Intelligence and the Flynn Effect - chapter 6/ lecture 5
The WAIS-IV • Information
- Children • How many eyes do you have? • Who invented the telephone? • What causes a solar eclipse? • Which is the largest planet? - Adults • Which is the most common element in air? • What is the population of the world? • How does fruit juice get converted to wine? • Who wrote Harry Potter?
The WAIS-IV • Also includes a Cognitive Proficiency Index
- Derived from the core Working Memory and Processing Speed subtests - Proficiency at cognitive processing
Approaches to Measuring Intelligence • Jean Piaget
- Development of cognition in children - Evolving biological adaptation - Stages of development Factor-Analytic Theories of Intelligence
Approaches to Measuring Intelligence • Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory• Cattell & Horn
- Fluid- nonverbal, culture-free, e.g., raven's - Crystallised- learned, culture and experience based - 3 levels • Three levels or stratums - Stratum III - general intelligence or g - Stratum II- fluid and crystallised intelligence, for example - Stratum I- narrow abilities
Francis Galton
- Heritability of intelligence - Sensory abilities - Considered father of psychometric testing despite testing dating back to the Han Dynasty (206 BC) - Individual differences- well documented records of related and unrelated persons E.g., identical (MZ) twins - Devised a number of simple tests eg vision, hearing, grip strength, reaction time, comparison between two weights • E.g., reaction time: time to remove finger from home button • E.g., movement time: interval between removing finger and touching button - Believed sensory discrimination (i.e., sensory abilities) was a method of measuring intellect - Noted extreme mental retardates are defective in ability to discriminate heat, cold and pain
Approaches to Measuring Intelligence • Spearman's theory of general intelligence
- One factor - Have different skills, but all are related to a unifying factor - C.f. Thurstone's primary mental abilities
WAIS-IV• Similarities
- Ostrich & penguins - Symphony & painting • Arithmetic - If you have 15 apples and give away 7, how many are left? - John bought a phone that was marked down by 15% from the original sale price of $600. How much did John pay?
WAIS-IV • Letter-number sequencing • Picture completion
- R-3-B-5-Z-1-C - Should be repeated as 1-3-5-B-C-R-Z • Picture arrangement • Object assembly - assemble a cut up picture of a familiar object • Coding - using code from a printed key • Symbol search - visually scan two groups of symbols to see if a target symbol appears in the search group • Matrix reasoning -
Jenson (1980)
- Reaction and movement time correlate with psychometric tests of intelligence (0.5-0.7) - Processing speed is problematic; perfectionism, conscientiousness, mood trade-off - 25-50% of IQ is accounted for by processing speed - Other factors need consideration e.g., age
Flynn Effect: Five Theories• Social multipliers:
- Relationship between ability and the environment and the generation of change - People with a higher ability may be in an environment where (a) they practice more of the skill and (b) get exposed to other activities which in turn become more skilled - I.e., increase across associated skills and increase the correlation between the skills - However, the greater effects occur with lower g tests, indicating greater differentiation of skills - g is a measure of cognitive complexity. As we rank order the Wechsler subtests in order of their g loading they increase in complexity
WAIS-IV• Scoring
- Verbal comprehension scale - Perceptual reasoning scale - working memory scale - processing speed scale
Definitions of Intelligence
- Very controversial - Boring (1923): "Intelligence is what intelligence tests measure" • Debate still surrounds the number of factors and the definition • Debate still exists regarding key terminology!
The WAIS-IV• Comprehension
- What does the saying a stitch in time saves nine mean? - Why are convicted criminals put in prison? - Why do we put food in the fridge? - Why do people wear clothes? - What does the saying a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush mean? - Why are Supreme Court judges appointed for life?
