Intro to Cog Psych Exam 3

Which is NOT part of the evidence for a dissociation between familiarity and source memory? Source memory is promoted by creating memory connections; familiarity can be promoted merely by sustained exposure. Familiarity is promoted by creating a link between the test item and the setting; source memory is promoted by focusing on the material to be learned. People's patterns of brain activity are different when they are making judgments based on familiarity than when they are making judgments based on familiarity plus source memory. It is common to realize that a face is familiar but be unable to place it; it is also possible to have source memory without familiarity.

Familiarity is promoted by creating a link between the test item and the setting; source memory is promoted by focusing on the material to be learned.

Do you remember how you first learned of the death of Michael Jackson?

Flashbulb memory

Why does elaborative encoding facilitate recall? It evokes fewer memory connections. It is more likely to be evoked by simple sentences than by complex ones. It provides many potential retrieval paths. It occurs more quickly than shallow processing.

It provides many potential retrieval paths. (Multiple retrieval paths are the key to deep processing, which increases long-term retention.)

What is an advantage of trying to learn something using deep (meaning-related) processing rather than strategies like mnemonics? It relies less on having background knowledge about the topic being learned. It helps keep track of the order of learned items. It is better at preventing the "remembering" of details that were never actually present but fit with the meaning of the items. It creates more retrieval paths for the memory.

It creates more retrieval paths for the memory. (Multiple retrieval paths are the best way to remember)

Which statement about working memory is FALSE? Information in it is fragile and easily lost. It refers mainly to the resources that make up the central executive and its helpers. It functions mainly as a storage container. It has a limited storage capacity.

It functions mainly as a storage container. FEEDBACK: Working memory is dynamic and is better understood as a status rather than as a place.

used for storing spatial information and visual materials such as mental images in working memory.

Visuospatial buffer

the feeling of ease associated with processing information Implicit memory involves this (ex): Say you are given a list of words, including "bubble," Then, asked to do lexical decision task and it shows you are faster for words like "bubble" that had been included early in the list. This increase in speed that provides our influence on implicit memory.

fluency

Which of the following is FALSE with respect to sensory memory? Information is stored for only a very brief period of time before it is replaced by new information. It includes iconic memory, which stores visual information. Auditory information is stored in a part of sensory memory called "echoic memory." it has a very small capacity, storing only the equivalent of a letter or two at a time.

it has a very small capacity, storing only the equivalent of a letter or two at a time. FEEDBACK: Sperling's (1960) research showed that the capacity of sensory memory can be much larger than a single letter or two, but that it lasts for only a very short period of time.

A procedure in which a person is asked to decide as quickly as possible whether a particular stimulus is a word or a nonword.

lexical decision task

a much larger and more permanent storage place. has to be enormous because it contains all of your knowledge- including specific knowledge and more general themes. It also contains all of your episodic knowledge- your knowledge about events, including events early in your life as well as more recent experiences.

long term memory

when people engage in this, they simply focus on the to-be-remembered items themselves, with little thought about what the items mean. This is a rote, mechanical process, recycling items in working memory by repeating them over and over.

maintenance rehearsal

The holding capacity of working memory is often said to be 15 plus-or-minus 2 digits. 7 plus-or-minus 2 chunks. 15 plus-or-minus 2 chunks. 7 plus-or-minus 2 digits.

7 plus-or-minus 2 chunks. FEEDBACK: The answer is 7 plus-or-minus 2 chunks because a single "chunk" can include multiple items if those items form one meaningful unit (e.g., the numbers 123 or the letters CAR).

What did Sperling's experiments teach us about sensory memory?

A type of very short lasting memory that briefly stores raw sensory information -Iconic: Sensory memory for visual information -Echoic: Sensory memory for auditory information LARGE in capacity; SHORT in duration

________ is the process of gaining information and placing it into memory. Once you have acquired this information, you need to hold it in memory until the information is needed. We refer to this as the ________ phase. Finally, you remember. You somehow locate the information in the vast warehouse that is memory, and you bring it into active use; this is called ________.

