed to be the maker of said work. (Sec. 219.2, IPC)

225 GR: Conditions imposed prior the approval of the government agency or office wherein the work is created shall be necessary for exploitation of such work for profit. Such agency or office, may, among other things, impose as condition the payment of royalties. XPN: No prior approval or conditions shall be required for the use of any purpose of statutes, rules and regulations, and speeches, lectures, sermons, addresses, and dissertations, pronounced, read, or rendered in courts of justice, before administration agencies, in deliberative assemblies and in meetings of public character. (Section 176, IPC) 7. TV programs, format of TV programs (Joaquin v. Drilon, G.R. No. 108946, Jan. 28, 1999) 8. Systems of bookkeeping; and 9. Statutes.

225/ BJ Production , Inc (BJPI) is the holder/grantee of a copyright of "Rhoda and Me", a dating game show aired from 1970 to 1977. Subsequently, however, RPN aired the game show "It's a Date", which was produced by IXL Productions, Inc. (IXL). As such, an information for copyright infringement was filed against RPN. The DOJ Secretary directed the prosecutor to dismiss the case for lack of probable cause. Was the decision of the DOJ Secretary correct?

226/ What are the rights of an author?

226 1. Economic rights - The right to carry out, authorize or prevent the following acts: a. Reproduction of the work or substantial portion thereof b. Carry‐out derivative work (dramatization, translation, adaptation, abridgement, arrangement or other transformation of the work) c. First distribution of the original and each copy of the work by sale or other forms of transfer of ownership d. Rental right e. Public display f. Public performance g. Other communications to the public.

226/ ABC is the owner of certain musical compositions among which are the songs entitled: "Dahil Sa Iyo", "Sapagkat Ikaw Ay Akin," "Sapagkat Kami Ay Tao Lamang" and "The Nearness Of You." Soda Fountain Restaurant hired a combo with professional singers to play and sing musical compositions to entertain and amuse customers. They performed the above‐ mentioned compositions without any license or permission from ABC to play or sing the same. Accordingly, ABC demanded from Soda Fountain payment of the necessary license fee for the playing and singing of aforesaid compositions but the demand was ignored. ABC filed an infringement case against Soda Fountain. Does the playing and singing of musical compositions inside an establishment constitute public performance for profit?

226 Yes. The patrons of the Soda Fountain pay only for the food and drinks and apparently not for listening to the music, but the music provided is for the purpose of entertaining and amusing the customers in order to make the establishment more attractive and desirable. For the playing and singing the musical compositions involved, the combo was paid as independent contractors by Soda Fountain. It is therefore obvious that the expenses entailed thereby are added to the overhead of the restaurant which are either eventually charged in the price of the food and drinks or to the overall total of additional income produced by the bigger volume of business which the entertainment was programmed to attract. Consequently, it is beyond question that the playing and singing of the combo in defendant‐ appellee's restaurant constituted performance for profit. (FILSCAP v. Tan, G.R., No. L‐36402, Mar. 16, 1987)

227/ What are the exceptions to moral rights?

227 1. Absent any special contract at the time creator licenses/permits another to use his work, the following are deemed not to contravene creator's moral rights, provided they are done in accordance with reasonable customary standards or requisites of the medium: a. Editing b. Arranging c. Adaptation d. Dramatization e. Mechanical and electric reproduction 2. Complete destruction of work unconditionally transferred by creators. (Sec. 197, IPC)

227/ May an author be compelled to perform his contract?

227 An author cannot be compelled to perform his contract to create a work or for the publication of his work already in existence. However, he may be held liable for damages for breach of such contract. (Sec. 195, IPC)

227/ Can moral rights be waived?

227 GR: Moral rights can be waived in writing, expressly so stating such waiver. XPN: Even in writing, waiver is not valid if: 1. Use the name of the author, title of his work, or his reputation with respect to any version/adaptation of his work, which because of alterations, substantially tend to injure literary/artistic reputation of another author 2. Use name of author in a work that he did not create

227/ What is the term of moral rights?

227 It shall last during the lifetime of the author and for fifty (50) years after his death and shall not be assignable or subject to license. (Sec. 198, IPC) Note: The person/s to be charged with the posthumous enforcement of moral rights shall be named in writing to be filed with the National Library. In default of such person or persons, such enforcement shall devolve upon either the author's heirs, and in default of the heirs, the Director of the National Library. (ibid.)