2. The Stanford-Binet is applicable for people from which age range?
A. 16-90 B. 2-89 C. 3-7 D. 6-17
6. The WISC is applicable for people from which age range?
A. 16-90 B. 2-89 C. 3-7 D. 6-17
7. The WPPSI is applicable for people from which age range?
A. 16-90 B. 2-89 C. 3-7 D. 6-17
10. What is EQ?
A. General intelligence B. Perceptual intelligence C. Everlasting intelligence D. Emotional intelligence
1. The Stanford Binet was the first IQ test to do what?
A. Include alternative items B. Be administered to large groups C. Have a standard deviation of 15 D. Devise a short form version
8. What is the Flynn effect?
A. Individuals who are bilingual have more well developed language acquisition centres B. People have larger brains C. Intelligence tests are getting easier D. Performance in intelligence tests is improving over time
9. What is the issue with the construct validity of intelligence?
A. Intelligence is too easy to define B. Intelligence is too easy to measure C. Intelligence is difficult to define D. Intelligence is invalid
5. The WAIS is a progressive test. What does this mean?
A. It is modern B. It uses a routing test C. It has a common starting point D. It is used as a group test
4. What does the CPI factor measure from the WAIS?
A. Overall cognitive ability B. Working memory and processing speed C. Verbal comprehension D. Perceptual reasoning
3. The Stanford-Binet includes a routing test. What does this mean?
A. People start at different items depending on their performance in the routing test B. Individuals have a different set of norms depending on their performance in the routing test C. Individuals take two tests, at two different times, based on their performance in the routing test D. Individuals are asked a series of questions to determine their EQ, based on their performance in the routing test
Flynn Effect: Five Theories• Nutrition:
Improved nutrition associated with body functions, so why not improved cognition? - Decreasing gains may indicate declining influence of nutrition gains - Large increases for adults - Improvement in nutrition may affect lower SES individuals more: suggests there should be a reduction in variability of IQ in populations - Observed reductions in variability have been observed, with increases in the lower end of the dimension - I.e., strong contender
Flynn Effect: Five Theories• Exposure to technology:
Increased exposure to modern technology that trains visual analytic abilities • Teaching in school has moved from instruction in counting and arithmetical operations to presentation of visual forms of objects, patterns and geometrical objects • Can this drive the performance on Raven's Matrices and other similar tasks? - Major changes observed in western countries where there has been the greatest changes in the availability of modern gaming - Greater changes correlated with GDP - However: Changes have also been observed in countries(such as rural Kenya) where technology not easily available - Greatest changes occurred in the beginning of the 20th century
Flynn's Theory of Intelligence definition
is that abilities are functionally related to the tasks and demands that are made on people • These demands change over time and therefore the level of skills that are necessary varies • Individual differences will emerge which are dependant upon genetic factors, but also strongly on environmental factors that arise • A scientific mind set has become dominant in modern society • Requires people to be able to ask abstract questions to deal with problems that arise quickly and "on the spot
Emotional Intelligence
• Ability to recognise own and others' emotions • We will complete a measure of EQ in your tutorials later this term
Visual-Spatial Processing
• Ability to see patterns, relationships, spatial orientations, or the gestalt whole in an array • Nonverbal Visual-Spatial Processing - Spatial and figural problems, assembly of patterns • Verbal Visual-Spatial Processing - Placing a block on a specified part of a picture of a common object or scene, measure understanding of verbal spatial concepts e.g., inside, behind
Quantitative Reasoning
• Ability to use numbers and numerical problem solving • Nonverbal Quantitative Reasoning - Understanding concepts such as bigger and more, solve addition problems, recognise numbers • Verbal Quantitative Reasoning - Counting, naming numbers, solving addition and subtraction problems
Has the Profession Heard the Message?Culture on tests Adjusting for Cultural Bias
• Add points • Eliminate items • Different norms/cutoffs • Separate lists Example of A Culturally Fair Test • Black Intelligence Test of Cultural Homogeneity (Williams, 1975) • Reducing the culture loading - Methods in table on page 313 - Culture fair items on page 315
Administration
• Around an hour to administer • Individually administered • Requires training to administer • Testing begins with an item from a routing test (object series or vocabulary) - Optimises difficulty of items to participant - Improves rapport - Reduces time required to administer the test • Facilitates adaptive testing: Testing at a level appropriate for the test taker. Don't want items that are too hard or too easy. Why? - More efficient - Helps with rapport - Means that test taker is not asked too many items, causing fatigue
Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI)
• Attempt to:- - Reduce issues with self-made short-forms - Create psychometrically sound short form test • Two versions: - Two sub-tests (Vocabulary and Block Design) - 15 minutes - Four sub-tests (Vocabulary, Block Design, Similarities, Matrix Reasoning) - 30 minutes
WAIS-IV Psychometrics: Internal Validity
• CFA supports a four-factor structure • BUT! Others show 1, 2 or 5 factor model best explains the variance
WPPSI-III
• Cannot test crystallised intelligence • Shorter than WAIS and WISC
Comparison of the WAIS with the Stanford-Binet
• Coke vs. Pepsi • Ford vs. Holden • McDonald's vs. Hungry Jack's • Very little difference • More commonalities than differences
Short Forms
• Controversy over the use of shortened forms of the tests • Why use short forms? - Simple efficiency - get more people through - Circumstances where a full IQ assessment is not required • Wechsler's view - Make time • Psychometric evidence varies - More error, less psychometric soundness
Psychometrics: Internal Validity
• Correlation tables support overall hierarchical structure with loading on g • HOWEVER! Minimal support for CFA of fivefactor model • Evidence suggests the SB5 should only be interpreted at the level of the composite score
Broader Models of Intelligence?