Acquisition, storage, retrieval

Which of these is NOT true for an information-processing view of memory? It involves discrete steps. Each step within the model has its own characteristic and its own job to do. All the steps of the model run in parallel. The output of one step provides the input of the next step in the sequence.

All the steps of the model run in parallel.

Describe an experiment that demonstrates a double dissociation between implicit and explicit memory.

Amnesic patients demonstrated preserved implicit memories without explicit memory. Knowing the answer to a trivia question the second time around Preferring a musical melody that they had been exposed to before Hippocampus damage: Fear with no explicit memory, Normal on indirect memory tests, impaired on direct tests Amygdala damage: Memory with no fear, Normal on direct memory tests, impaired on indirect tests

No loss of existing memories. Difficulty forming new long-term memories. Damage to hippocampus and surrounding brain regions affects explicit memory, while implicit memory is mostly preserved. Korsakoff's syndrome (among long term alcoholics)

Anterograde amnesia

Verbal information in working memory is held here Subvocalization (silent speech) to launch the rehearsal loop Phonological buffer passively stores the sound representations ("internal echo")

Articulatory rehearsal loop(Phonological loop)

Which of the following approaches is LEAST likely to facilitate retention of the academic material? Reflecting on a lecture's main points an hour or so after the lecture Rereading the lecture notes the day before an exam Considering the relationship between a lecture's content and previously understood material. Describing your understanding of novel concepts to a classmate

Considering the relationship between a lecture's content and previously understood material

how do memory connections facilitate retrieval?

Deep processing facilitates retrieval. Strengthens potential retrieval paths. Pathway back to memory is made more robust Depth of processing promotes recall by facilitating later retrieval. Consider learning as a way to establish indexing, which consists of a path to the information. Connections between to-be-remembered items, memories, and contexts facilitates retrieval.

How does maintenance and elaborative rehearsal influence recall performance?

Elaborative rehearsal is more effective than maintenance rehearsal because it involves forming associations between new information and existing knowledge which makes the information more likely to be remembered. Maintenance rehearsal only involves repeating the information which is less effective in promoting long-term memory.

What did you eat for dinner yesterday? A week ago?

Episodic memory

memory for one's personal past experiences A category of long-term memory that involves the recollection of specific events, situations and experiences.

Episodic(autobiographical) memory

Essam completed a name pronunciation task that included famous and non-famous names. His ability to identify famous names was tested one day after he completed the name pronunciation task. Dane completed the same pronunciation task, and his ability to identify famous names was tested immediately after completing the task. Which finding would be anticipated? Essam is more likely to describe non-famous names as being famous. Both Essam and Dane are more likely to identify novel non-famous names as being famous. Both Essam and Dane will identify previously seen non-famous names as being famous. Dane is more likely to describe famous names as being non-famous.

Essam is more likely to describe non-famous names as being famous.

True or False: If something feels familiar, it is because you have source memory for it.

False If something is very familiar, you are likely to have accurate source memory. Familiarity and source memory, however, are distinct; one does not guarantee the other.

an effect that causes people to mistakenly believe that someone is famous simply because they have encountered the person's name before Names presented only once, familiarity but no real memory, assume person is famous

False fame effect

Which of the following groups is most likely to remember the material it is studying? Group 1 intends to memorize a series of words and, while studying, repeats the words mechanically over and over again. Group 2 intends to memorize a series of words and, while studying, pays attention to the exact appearance of the words. Group 3 has no intention of memorizing the words and searches the list for spelling errors. Group 4 has no intention of memorizing the words and attempts to determine how the words are related to one another.

Group 4 has no intention of memorizing the words and attempts to determine how the words are related to one another.

Based on past research about explicit and implicit memory, which of the following patterns would you most expect to find? In a tachistoscopic-recognition task, people are likely to have good recall but poor recognition of a word when they are tested afterward. In a word-stem completion task, people are more likely to produce a word they have recently seen, even if they do not remember seeing it, than an equally plausible word they have not seen recently. In a lexical-decision task, people are quicker to decide if a string of letters is an English word when they have not seen that letter string recently. In word-fragment completion tasks, people are more likely to come up with word endings that they have previously seen, but only if they have a conscious memory of the word.