227/ Malang Santos designed for Ambassador Neri for his personal christmas greetings for the year 1959 a christmas card depicting a Philippine rural Christmas time scene. The following year McCullough Printing Company, without the knowledge and authority of Santos, displayed the very design in its album of Christmas cards and offered it for sale. Santos filed for copyright infringement contending that the publication of his design was limited as it was intended only for Ambassador Neri's use, hence, it could not be used for public consumption. Is there copyright infringement?

227 No. If there were a condition that the cards are to be limitedly published, then Ambassador Neri would be the aggrieved party, and not Santos. And even if there was such a limited publication or prohibition, the same was not shown on the face of the design. When the purpose is a limited publication, but the effect is general publication, irrevocable rights thereupon become vested in the public, in consequence of which enforcement of the rights under a copyright becomes impossible. (Malang v. McCullough Printing Company, G.R. No. L‐19439, Oct. 31, 1964)

227/ What is the nature of moral rights?

227 These are personal rights independent from the economic rights. Being a personal right, it can only be given to a natural person. Hence, even if he has licensed or assigned his economic rights, he continues to enjoy the above‐mentioned moral rights. (Amador, Intellectual Property Fundamentals, 2007)

227/ What are the neighboring rights?

227 These are the rights of performers, producers of sound recording and broadcasting organization

228/ What is the scope of the rights of broadcasting organizations?

228 Broadcasting organizations shall enjoy the exclusive right to carry out, authorize or prevent any of the following acts: 1. The rebroadcasting of their broadcasts 2. The recording in any manner, including the making of films or the use of video tape, of their broadcasts for the purpose of communication to the public of television broadcasts of the same 3. The use of such records for fresh transmissions or for fresh recording. (Sec. 211, IPC)

228/ When are performer's rights lost?

228 Once a performer has authorized broadcasting or fixation of his performance. (Sec 205, IPC) Note: Fair use and limitations to copyrights shall apply mutatis mutandis to performers. (Ibid.)

228/ What is the scope of a performer's rights?

228 Performers shall enjoy the following exclusive rights: 1. As regards their performances, the right of authorizing: a. The broadcasting and other communication to the public of their performance; and b. The fixation of their unfixed performance. 2. The right of authorizing the direct or indirect reproduction of their performances fixed in sound recordings, in any manner or form; 3. The right of authorizing the first public distribution of the original and copies of their performance fixed in the sound recording through sale or rental or other forms of transfer of ownership; —————————

228/ What is the scope of the rights of producers on sound recordings?

228 Producers of sound recordings shall enjoy the following exclusive rights: 1. The right to authorize the direct or indirect reproduction of their sound recordings, in any manner or form; the placing of these reproductions in the market and the right of rental or lending 2. The right to authorize the first public distribution of the original and copies of their sound recordings through sale or rental or other forms of transferring ownership; and The right to authorize the commercial rental to the public of the original and copies of their sound recordings, even after distribution by them by or pursuant to authorization by the producer. (Sec. 208, IPC) Note: Fair use and limitations to copyrights shall apply mutatis mutandis to performers. (Sec. 210, IPC)

228/ When are performers entitled to additional remuneration on their performance?

228 The performer shall be entitled to an additional remuneration equivalent to at least 5% of the original compensation he received for the first communication or broadcast in every communication to the public or broadcast of a performance subsequent to the first communication or broadcast, unless otherwise provided in the contract. (Sec. 206, IPC)

228/ What are the moral rights of performers?

228 The performer, shall, as regards his live aural performances or performances fixed in sound recordings, have the right to claim to be identified as the performer of his performances, except where the omission is dictated by the manner of the use of the performance, and to object to any distortion, mutilation or other modification of his performances that would be prejudicial to his reputation.

229/ Who owns copyright?

229 1. Author - Original literary and artistic works. (Sec. 178.1, IPC) 2. Co‐authors - Works of joint authorship; in the absence of agreement, their rights shall be governed by the rules on co‐ownership. Note: If work of joint authorship consists of parts that can be used separately, then the author of each part shall be the original owner of the copyright in the part that he has created. (Sec. 178.2, IPC) ——————————-

229/ When are neighboring rights not applicable?

229 1. Exclusive use of a natural person for own personal purposes 2. Short excerpts for reporting current events 3. Sole use for the purpose of teaching or for scientific research 4. Fair use of the broadcast

229/ To whom are the rights granted to copyrightable works applicable (points of attachment)?

