INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Ethnocentrism
A tendency to think that our own culture is superior to other cultures.
Identity Management
The way individuals make sense of their multiple images concerning the sense of self in different social context. (technologies gives us more choices in how we express our identities than we typically have in face to face interaction. We can choose what we reveal as far as age gender etc.)
Anglocentrism
Using Anglo or white cultural standards as the criteria for interpretations and judgements of behaviors and attitudes.
textual analysis
examination of cultural texts such as media -- television, movies, journalistic essays, and so on. usually used in the critical approach
identity
the concept of who we are. characteristics of identity may be understood differently depending on the perspectives that people take -- for example social science, interpretive or critical perspectives.
sexual orientation histories
the historical experiences of gays and lesbians
ethnic histories
the histories of ethnic groups
gender histories
the histories of how cultural conventions of men and women are created, maintained, and or altered
racial histories
the histories of nonmainstream racial groups
diasporic histories
the histories of the ways in which international cultural groups were created the transitional migrations, slavery, religious crusades, or other historical forces.
hidden histories
the histories that are hidden from or forgotten by the mainstream representation of past events.
colonial histories
the histories that legitimate international invasions and annexations
cultural-group histories.
the history of each cultural group within a nation that includes, for example, the history of where the group originated, why the people migrated, and how they came to develop and maintain their cultural traits. help us understand the identities of various groups within a culture.
age identity
the identification with the cultural conventions of how we should act, look, and behave according to our age.
gender identity
the identification with the cultural notions of masculinity and femininity and what it means to be a man or woman.
Interpretive perspective on language
the interpretive perspective focuses on an in-depth understanding of communication use in context and how communication practices may vary from one cultural context to another. brings the idea of context in which communication happens makes a difference combines verbal / nonverbal expressions cultures differ in the amount of emphasis they put on the nonverbal expressions
contact hypothesis
the notion that better communication between groups is facilitated simply by putting people together in the same place and allowing them to interact. hopefully will result in a more positive intergroup attitudes and reduced prejudice will only work if certain conditions are met. 1- group members must be of equal status and relatively equal members 2- contact must be voluntary, extend beyond the superficial, have institutional support, and promote similarity and individuation of group members. 3- there should be maximum cooperation among participants
avowal
the process by which an individual portrays himself or herself
ascription
the process by which others attribute identities to an individual.
Absent history
the result of concealing the past. any part of history that was not recorded or that is missing. Not everything that happened in the pas is accessible to us today because only some voices were documented and only some perspectives were recorded. (slavery)
familial identity
the sense of self as always connected to family and others
individualized identity
the sense of self as independent and self reliant.
power of texts/language
writing can shape views as we are learning about culture. the way americans learn history as a white mans game. how does power function in determining which stories are told.
political histories
written histories that focus on political events
intellectual histories
written histories that focus on the development of ideas
social histories
written histories that focus on the everyday life experiences of various groups in the past.
Diasporic groups
Ethnic and / or national groups that are geographically dispersed throughout the world. Increased contact with people who are similar
** Dialogical approach
Focuses on the importance of dialogue in developing and maintaining relationships between individuals and communities.
Origins of idea of intercultural communication
- Roots of the study of intercult. comm. can be traced back to post - WWII Era. Work abroad was difficult, language barriers did not prepare for challenges of working within a different culture. - FSI (Foreign Service Act) was developed, training materials were scarce in offering courses and training for intercultural comm, so FSI formed new ways of looking at culture and comm.
CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY
- a dialectical view of identity emphasizes that identities are both static (social science) and dynamic (interpretive / critical) as well as personal and contextual. - identities also develop in relation to minority and majority group membership - identities are multiple and reflect gender, sexuality, age , race ,ethnicity ,religion , class, nationality, regionality, and other aspect of our lives. - increasing numbers of multicultural people live "on the borders" between two or more cultures -- based on race, ethnicity ,religion, and nationality/ - identity characteristics sometimes form the basis for stereotypes and prejudice - communication plays an important role in identity -- identities are formed and expressed through communication.