In a word-stem completion task, people are more likely to produce a word they have recently seen, even if they do not remember seeing it, than an equally plausible word they have not seen recently. FEEDBACK: This is a sign of implicit memory and has been demonstrated many times before.

What is the clearest advantage of connecting new information to prior knowledge in several different ways? It opens the way for state-dependent learning to take place. It improves your implicit memory for the information. It attaches the new material in memory more securely, so the neurons are less likely to decay. It allows the information to be accessed from multiple retrieval paths.

It allows the information to be accessed from multiple retrieval paths. (The use of multiple retrieval paths ensures that a memory can be successfully accessed later.)

How does organization influence visual and language-based memory? What is the evidence for this?

Katona (1940) argued that the key to creating connections in the material to be remembered is organization. We memorize well when we find order in the material or impose it ourselves.

Which of the following experimental results is LEAST likely to be found? Patients who do not remember having heard certain pieces of music before still prefer those pieces over novel ones. Previously heard sentences are more likely to be judged true on a second hearing, even though the participants were told the original sentences were false. A burst of noise with a familiar sentence embedded in it is judged to be quieter than a burst of noise with an unfamiliar sentence embedded in it. Made-up names that were heard before are judged to be famous people's names on a test immediately following initial presentation.

Made-up names that were heard before are judged to be famous people's names on a test immediately following initial presentation. FEEDBACK: Made-up names will be judged as famous only if they are mixed with the names of famous people.

Which of the following is true of gender differences in memory? Many gender differences can be explained by differences in attention priorities. Overall, females have more accurate memories than males. There are no reliable differences between the memory of males and females. Males tend to have greater memory capacity than females, especially with respect to verbal materials.

Many gender differences can be explained by differences in attention priorities. (There are few differences between the memory of males and females, and many of these can be explained by differences in what men and women tend to pay attention to.)

Name modern changes to the Modal Model-- Short term memory and its conceptualization

Most modern proposals use the term working memory, rather than "short term memory," to emphasize the function of this memory. Ideas or thoughts in this memory are currently activated, currently being thought about, and so they're the idea you are currently working on.

Which group would perform the best on a memory test? Participants engaged in shallow processing without the previous warning of a memory test. Participants engaged in shallow processing with the previous warning of a memory test. Participants engaged in moderate processing with the previous warning of a memory test. Participants engaged in deep processing without the previous warning of a memory test.

Participants engaged in deep processing without the previous warning of a memory test. (Depth of processing is stronger than intention. Hence, the person engaged in deep processing will remember best.)

Two groups of participants were asked to learn a series of word pairs and were asked to learn a series of word pairs and were then given a memory test. Both groups were told to remember the second word in each pair and use the first only as an aid to remember the targets. For Group A, the first word was semantically associated with the target word (e.g., dark-light). For group B, the first word rhymed with the target word (e.g., sight-light). Then, each group was given hints during the memory test. Some of these hints were related to meaning (e.g., "Was there a word associated with 'dark'?"); some were related to sound (e.g., "Was there a word associated with 'sight'?"). Which of the following statements is false? Overall, participants in Group A recalled more words than those in Group B Participants in Group A performed better when given a meaning hint than when given a sound hint Participants in Group B performed better when given a sound hint than when given a meaning hint. Participants in Group B performed better when given a meaning hint than when given a sound hint.

Participants in Group A performed better when given a meaning hint than when given a sound hint..

Study participants learn a list of words, including "clockwork." Later, they are given a new list and asked to say whether each word is old or new. This list includes the word "lock." Which of the following will happen? Participants will have a source memory for the word "lock" in the first list. Participants will correctly report that lock was indeed on the prior list, because it is embedded in "clockwork." Participants will feel a strong sense of familiarity about "lock." Participants will correctly deny that they saw the word "lock" even though it is embedded in "clockwork."