229 1. For literary and artistic works and derivative works a. Works of authors who are nationals of, or have their habitual residence in, the Philippines; b. Audio‐visual works the producer of which has his headquarters or habitual residence in the Philippines; c. Works of architecture erected in the Philippines or other artistic works incorporated in a building or other structure located in the Philippines; d. Works first published in the Philippines; and e. Works first published in another country but also published in the Philippines within thirty days, irrespective of the nationality or residence of the authors. (Sec. 221, IPC) —————————

229/ What are the term of protection given to performers, producers and broadcasting organizations?

229 1. For performances not incorporated in recordings, 50 years from the end of the year in which the performance took place; and 2. For sound or image and sound recordings and for performances incorporated therein, 50 years from the end of the year in which the recording took place. 3. In case of broadcasts, the term shall be 20 years from the date the broadcast took place. The extended term shall be applied only to old works with subsisting protection under the prior law. (Sec. 215, IPC)

230/ Distinguish collective work from joint work.

230 COLLECTIVE WORK 1. Elements remain unintegrated and disparate; 2. Work created by 2 or more persons at the initiative and under the direction of another with the understanding that it will be disclosed by the latter under his own name and that of the contributions of natural persons will NOT be identified 3. Each author shall enjoy copyright to his own contribution 4. The work will be attributed to the person under whose initiative and direction it was created unless the contributor expressly reserves his right. JOINT WORK 1. Separate elements merge into a unified whole. 2. Work prepared by 2 or more authors with the intention that their contributions be merged into inseparable or independent parts of the unitary whole. 3. Joint authors shall be co‐ owners. Co‐ownership shall apply. 4. Joint authors shall be both entitled to the acknowledgment as authors of the work.

230/ BR and CT are noted artists whose paintings are highly prized by collectors. Dr. DL commissioned them to paint a mural at the main lobby of his new hospital for children. Both agreed to collaborate on the project for a total fee of two million pesos to be equally divided between them. It was also agreed that Dr. DL had to provide all the materials for the painting and pay for the wages of technicians and laborers needed for the work on the project. Assume that the project is completed and both BR and CT are fully paid the amount of P2M as artists' fee by DL. Under the law on intellectual property, who will own the mural? Who will own the copyright in the mural? Why? Explain.

230 Under Sec. 178.4 of the Intellectual Property Code, in case of commissioned work, the creator (in the absence of a written stipulation to the contrary) owns the copyright, but the work itself belongs to the person who commissioned the creation. Accordingly, the mural belongs to DL. However, BR and CT own the copyright, since there is no stipulation to the contrary. (1995 Bar Question)

231/ What is the term of protection of copyright?

231 TYPE of WORK - 1.Single Creation 2. Joint creation 3. Anonymous or pseudonymous work 4. Work of an applied art of an artistic creation with utilitarian functions or incorporated in a useful article whether made by hand or produced on an industrial scale 5. Audio‐visual works including those produced by process analogous to photography or any process for making audio‐visual recordings 6. Newspaper Article DURATION 1. Lifetime of the creator and for 50 years after his death 2. Lifetime of the last surviving co‐creator and for 50 years after his death. 3. 50 years after the date of their first publication; except where before the expiration of said period, the author's identity is revealed or is no longer in doubt, the 1st two mentioned rules shall apply; or if unpublished, 50 years from their making. 4. 25 years from the time of the making. 5. 50 years from date of publication and, if unpublished, from the date of making. 6. Lifetime of the author and 50 years after. (Sec. 213, IPC)

231/ What are the general limitations on copyright?

231 The following acts shall not constitute infringement of copyright: 1. Performance of a work, once it has been lawfully made accessible to the public, if done privately and free of charge or for a charitable or religious institution or society. 2. The making of quotations from a published work if they are compatible with fair use and only to the extent justified for the purpose. ————————

231/ What is the principle of "automatic protection"?

231 Works are protected by the sole fact of their creation irrespective of their content, quality or purpose. Such rights are conferred from the moment of creation.

233/ What are the factors that should be considered in order to determine "fair use"?

233 1. The purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for non‐profit educational purpose; 2. The nature of the copyrighted work; 3. The amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted work as a whole; and 4. The effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work. Note: The fact that a work is unpublished shall not by itself bar a finding of fair use if such finding is made upon consideration of all the above factors. (Sec. 182.2, IPC)

233/ What is the doctrine of "fair use"?

233 Fair use" permits a secondary use that "serves the copyright objective of stimulating productive thought and public instruction without the incentives for excessively creativity"

233/ What is the "must carry rule"?