CHAPTER 2 SUMMARY
- the field of intercultural communication in the united states began with the establishment of the foreign service instate in 1946 (FSI) - this new filed was interdisciplinary and pragmatic. It emphasized non verbal communication in internal contexts. - the perception and worldview of scholars have an impact on the study of intercultural communication and have led to 3 contemporary approaches: social science/functional, interpretive, and critical approach. - this textbook advocates a dialectical approach that combines these three approaches - a dialectical approach emphasizes a processual, relational, and holistic view of intercultural communication and it requires a balance of the contradictory views. - intercultural communication is both cultural and individual, personal and contextual, characterized by differences and similarities, static and dynamic, oriented to both the present and the past, and characterized by both privilege and disadvantage.
CHAPTER 3 SUMMARY
- there are four building blocks to understanding intercultural communication: culture, communication, context, and power - culture can be viewed as : 1 - learned patterns of group-related perceptions 2 - contextual symbolic patterns of meaning, involving emotions 3 - heterogeneous, dynamic, and site of contestation - communication is a symbolic process whereby reality is produced, maintained, repaired, and transformed. - communication can be viewed as 1- components of speaker, sender, receiver, message and channel, and variables 2- symbolic and processual 3- involving power dynamics - the relationship between culture and communication is complex: 1- culture influences communication and is enacted and reinforced through communication 2- communication also may be a way of contesting and resisting the dominant culture - the context also influences communication: it is the physical and social setting in which communication occurs or the larger political, social, and historical environment. - power is pervasive and plays an enormous, although often hidden role in intercultural interactions.
CHAPTER 1 SUMMARY
-- Six reasons or imperatives for studying intercultural communication : * The self-awareness imperative involves increasing understanding of our own location in larger social, political, and historical contexts. * The demographic imperative includes the changing domestic and international migration -- raising questions of class and religious diversity. * the economic imperative highlights issues of globalization and the challenges for increased cultural understanding needed to reach the global market. * the technological imperative gives us increasing information and increased contact with people who re similar and different from us. Increased use of communication technology also raises questions about identity and access to these technologies. *the peace imperative involves working through issues of colonialism, economic disparities, and racial, ethnic, and religious differences. *the ethical imperative calls for an understanding of the universalist, relativist, and dialogic approach to ethical issues. -- being an ethical student of culture involves developing self-reflexivity, learning about others, and developing a sense of social justice and responsibility.
CHAPTER 4 SUMMARY
-multiple histories are important for empowering different cultural identities -multiple histories include 1- political histories 2- intellectual histories 3- social histories 4-family histories 5-national histories 6- cultural group histories -histories are constructed through narrative -hidden histories are those typically not conveyed in a widespread manner and are based on race/ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, diaspora, colonialism, socioeconomic class, and religion. - people bring four elements of personal history to intercultural interactions. 1- childhood experience 2- historical myth 3- language competence 4- memories of recent political events -contact hypothesis suggests that sim bringing people from diverse groups will only work if certain conditions are met. 1- group members must be of equal status and relatively equal members 2- contact must be voluntary, extend beyond the superficial, have institutional support, and promote similarity and individuation of group members. 3- there should be maximum cooperation among participants - a dialectical perspective helps negotiate histories in intercultural interaction
ethnic identity
1 - a set of ideas about ones own ethnic group membership 2 - a sense of belonging to a particular group and knowing something about the shared experience of the group. typically includes several dimensions - self identification - knowledge about the ethnic culture (traditions customs values behaviors) - feelings about belonging to a particular ethnic group. shared sense of origin and history
Social Science
Communication influenced by culture. functionalist approach. collective method. Gathers facts and information, quantitative techniques. Scientists assume culture is a variable that can be measured. A study of intercultural communication, based on the assumptions that (1) there is a describable external reality (2) human behaviors are predictable and (3) culture is a variable that can be measured. This aims to identify and explain culture variations in communication and to predict future communication.
Interpretive approach
Culture created and maintained through communication. Our sense of identity is created and maintained through interaction with others. the goal is the understand and describe human behavior (predicting is not the goal) emphasis on AVOWAL AND ASCRIPTION an approach to intercultural communication that aims to understand and describe human behavior within specific cultural groups based on the assumptions that (1) human experience is subjective (2) human behavior is creative rather than determined or easily predicted and (3) culture is created and maintained through communication.