Participants will correctly deny that they saw the word "lock" even though it is embedded in "clockwork." FEEDBACK: Encoding is context specific. Participants did not encode the word "lock" from the first list because it was presented specifically in the context of, and thus cannot be separated from, the word "clockwork."

How does performance on a lexical decision task demonstrate semantic priming?

Participants' lexical-decision responses were faster if the stimulus words were related, trials with related words will produce semantic priming

Which of the following is NOT true regarding recall performance? Whether a clue about a word's sound is more helpful for recall than a clue about its meaning depends on how the word was thought of when it was learned. Recall performance is usually less good than recognition performance. Recall performance benefits from context reinstatement. Physical context is more important in recall than psychological context.

Physical context is more important in recall than psychological context. FEEDBACK: Psychological, emotional, and physical states can all play a role in recall performance.

Which of the following is a FALSE statement about the memory strategy of "chunking"? The increased processing required for chunking leaves less attention available for other tasks. Chunking does have a downside: items can be misremembered because they are often altered in some way as part of the chunking process. Practice with chunking can greatly increase the actual size of an individual's working memory. Some individuals can create very big chunks, enabling them to recall over 50 numbers in order.

Practice with chunking can greatly increase the actual size of an individual's working memory. FEEDBACK: Chunking does not increase working memory. It simply changes the size of the items that can be placed in working memory.

Which of the following is most likely to produce a sense that a stimulus "rings a bell" (is familiar)? Processing the stimulus is relatively difficult. You lack a source memory for the stimulus. Processing the stimulus is relatively easy. The stimulus is presented tachistoscopically.

Processing the stimulus is relatively easy. FEEDBACK: A sense of familiarity is driven in large part by processing fluency, which is the ease with which a stimulus is processed.

Which is the best example of "encoding specificity"? Reading the word "washed" is followed by a failure to realize that, as part of this presentation, the word "ash" was also viewed. Studying the word "calf" in a list of farm animals results in a feeling of familiarity when the word "calf" is later presented in a list of body parts. Being tested in a quiet room free of distractions is better than being tested in a loud room, regardless of learning context. Recognizing a picture that was seen earlier is unaffected by whether the person is focusing on the same part of the picture as before.

Reading the word "washed" is followed by a failure to realize that, as part of this presentation, the word "ash" was also viewed. FEEDBACK: The whole word is remembered, but pieces of it are not. Hence, the memory is for a specific example, and not for the pieces that compose the whole.

A study has a "2x2" design, in which half the participants read a passage in a boat and the other half read the same passage on a train and then all are tested for recall of the passage in either the environment they learned in or the other environment. Based on previous studies, what results would you expect? Recall performance would be best for people whose testing environment matched their learning environment. All people whose learning environment was the boat would have better recall than all people whose learning environment was the train. All people tested in the boat would have better recall than all people tested on the train. People would have better recall when tested in an environment different than the one in which they learned.

Recall performance would be best for people whose testing environment matched their learning environment. (This is a result of state-dependent learning.)

Which of the following pieces of evidence would NOT be consistent with claims about the articulatory rehearsal loop? Repeating a nonsense syllable over and over interferes with the ability to hold a sequence of abstract shapes in working memory. In working memory tasks, when people hear "F" spoken, they sometimes remember "S" instead. Repeating a nonsense syllable over and over interferes with the ability to hold a strong of letters in working memory. In working memory tasks, when people see the letter "F," they sometimes remember "S" instead. FEEDBACK: The articulatory rehearsal loop deals exclusively with verbal and verbalizable material, so it would not be involved with holding abstract shapes.

Repeating a nonsense syllable over and over interferes with the ability to hold a sequence of abstract shapes in working memory. FEEDBACK: The articulatory rehearsal loop deals exclusively with verbal and verbalizable material, so it would not be involved with holding abstract shapes.

Are bananas edible? What color are they?