• Creativity • Howard Gardner: Eight intelligences - However not much empirical evidence on these 8 separate factors • Practical intelligence (Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence) • Emotional intelligence
Has the Profession Heard the Message?Culture on tests
• Culture plays a part in performance on tests • Culture influences an individual's familiarity with materials, tests, skills, abilities • E.g., comparison of reconstruction of objects by English and Zambian children - With three different types of materials • Paper and pencil • Wire • Clay • Cultural context • Who designs tests?!
Has the Profession Heard the Message?Construct Validity on tests
• Definition of intelligence
Robert Sternberg
• Different types of intelligence • Academic intelligence - Verbal ability - Problem solving (e.g., calculus) - Working hard and diligently • Everyday Intelligence - Practical problem solving (e.g., mending a broken pipe) - Social competence - Character
Scoring and Interpretation
• Each sub-test generates a raw score, which is converted to a standardised score, and these are then combined to form composite scores and full-scale IQ • Extra-test behaviour is also recorded • Nominal categories based on scores
WAIS-IV Psychometrics: Reliability
• Excellent internal consistency within subtests (.8 or above) • Excellent internal consistency within indices (.9 or above) • Test-retest was strong except for cancellation subtest • Interrater reliability is strong
Psychometrics: Reliability
• Excellent reliability, with test-retest and internal consistency, generally .80 and above for subtests and .9 and above for indices • Excellent interscorer reliability (M = .9) • Split-half is excellent at .98 • Excellent precision makes the test useful in testing children for giftedness, delays or cognitive difficulties
WISC-V Psychometric Evidence
• Excellent test-retest and internal consistency reliability • Excellent inter-rater reliability (>.90) • Convergent validity • Factor analysis mostly supports factor structure
WAIS and the CHC Model
• Factor analysis shows that the CHC model based on 5 factors (fluid, crystallised, visual processing, short term memory and processing speed) better account for the variance of the WAIS • What does this tell us about the validity of the Wechsler? • In the survey reported by James, 48% of those surveyed were not familiar with CHC model and 25% were familiar with it • Evidence of a "theory-practice" gap for practitioners? • Implications for the "scientist-practitioner" model of psychological training
Approaches to Measuring Intelligence • Guilford's Structure-of-Intellect Model
• Focus on creativity
Has the Profession Heard the Message?Nature vs. Nurture on tests
• Free will vs. determinism • Genetic inheritance • E.g., Galton
Knowledge
• General information • Nonverbal Knowledge - Performing everyday actions or demonstrating uses of common objects, identify absurd or missing parts of a picture • Verbal Knowledge - Identifying body parts, naming common objects, describing a picture, defining words, • Why do you eat soup with a spoon?