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
The assumption that language shapes our ideas and guides our view of social reality. This hypothesis was proposed by Edward Sapir, a linguist and his student, Benjamin Whorf, and represents the relativist view of language and perception. (example, informal / formal pronouns such as you) questions the basic assumption that we all inhabit the same perceptual world, the same social reality.
Worldview
Underlying assumptions about the nature of reality and human behavior. (research philosophies)
National histories
a body of knowledge based on past events that influenced a country's development.
Identity Tourism
a concept that refers to people taking on identities of other races, genders, classes, or sexual orientations for recreational purposes.
diaspora
a massive migration often caused by war, famine, or perfection that results in the dispersal of a unified group
dialect
a method of logic based on the principle that an idea generates its opposite, leading to a reconciliation of the opposites. the complex and paradoxical relationship between two opposite qualities or entities which may also be referred to as a dialect.
Enclaves
a portion of territory within or surrounded by a larger territory whose inhabitants are culturally or ethnically distinct. (pockets of culture within a culture...etc CHINA TOWN)
Self-reflexivity
a process of learning to understand oneself and one's position in society. (your intercultural experiences help you develop a sense of self and sense of culture)
rhetorical approach
a research method, dating back to ancient Greece, in which scholars try to interpret the meanings or persuasion used in text or oral discourses in the contexts in which they occur. usually used in the interpretive approach
class identity
a sense of belonging to a group that share similar economic, occupational, or social status.
minority identity
a sense of belonging to a non dominant group.
religious identity
a sense of belonging to a religious group.
communication rituals / "Scripts"
a set form of systematic interactions that take place on a regular basis. culture not only influences communication but also enacted through, and so influenced by communication.
high context communication
a style of communication in which much of the information is contained in the contexts and nonverbal cues rather than expressed explicitly in words. body language eye contact tone of voice gestures can all change the message
low context communication
a style of communication in which much of the information is conveyed in words rather than in nonverbal cues and context. majority of meaning is in spoken code say it like it is "the exam is Tuesday"
identity negotiation theory
a theory that emphasizes the process of communication ones own desired identities while reinforcing or resisting others identities as the core of intercultural communication. influences our sense of self and ultimately influences how successful we are in intercultural interactions. individuals define themselves in relation to groups they belong to to due to the basic human need for security and inclusion. at the same time humans also need differentiation from these same groups. managing relationships to these various groups involves boundary regulation and working through the tension between inclusion and differentiation can make us feel secure or vulnerable.
grand narrative
a unified history and view of human kind
dialectical approach
an approach to intercultural communication that integrates three approaches -- social science/functionalist, interpretive, and critical -- in understanding culture and communication. It re agonizes and accepts that the three approaches are all interconnected and sometimes contradictory.
prejudice
an attitude (usually negative) toward a cultural group based on little or no evidence. stereotypes tell us what a group is like, prejudice tells how we are likely to feel about that group
social science perspective on identity
based largely on research in psychology, views in the self in a relatively static fashion in relation the various communities to which a person belongs: nationality, r ace, ethnicity, religion, gender etc. identity is created in part by the self and in part in relation to group membership. the self is composed of multiple identities, and these notions of identity are culture bound. our identities are created in spurts with some events providing insights onto who we are and long periods intervening during which we may not think much about ourselves or our identities.
critical approach
believe in subjective (as opposed to objective) may overlap with interpretive. Looks at power differentials and privilege differentials. the situation, background, or environment in which communication occurs. a metatheoretical approach approach that includes many assumptions of the interpretive approach but that focuses more on macrocontexts, such as political and social structures that influence communication. in this perspective, culture is in essence a battleground, a plan where multiple interpretations come together but dominant force always prevails.
stage 2 of minority identity
characterized by the internalization of the values and norms of the dominant group and a strong desire to assimilate into the dominant culture. may be negative, self deprecating attitudes towards themselves and their group. this stage often continues until they encounter a situation that case them to question prodominant culture attitudes, which initiates movement to the next stage
social science definitions : culture as learned group-related perceptions.
culture as "collective programming of the mind". each individual carries patterns that are learned and acquired in childhood / throughout life
interpretive definitions: culture as contextual symbolic patterns of meaning, involving emotions
culture is shared and learned, but focused on contextual patterns of communication behavior, rather than on group related perceptions. a historically transmitted pattern of meaning embodied in symbols, as system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes towards life. symbolic meaning of verbal / nonverbal activities and rules to communication. definitions of culture are influenced by communication.