233 Must‐carry rule is another limitation on copyright. It obligates operators to carry the signals of local channels within their respective systems. This is to give the people wider access to more sources of news, information, education, sports event and entertainment programs other than those provided for by mass media and afforded television programs to attain a well informed, well‐versed and culturally refined citizenry and enhance their socio‐economic growth. (ABS‐CBN Broadcasting Corporation v. Philippine Multimedia System, G.R. No. 175769‐ 70, Jan. 19, 2009)

234/ What are the requisites for a transfer of copyright to take effect?

234 1. If inter vivos, must be in writing; and 2. Filed in National Library upon payment of prescribed fees. (Sec. 182, IPC)

234/ What is the limitation regarding submission of a literary, photographic or artistic work to a newspaper, magazine or periodical for publication?

234 A. Unless a greater right is expressly granted, such submission shall constitute only a license to make a single publication. (Sec. 180.3, IPC) Note: If two or more persons jointly own a copyright or any part thereof, neither of the owners shall be entitled to grant licenses without the prior written consent of the other owner or owners. (Ibid.)

234/ May a copyright be transferred/assigned?

234 It may be assigned in whole or in part. Within the scope of the assignment, the assignee is entitled to all the rights and remedies which the assignor had with respect to the copyright. (Sec. 180.1, IPC)

234/ Is filing of the assignment or license of copyright a mandatory requirement?

234 No, Section 182 uses the permissive word "may" in reference to the filing of the deed of assignment or transfer of copyright, this filing should not be understood as mandatory for validity and enforceability. The filing is entirely optional for the parties and may be useful only for evidentiary and notification purposes. (Amador, Intellectual Property Fundamentals, 2007)

233/ Ford contracted with H&R Publishing to publish his unwritten memoirs. The agreement gave H&R the exclusive first serial right to license prepublication excerpts. As the memoirs were nearing completion, H&R, as the copyright holders, negotiated a prepublication licensing agreement with Time Magazine. Shortly before the Time article's scheduled release, an unauthorized source provided The Nation Magazine with the unpublished Ford manuscript. An editor of The Nation produced an article which consisted of verbatim quotes of copyrighted expression taken from the manuscript which were the gist of the memoirs. As a result, Time refused to pay H&R as agreed upon in the prepublication agreement. H&R brought an action for infringement against Nation Magazine. Nation magazine contended that the article it published constitutes fair use and thus it cannot be held liable for infringement. Is the contention correct?

234 No, the article does not constitute fair use. Taking into account the factors as especially relevant in determining fair use, leads to the conclusion that the use in question here was not fair. First of all, the purpose or character of the use was commercial (to scoop a competitor), meaning that The Nation's use was not a good faith use of fair use in simply reporting news. Also, although the verbatim quotes in question were an insubstantial portion of the Ford manuscript, they qualitatively embodied Mr. Ford's distinctive expression, and played a key role in the infringing article. And lastly, the effect of the use on the potential market for the value of the copyrighted work was also great, because the Nation's liberal use of verbatim excerpts posed substantial potential for damage to the marketability of first serialization rights in the copyrighted work. (Harper & Row v. Nation Enterprises, 471 U.S. 539, 1985)

234/ Is copyright similar with the material object?

234 No, the copyright is distinct from the property in the material object subject to it. Consequently, the transfer or assignment of the copyright shall not itself constitute a transfer of the material object. Nor shall a transfer or assignment of the sole copy or of one or several copies of the work imply transfer or assignment of the copyright. (Sec. 181, IPC)

234/ What is the difference between public performance and communication to the public of a performance?

234 PUBLIC PERFORMANCE 1. Performance at a place or at places where persons outside the normal circle of a family and that family's closest social acquaintances are or can be present. 2. It is performed at a specific time and place. (e.g. The Pacquiao‐Clottey Match in Dallas Texas Stadium) COMMUNICATIONS TO THE PUBLIC OF A PERFORMANCE 1. The transmission to the public, by any medium, otherwise than by broadcasting, of sounds of a performance or the representations of sounds fixed in a sound recording. 2. The communication can be accessed through wired or wireless means at a time and place convenient to the viewer (e.g. The Pacquiao‐Clottey Match watched via YouTube)

234/ What are published works?