Flynn Effect: Five Theories•Test taking behaviour:
• Guessing on multiple choice, speed responses (used in measures of fluid intelligence) show the greatest gains - Changes in level of extraversion, lowered cautiousness and conservatism, leads to more guessing and higher observed scores - Gains in fluid intelligence are declining, which may suggest a ceiling effect for the influence of guessing on performance - Measures of crystallised intelligence, where guessing is less important for good performance shows a flattening of gains in recent years
The WAIS-IV • Also includes a GAI (General Ability Index)
- An estimate of general intellectual ability, with reduced emphasis on working memory and processing speed relative to the FSIQ - Overall cognitive ability, if working memory and processing speed abilities were similar to verbal and non-verbal abilities • Vocabulary - Archaeology - Comprehend - Vernacular - What is a cup? • Partial credit for "you drink with it" • Full credit for handle, holds liquids, and you drink from it • Digit Span - Forwards and backwards - Read examples • Vocabulary - Archaeology - Comprehend - Vernacular - What is a cup? • Partial credit for "you drink with it" • Full credit for handle, holds liquids, and you drink from it • Digit Span - Forwards and backwards - Read examples
WAIS-IV • Vocabulary• Digit Span
- Archaeology - Comprehend - Vernacular - What is a cup? • Partial credit for "you drink with it" • Full credit for handle, holds liquids, and you drink from it Digit Span - Forwards and backwards - Read examples
Flynn Effect: Five Theories•• Life History Speed:
Slow life history individuals have fewer partners, fewer offspring, later parenthood and longer lives: Fast life history have shorter lives, children earlier and more children - Slower life history speed may result from reduced mortality threat, and more investment in education and optimisation of cognition - Slower life history allows greater time for the development of differentiated abilities, reduction of emphasis on g and more complexity - Greater effect on fluid intelligence
The data developed by Flynn seem to be very important.
The issues that are raised seem to be profound • There has been great interest in these data and what they tell us about intelligence and how we really as yet do not know the answers • Why does the text that we have adopted devote one page to the issues and the questions? • His data and the subsequent questions have implications for our theories of intelligence, but also importantly, our methods of measuring intelligence and the outcomes in the tests • E.g., how are dogs and rabbits alike?
Pygmalian Effect
• Jacobson and Rosenthal - Randomly identified some children in a classroom as having high (vs. low) intelligence - Students identified then showed a growth in IQ score - Teachers smile more, look more, give longer response times, and ask for more responses • Teachers who talk about students about whom they hold high or low expectations can be accurately judged about whom they are speaking from only 10 seconds of video or audio tape • I.e., expectations are established and can be easily recognised
• Issues in intelligence testing- Issues in Measuring Intelligence
• Knowledge vs. social information • Multiple choice and guessing - Measuring differences in personality, risk taking, caution, conservatism? • Effect of administrator: behaviour, interactive skills, standardisation, handling test anxiety, etc. • Controversy over terminology for low-scorers - Mental retardation • Journal of Mental Retardation still in circulation - Moron/idiot - Intellectual disability or developmental disability
Flynn Effect: Has the Profession Heard the Message?
• Laird & Whitaker (2011) - Analysis of 91 articles in Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual disabilities and American Journal of Mental Retardation - 81 used concept of intelligence - 9 papers using different tests assumed that scores were equivalent without discussing dates of norming - 5 presented results without mentioning the test
Gardner's Eight Intelligences
• Logical: mathematical: ability to handle chains of reasoning • Linguistic: sensitive to meaning and sounds of words • Musical: appreciate forms of musical expression • Spatial: perception of the visual-spatial world • Kinaesthetic: control body movements and handling objects • Interpersonal: discern moods and temperament of others • Intrapersonal: access to one's own feelings and thoughts • Naturalist: recognize objects and processes in nature
WASI Group Testing
• Military e.g., Army Alpha/Beta - Literate- writing a legible letter or reading a newspaper aloud • Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) - very widely used modern group IQ test, also used in civilian and school settings - See example items on page 350-351 of your textbook • Schools - In Australia, ACER (Australian Council of Educational Research) produces many groupbased IQ tests e.g., NAPLAN - In schools, the Progressive Achievement Tests:
Has the Profession Heard the Message?Stability on tests
• Mixed findings with children • Stable across adult life • Changes later in life - After 75
Advantages of the Stanford-Binet 5
• More game-like than earlier versions with colourful artwork, toys, and manipulatives • Shares items to maintain continuity with earlier versions • Has equal balance of verbal and nonverbal content in all factors
Norms
• Normed on nearly 5,000 people with complex sampling used • Matches norms to 2000 U.S. Census
The Flynn Effect: Are We Getting Smarter?