Heterogeneous Cultures
differences in a group, culture, or population. (it is more useful to think about cultures as more or less hetero/homogeneous than another culture. Cultures can change over time.)
critical definitions : culture as heterogeneous, dynamic, and a contested zone
emphasize that cultural boundaries are often contested and not easily agreed upon. various groups. we cannot gloss over the heterogeneous that resides in that culture.
history/past-present/future dialectic
emphasizes the need to focus simultaneously on the past and the present in understanding intercultural communication. we need to be aware of contemporary forces and reality that shape interactions of people from different cultural groups. we also need to realize that history has a significant impact on contemporary events.
social science perspective on language
focuses on the individual aspects of language : the components of language, language perception and thought, the way culture groups use language in different ways and the barriers presented by these variations. building blocks of language : grammar pronunciation (linguistics) semantics - (meaning) if you have language at all syntactics (structure) referring to grammer or sentence structure, structure can change entire meaning of a sentence pragmatics (meaning in context) means practical / useful. do we have the same context? (pink slip) phonetics (sound)
cuture as a contested zone
helps us understand the struggles of various groups -- native americans, asian americansm pacific islanders, african americans, women, gays, lesbians. etc. -- as they attempt to negotiate their relationships and promote their well being within society. by studying the communication that springs from these ongoing struggles we can better understand several intercultural concerns. opens up new ways of thinking about intercultural communication. the individuals in a given culture are not identical, which suggests that culture is replete with cultural struggles. we risk glossing over the heterogeneity the diversity that resides in the culture. two cultures struggles may not be the same, so we become more sensitive to understanding different cultures when we view them as a contested zone.
regional identity
identification with a specific geographic region of a nation.
spiritual identity
identification with feelings of connectedness to others and higher meanings in life
racial identity
identifying with a particular racial group. although in the past racial groups were classified on the basis biological characteristics most contests now recognize that races is constructed in fluid social and historical contexts.
culture brokers
individuals who act as bridges between cultures, facilitating cross-cultural interaction and conflict. 3rd culture kids often develop resilience, tolerance, and worldliness, characteristics essential for successful living
stage 4 of minority identity
integration the ideal outcome of the identity development process is the final stage - an achieved identity. strong sense of their own group identity and appreciation of other cultural groups. racism and forms of oppression occur, but try to redirect in more positive directions. confident secured identity
cultural - individual dialect
intercultural communication is both cultural and individual, or idiosyncratic. communication is cultural. - we share communication patterns with members of the groups to which we belong. example. - I have american speaking habits, but habits that are specific to me as well. we need to keep this dialect in mind as we try to understand and develop relationships across cultural differences.
differences - similarities dialectic
intercultural communication is characterized by both similarities and differences, in that people are simultaneously similar to and different from each other. differences in values, language, nonverbal behavior, conflict resolution, and so on. emphasizing only on differences can lead to stereotypes and prejudice (example women being more emotional men more rational) emphasizing only on similarities can lead us to ignore the important cultural variations that exist.
*** personal - contextual dialectic
involves the role of context in intercultural relationships and focuses simultaneously on the persona and the context. although we communicate on individual/personal levels, context of this communication is important as well. - we enact specific roles that give meanings to our messages.
interpretive perspective on identity
is more dynamic and recognizes the important role of interaction with others as a factor in the development of self.
culture
learned patterns of behavior and attitudes shared by a group of people.
orientation to time
most cultural communities, particularly european american middle class, seem to emphasize the future. other societies, spain or greece, seem to emphasize the importance of the present. others, erupoean and asian societies emphasize the past, believing that knowledge and awareness of history has something to contribute to understanding contemporary life.
critical perspective on identity
most dynamic. as a result of contexts quite distant from the individual.
national identity
national citizenship. not to be confused with ethnic or racial, refers to one legal status in relation to a nation.