Semantic memory

Better memory for last few items relative to middle items Last few items in the list are still held in working memory Earlier items are displaced by subsequent items.

Serial position effect #2: The recency effect

Better memory for first few items relative to middle items Serial order matters As the list progresses, attention is divided across more items and less is devoted to each individual item. Words later in the list are rehearsed less than earlier items. -> Less transfer to Long term memory

Serial position(order) effect #1: The primacy effect

What is shallow vs. deep processing? How does it influence recall?

Shallow processing- superficial, paying attention to visual or auditory characteristics Deep processing- meaningful, paying attention to meaning Rehearsal is superior Repeated exposure does not guarantee memory Deeper processing ensures better recall.

How do you remember an unfamiliar phone number temporarily?

Short term memory

Differences between early definitions of short term and working memory (basically the same thing, just depends on what you are asking someone to do)

Short term memory -Temporarily remembering a phone number -Measured via digit span -doesn't correlate with your success or intelligence Working memory -Solving 26 x 34 without a paper and pencil -Measured via operation span (correlates with success in tests and grades)

How does spreading activation relate to "hints" on a memory test?

Spreading activation occurs within a network, via associative links, traveling from node to node. Memory hints (retrieval cues) expands the spreading activation because it hints at another memory that links you to a new memory.

Which of the following statements are evidence that complicated material is best learned by making connections to existing knowledge, rather than by using mnemonic strategies? A sequence of unrelated items that is organized into a single unit is recalled better than a sequence that is not. Students who receive higher grades in a course are more likely to remember the material over a longer delay of time. Individual items that are recognized as a meaningful structure are recalled better than those that are not. Information presented within a recognizable semantic context is recalled better than information presented without a context.

Students who receive higher grades in a course are more likely to remember the material over a longer delay of time. Individual items that are recognized as a meaningful structure are recalled better than those that are not. Information presented within a recognizable semantic context is recalled better than information presented without a context.

What is an example supporting the idea of the visuo-spatial sketchpad?

Tetris, Visuo-spatial sketchpad temporarily stores information on how things look, for example, shapes and colors, and is also what allows us to manipulate images in our mind. This can be seen in a game of Tetris, as one rotates a shape to see how it might fit or appear from a different angle.

How does the intent to learn influence performance?

The INTENT to memorize contributes nothing but can lead you to choose a deeper strategy. But the memorizer plays an important role! -The situation in which the memorizer learns -The rehearsal strategy the memorizer uses -The prior knowledge of the memorizer

What produces the pattern of sound-alike errors?

The cause lies in the fact that people are relying on the rehearsal loop, which involves a mechanism (the "inner ear") that stores the memory items as (internal representations of) sounds. It's no surprise, therefore, that errors, when they occur, are shaped by this mode of storage.

When is encoding variability the best strategy for learning?

The encoding variability theory says that if the information is repeated multiple times at spaced intervals through a variety of modalities, there is a deeper encoding of this information, leading to long-term retention and a deeper understanding of the underlying concepts and relationships.

How does digit span show working memory's capacity?

The number of digits a person can echo back without errors is referred to as that person's digit span. Shows working memory's capacity is typically around 7 items- at least 5 and probably not more than 9. These estimates have traditionally been summarized by the statement that this memory holds "7 plus-or-minus 2" items.

A physician has just read an article about a recently developed drug. Which of the following is LEAST important in determining whether the physician will remember the article later? The physician read the article carefully to determine whether it was persuasive. The physician realized how suggestions within the article could be integrated with other things she already knew. The physician expected to need the information later and therefore employed a maintenance memorization strategy that had helped her memorize material in the past.​​​​​​​​ The physician quickly saw that the new drug might have multiple uses, so she thought about several circumstances in which she might use it.

The physician expected to need the information later and therefore employed a maintenance memorization strategy that had helped her memorize material in the past.​​​​​​​​

What are the four major components of Baddeley's model of working memory?