• Norms change over time • James Flynn noticed this and investigated it • Between 1932 and 1978 average white American IQ rose 0.3 of an IQ point per annum - Approximately 14 IQ points, close to one SD • A person with an average IQ in 1978 would have been at the 16th percentile of the distribution in 1932! • Full scale IQ gains on the WAIS - From WAIS (1953) to WAIS-R (1978) • 111.3 - 103.8 = 7.5 points over 24 years • Rate = 0.306 points per year - From WAIS to WAIS IV • 15.7 points over 52 years • Rate = 0.287 points per year • Gains on WISC - From WISC (1947) to WISC IV (2001) • 16.93 points per year over 54 years • Rate = 0.312 points per year • Effect not limited to America • Flynn obtained data from 35 countries and showed similar effects • Project these gains backwards in time. In 1900 the average IQ scored against the modern norms would be between 50 and 70. This implies that your grandparents were mentally retarded • Flynn examined the sub test variation over these time periods • Wisc shows - Gains from 1947-2002 - Crystallised intelligence tests, i.e., information, arithmetic, vocabulary, show little to no improvement - Fluid intelligence tests, i.e., raven's matrices, show much improvement over time
Measures of Creativity • A complex construct
• One conceptualisation: - Originality: Producing a new, novel original idea and/or an artwork (e.g., painting, sculpture, poem) - Fluency: In two minutes, think of as many uses for a matchbox that you can come up with - Flexibility: Variety of ideas, and ability to shift from one idea to the other - Elaboration: Richness of detail, as you might see in a writer describing a scene. • Several different approaches to assessing creativity: - Guilford emphasised distinction between convergent and divergent thinking • Convergent thinking: Tapped by traditional IQ tests. Recall and consideration of facts, series of logical judgements to eventually narrow down solutions with the aim of arriving at one solution - Guilford argued this is not really creativity • Divergent thinking: thought is free to move in many different directions, leading to a range of possible solutions. Less emphasis on recall of facts. Involves flexibility, originality, and imagination - Not captured by traditional IQ tests - "Imagine what would happen if..." - "Think of as many uses that you can come up with for a rubber band." • De Bono's six coloured hats • Convergent thinking: The reduction or focusing of many ideas into one possible problem solution
Flynn Effect: The Response of the Profession
• Page 309. "Flynn (2000) sarcastically advised examiners who want the children they test to be eligible for special services to use the most recently normed version in an intelligence test. On the other hand, examiners who want children they test to escape the stigma of any labelling were advised to use 'the oldest test they can get away with'.."
Stanford-Binet Scale
• Used in the US from 1908 • Work with Lewis Terman at Stanford was crucial • Now used for people aged 2-85+ • Now uses a deviation IQ - Age norms • Standard score is calculated, with mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15 • Ten subtests - All sub-tests have standardised mean score of 10 and SD = 3 • As well as full-scale IQ, you can calculate a Quantitative IQ, Knowledge IQ, Fluid Reasoning, Visual-Spatial processing, Working Memory • Based on the Cattell-Horn-Carroll five factor theory of intelligence (p.324) Tries to balance language-based and nonlanguage skills
Flynn Effect reasons
• Perhaps the sub-tests of the WISC are actually functionally independent and not necessarily dependent and correlated • They are inter-correlated because that is what is useful at a particular point in time. These skills are measured by the testers at a particular point in technological and social development of our society • As times change, the relationships between the skills assessed by the sub-tests change • Factor analysis applies to a point in time. It is not sensitive to social change which determines the change in relationships between skills. In some future time a factor analysis will reveal different inter-test relationships from the ones at present • This implies further that the gains in some skills are due to the acquisition of greater skills in some areas while in others there are not the same demands and needs and therefore not the same skill development • Finding a quick solution to a presenting problem is a common and useful skill in the modern world • Thinking long and hard to dissect a perennial problem of philosophy is not • "Real world' gains in IQ - Cognitive demands of video games - Television programs and multiple plot threads - Speed of processing of information
WASI
• Psychometric evidence is good (but questionable) • Gold standard of short form tests • For 6-90+
WISC-IV
• Published in 2003 • Provides Full-Scale IQ, plus measures of Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual Reasoning, Working Memory, Processing Speed • Sub-tests within each measure • Released in 2015 • Same switch in factor structure as WAIS-IV, but added visual spatial index - Importance of Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory
Issues in Intelligence Testing
• Pygmalian effect • The Flynn effect • Nature vs. nurture • Stability • Construct validity • Personality • Gender • Family • Culture
Has the Profession Heard the Message?Personality on tests
• Related to personality? • E.g., driven, energetic, impulsive, persistent? • Found an overlap between personality and intelligence • Initiative, need for achievement, curiosity, self-confidence, emotional stability - All associated with increases in intelligence over time
Fluid Reasoning
• Solving novel, inductive reasoning problems - Inspect materials and identify commonalities or rules • Nonverbal Fluid Reasoning - Symbolic and visual content • Verbal Fluid Reasoning - Use of statements and verbal analogies
Has the Profession Heard the Message?Gender on tests
• Some differences - E.g., males score higher on • g factor • Visual spatial ability - E.g., females score higher on • Language tasks
Measures of Cognitive Style and Specific Intellectual Abilities
• Some tests are designed to measure IQ mico-components • Cognitive style: the consistency with which one acquires and processes information: - Left versus right hemisphere processing - Visualisers versus verbalisers
The Wechsler Scales
• Sometimes subtests are used for other purposes - E.g., Digit symbol in attention research - Digit span for memory
Measures of Intelligence
• Stanford-Binet scale • Wechsler scales • Group tests • Creativity
Psychometrics: External Validity
• Strong correlations with - Earlier versions of the WAIS - Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities - Achievement test data
WAIS-IV Psychometrics: External Validity
• Strong relationships with WAIS-III, WISC-IV, achievement scores • Weaker but positive correlations with cognitive constructs such as memory and executive functioning • I.e., evidence for convergent and divergent concurrent validity
The Application of the WAIS
• Survey of registered psychologists in Australia (James et al., 2015) • 78 psychologists sampled • 90% spent time in cognitive assessment • 68% used the WISC-IV and 30% the WAIS-IV
Working Memory
• Temporarily storing and manipulating information in short-term memory • Nonverbal Working Memory - Finding an object placed under an inverted cup, tapping blocks in a specified order • Verbal Working Memory - Repeating verbatim sentences, recalling the order of words spoken by the examiner
WPSSI-III Psychometric Evidence
• Test re-test reliability excellent (>0.85) • Internal consistency reliability > 0.87 • Interscorer reliability > .90 • Convergent validity with other related tests • Support for factor structure
Adding Further to Gardner's List
• The disciplined mind • The creating mind • The respectful mind • The synthesing mind • The ethical mind
Approaches to Measuring Intelligence: The Wechsler Scales
• The most popular scales • Three scales for use with different age groups • All scales are standardised to have a mean of 100 and a SD of 15 • All yield norm-based deviation IQ scores • Used for people aged 16 to 90+ • Early work done at Bellevue Psychiatric Hospital • Wechsler wasn't happy with the StanfordBinet • Needed a test for evaluating his clients who were from a range of backgrounds • Up to and including WAIS-III: - Developed the notion of Verbal IQ, Performance (Non-Verbal IQ) and Full-Scale IQ • WAIS-IV - Verbal Comprehension: Language, learning and understanding - Perceptual Reasoning: Pictures and symbols - Working Memory: Hold facts in memory - Processing Speed: Working at speed • Core (10) and optional (5) subtests • Common start point
Has the Profession Heard the Message?Family on tests
• Thrive in a safe, loving environment • Maximises potential?
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
• Used for people aged 6 to 17 • First published in 1949 • Specialised test for children • Early versions criticised for cultural narrowness and confusing instructions on admin and scoring - Cigars vs. candy bars
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI-III)
• Used to assess children from age 3 to 7 years and 3 months • Consists of core and supplemental sub-tests • Oddly, maintains the Verbal, Performance, and Overall distinction that Wechsler loved so much • Correlates very strongly with the SB • Strongly based around fluid reasoning (problem solving) and processing speed
WAIS-IV Norms
• WAIS-IV normed on 2200 people using rigorous sampling - Age, sex, race, education, geographical region • Sub-scales standardised to have a mean of 10 and an SD of 3 • Floor of 40, ceiling of 160
Intelligence
• We are still defining the concept over 100 years since attempts were first made to measure the concept or concepts • There is still theoretical debate over the structure and function of intelligence • There is still debate over the methodology for the measurement of intelligence • There is still lack of agreement over the relationships of intelligence