family histories
occur at the same time as other history but on a more personal level. histories of individual families that are typically passed down through oral stories.
sexual identity
ones identification with various categories of sexuality.
global nomads (third culture kids)
people who grow up in many different cultural contexts because their parents relocated. unique challenges / unique opportunities.
privilege-disadvantage dialectic
recognizes that many people may be simultaneously privileged and disadvantaged in some aspects at the same time. example tourists can afford to have the privilege to travel, but are at a disadvantage of not speaking the local language. gender, race, age, socioeconomic status, and other identities may make us privileged and disadvantaged at the same time.
qualitative method
research methods that attempt to capture people's own meanings for their everyday behavior in specific contexts. These methods use participant observation and field studies. rhetorical approach, interviewing, observing, being active in interacting extensively with the cultural group being studied. used in the interpretive approach
quantitative methods
research methods that use numerical indicators to capture and ascertain the relationships among variables. These methods use survey and observation. used in the social science approach
stage 3 of minority identity
resistance and separatism, characterized by a blanket endorsement of ones group and all the values and attitudes attributed to the group. many kinds of events can trigger the move to the 3rd stage. negative discrimination, name calling etc. a period of dissonance or growing awareness that not all dominant values are beneficial to minorities, may also precede this stage. individuals might meet someone who has a strong identity, which encourages this stage.
Homogeneous Cultures
similarity in a group, culture, or population.
power distance
social inequality, including the relationship with authority. refers to the extent to which less powerful members of institutions and organizations within a country expect and accept the unequal distribution of power. some people value less power distance, equality is for the better with decision making. others like a higher power distance, decision making should be left higher up, managers and subordinates is more formalized.
***static - dynamic dialectic
suggests that intercultural communication tends to be at once static and dynamic. some communication patterns remain relatively constant or static, where as other aspects of culture (personal traits) shift over time and are dynamic.
masculinity - femininity value
the social implications of having been born male or female. two-dimensional. refers to 1 - the degree to which gender-specific role are valued 2 - the degree to which cultural groups value so called masculine values (achievement, ambition, acquisition of material goods) or so called feminine values (quality of life service to others, nurturance, support for unfortunate)
individualistic cultures
the tendency to emphasize individual identities, beliefs, needs, goals, and views rather than those of the group. (US CULTURE)
collectivistic cultures
the tendency to focus on the goals, needs, and views of the in-group rather than individuals' own goals, needs, and views. (JAPANESE CULTURE)
nominalist position
the view that perception is not shaped by the particular language one speaks. - we express the same thoughts in different languages -direct translation where rods are equivalent -perception is the same (tree is a tree)
relativist position
the view that the particular language individuals speak especially the str true of language , shapes their perception of reality and cultural patterns . the language we speak and the structure of that language affects our thought patterns (whether we read from right to left or vise versa) how we consider relationships "talking, dating, going steady etc" attention span, meaning of friend, words for possession or future. metaphors illustrate the relationship between language and thought (white as snow) multilingual = multiple means of expression. (gendered language, french is le and la , english just is.)
qualified relativist position
the view that the particular language we speak influences our perception but does not completely determine our perception.
stage 1 of minority identity
unexamined identity - characterized by the lack of exploration of identity, be it racial, ethnic, or sexual, gender etc. individuals may simply lack interest in the identity issue. (gay people acting straight bashing gays)
uncertainty avoidance
ways of dealing with uncertainty ,controlling aggression, and expressing emotions concerns the degree t which people who feel threatened by ambiguous situations respond by avoiding them or trying to establish more structure to compensate for the uncertainty. low uncertainty avoidance orientation prefer to limit rules, accept dissent, and take risks. (USA) high uncertainty avoidance orientation usually prefer more extensive rules and regulations in organizational settings and seek consensus about goals. (JAPAN)
personal identity
who we think we are and who others think we are.
stereotypes
widely held beliefs about a group of people. Help us know what to expect from others. They may be positive or negative. Operate on a subconscious level, so we have to consciously work the reject them. even positive can be damaging, creating unrealistic expectations for individuals. Picked up in many ways, shows, tv movies, or can develop from negative experiences.