The working-memory system is divided in multiple components, including: -Central executive -Visuospatial buffer -Articulatory rehearsal loop(Phonological loop) -The episodic buffer

Which of the following observations support the view that operation-span measures better reflect working-memory's function as a highly active information processor than digit-span measures? There is no one specific area of the brain that serves as working memory. Measures of operation span (but not digit span) correlate with performance on reasoning, reading comprehension, and standardized academic tests. Digit-span tasks provide an unreliable measure of working memory because its value increases with practice. The engagement of chunking strategies contaminates digit-span measures, but not operation-span measures.

There is no one specific area of the brain that serves as working memory. Measures of operation span (but not digit span) correlate with performance on reasoning, reading comprehension, and standardized academic tests.

How does the rehearsal loop work?

To hold on to those numbers, you used subvocalization-silent speech-to launch the loop, and this production by the "inner voice" produced a representation of the numbers in the phonological buffer, a passive storage system used for holding a representation (essentially an "internal echo") of sound. In other words, you created an image in the "inner ear." This image started to fade away after a second or two, but you then subvocalized the numbers once again to create a new image, sustaining the material in this buffer.

Contrast working memory and long term memory from a neurobiological standpoint.

WORKING MEMORY occurs when a particular population of neuron is ACTIVATED LONG TERM MEMORY storage corresponds to the PRESENCE and STRENGTH OF CONNECTIONS between these neurons

How does word length relate to the phonological loop? How does comparing different languages provide evidence for this?

Word-length effect: When the words are longer, the loop can hold fewer words. Languages and digit span result: Languages with shorter words for numbers can hold longer numbers in memory. Mistakes tend to be "sound" errors. Articulatory suppression

a method requiring the participant to perform a distracting verbal task, such as counting or naming, during the retention period of a memory test. Inhibits the use of sub vocal rehearsal.

articulatory suppression

What causes the primacy effect? The last words to be heard are still in working memory at testing. The first words to be heard are also the first words to leave working memory. Experimenters tend to present easier words first as warm-up. Words that get more attention are better encoded into long-term memory.

Words that get more attention are better encoded into long-term memory. FEEDBACK: The first words are maintained in working memory for a longer period of time and eventually encoded into long-term memory.

Multiply 26 by 24 without using paper and pencil

Working memory

Which of the following is NOT considered a modern change to the modal model of memory? Sensory memory receives less emphasis than in the older modal model. The term "working memory" is preferred over the older term, "short-term memory." Working memory refers to a process more than a storage system. Working memory and long-term memory are considered the same construct.

Working memory and long-term memory are considered the same construct.

Researchers' conceptualization of memory has been revised in recent years, but a few key components remain from the earlier "modal model." Which of the following is NO LONGER an accepted aspect of memory? Working memory holds on to its contents independent of the current focus of the person's thoughts. Working memory and long-term memory are considered separate memory processes. Working memory is fragile and easily disrupted. Working memory is limited in capacity.

Working memory holds on to its contents independent of the current focus of the person's thoughts. (This is no longer accepted because whatever you are thinking about is in working memory, it is synonymous.)

Contrast working and long term memory.

Working memory is limited in size; long term memory is enormous. Getting information into working memory is easy, getting information into long term memory often involves some work. Getting information out of working memory is also easy. Finding information in long term memory can sometimes be difficult and slow- and in some cases can fail completely. The contents of working memory are fragile. Long term memory isn't linked to your current thoughts, so it's much less fragile- information there remains in storage whether you're thinking about it right now or not.

In which of the following situations are you most likely to decide that a stimulus is familiar? You can recall when and where you last saw the stimulus. Processing fluency is quite low. Processing fluency is at the level you had expected. Processing fluency is high and you attribute this to the stimulus being very beautiful.

You can recall when and where you last saw the stimulus. FEEDBACK: If you have conscious recollection of a stimulus, you are likely to think of it as special.

What error are you most likely to make when looking at a photo lineup of suspects after you witness a crime?

You recognize one of the people in the lineup, so you indicate that he's the perpetrator. Later, you find out that he was familiar because he drives the bus you take sometimes to get to the mall.