234 Those works which, with the consent of the authors, are made available to the public by wire or wireless means in such a way that members of the public may access these works from a place and time individually chosen by them: provided, that availability of such copies has been such, as to satisfy the reasonable requirement of the public, having regard to the nature of the work. (Sec. 171.7, IPC)

234/ What is copyright infringement?

235/ It is the doing by any person, without the consent of the owner of the copyright, of anything the sole right to do which is conferred by statute on the owner of the copyright. The act of lifting from another's book substantial portions of discussions and examples and the failure to acknowledge the same is an infringement of copyright. (Habana v. Robles, G.R. No. 131522, July 19, 1999)

236/ What does substantial reproduction mean?

236 It is not necessarily required that the entire copyrighted work, or even a large portion of it, be copied. If so much is taken that the value of the original work is substantially diminished, there is an infringement of copyright and to an injurious extent, the work is appropriated. It is no defense that the pirate did not know whether or not he was infringing any copyright; he at least knew that what he was copying was not his, and he copied at his peril. In cases of infringement, copying alone is not what is prohibited. The copying must produce an "injurious effect". (Habana v. Robles, G.R. No. 131522, July 19, 1999)

236/ What are the criminal penalties in case of copyright infringement?

236 1. Imprisonment of one (1) year to three (3) years plus a fine ranging from Fifty thousand pesos (P50,000) to One hundred fifty thousand pesos (P150,000) for the first offense. 2. Imprisonment of three (3) years and one (1) day to six (6) years plus a fine ranging from One hundred fifty thousand pesos to Five hundred thousand (P500,000) for the second offense. 3. Imprisonment of six (6) years and one day to nine (9) years plus a fine ranging from Five hundred thousand pesos (P500,000) to P1,500,000 for the third offense. 4. In all cases, subsidiary imprisonment in cases of insolvency.

236/ What are the available remedies in case of copyright infringement?

236 1. Injunction 2. Damages, including legal costs and other expenses, as he may have incurred due to the infringement as well as the profits the infringer may have made due to such infringement 3. Impounding during the pendency of the action sales invoices and other documents evidencing sales 4. Destruction without any compensation all infringing copies 5. Moral and exemplary damages (Sec. 216.1); or 6. Seizure and impounding of any article, which may serve as evidence in the court proceedings. (Sec. 216.2)

236/ What is affidavit evidence?

236 An affidavit made before the notary public in actions for infringement, reciting the facts required to be stated under the IPC. (Sec. 216.1) Note: As a prima facie proof, the affidavit shifts the burden of proof to the defendant, to prove the ownership of the copyrighted work.

236/ What is the difference between copyright infringement and plagiarism?

236 COPYRIGHT INFRINGEMENT 1. The unauthorized use of copyrighted material in a manner that violates one of the copyright owner's exclusive rights, such as the right to reproduce or perform the copyrighted work, or to make derivative works that build upon it. 2. Copyright infringement is a very broad term that describes a variety of acts. It may be duplication of a work, rewriting a piece, performing a written work or doing anything that is normally considered to be the exclusive right of the copyright holder. 3. There is no copyright infringement on public documents. PLAGIARISM 1. The use of another's information, language, or writing, when done without proper acknowledgment of the original source. 2. Plagiarism is specific as it refers only to using someone else's work without proper acknowledgement. 3. Public documents can be plagiarized so long as it is not acknowledged.

236/ What is plagiarism?

236 It is the practice of claiming or implying original authorship of (or incorporating material from) someone else's written or creative work, in whole or in part, into one's own without adequate acknowledgment.

232 3. The private reproduction of a published work in a single copy, where the reproduction is made by a natural person exclusively for research and private study, shall be permitted, without the authorization of the owner of copyright in the work but shall not extend to the reproduction of: a. A work of architecture in the form of building or other construction; b. An entire book, or a substantial part thereof, or of a musical work in graphic form by reprographic means; c. A compilation of data and other materials; d. A computer program except as provided in Section 189; and e. Any work in cases where reproduction would unreasonably conflict with a normal exploitation of the work or would otherwise unreasonably prejudice the legitimate interests of the author. (Sec. 187, IPC) ————————-

4. Any library or archive whose activities are not for profit may, without the authorization of the author of copyright owner, make a single copy of the work by reprographic reproduction: a. Where the work by reason of its fragile character or rarity cannot be lent to user in its original form; b. Where the works are isolated articles contained in composite works or brief portions of other published works and the reproduction is necessary to supply them, when this is considered expedient, to persons requesting their loan for purposes of research or study instead of lending the volumes or booklets which contain them; and ———————-