Long-term memory is to working memory as __________ is to __________. a keyboard on your computer; the cursor on your computer an open file on your computer; the monitor on your computer a file stored on a hard drive; an open document you are working on a printed copy of a file; a file stored on a CD

a file stored on a hard drive; an open document you are working on (Things on your hard drive are permanent, whereas an open document is temporary and currently "in use," just like long-term and working memory, respectively.)

Imagine participants are shown the word "class" in a list of words and then tested later with the stimulus cla_ _. Which of the following conditions is LEAST likely to yield the correct completion of the word? exposure to the word when NOT told that a memory test will follow exposure to the word when told that a memory test will follow. explicit processing of the word a long delay between viewing the word list and taking the memory test

a long delay between viewing the word list and taking the memory test FEEDBACK: A long delay reduces the effects of priming and implicit memory. The other conditions are likely to yield correct completion of the items.

the minimum amount of energy required to start a chemical reaction nodes receive this from their neighbors Remembering or recognizing a stimulus leads to this

activation

a disruption of memory, often due to brain damage

amnesia

a name we give to the set of mechanisms that run working memory governs the selection and sequence of thoughts held in different temporary storage units is needed for the "work" in working memory; if you have to plan a response or make a decision, these steps require this

central executive

A strategy to improve working memory capacity The ability to condense information Requires effort but reduces WM load Does not increase WM capacity in the sense that you can still only hold 7 ± 2 chunks But you CAN increase the number of things contained in those chunks

chunking

retrieval paths guiding you towards the information you seek nodes are tied to one another via these pathways called associative links activation spreads though these pathways in place

connections

a procedure in which a person is led to the same mental or emotional state as in a previous event What matters for memory retrieval is the mental (or psychological) context, not the physical environment itself.

context retrieval

a pattern of data in which materials leaned in one setting are well remembered when the person returns to that setting, but are less well remembered in other settings ex: scuba-diving study

context-dependent learning

This span is a measure of the maximum length at which a series of items can be repeated in order without errors. used to assess working-memory capacity

digit span

The holding capacity of working memory was measured with this. In this task, research participants hear a series of digits (e.g., "8, 3, 4") and must immediately repeat them back. If they do this successfully, they're given a slightly longer list (e.g., "9, 2, 4, 0"). If they can repeat this one without error, they're given a still longer list ("3, 1, 2, 8, 5"), and so on. This continues until the participants start making errors- usually happens after 7 or 8 items.

digit-span task

Explicit memories are revealed by __________ memory tests, such as __________, whereas implicit memories are revealed by __________ memory tests, such as __________. direct, priming; indirect, recall indirect, priming; direct, recall direct, recall; indirect, priming indirect, recall; direct, priming

direct, recall; indirect, priming FEEDBACK: Explicit memory involves direct testing and recall. Implicit memory involves indirect testing with priming as a method to ask participants to respond to a stimulus without having to generate it entirely on their own.

Someone with a larger working-memory capacity is likely to perform better than someone with a smaller working-memory capacity on all of the following tasks EXCEPT following directions. efficient reading. discriminating shapes. learning a computer language.

discriminating shapes. FEEDBACK: Shape recognition only involves the temporal lobe regions and hence is not determined by working-memory capacity, which involves frontal lobe function.

involves thinking about what the to-be-remembered items mean and how they're related to one another and also to other things you already know.

elaborative rehearsal

Which is of the following is most effective for long-term retention? maintenance rehearsal peg-word learning imagery elaborative rehearsal

elaborative rehearsal (Elaborative rehearsal is the most effective for remembering because it involves adding meaning to the encoding process.)

The tendency, when memorizing, to place in memory both the materials to be learned and also some amount of the context of those materials. As a result, these materials will be recognized as familiar, later on, only if the materials appear again in a similar context

encoding specificity

Clive Wearing suffers from amnesia. Specifically, he experiences massive disruptions to his _______ memory.

episodic

helps maintain the order of events in working memory This component helps the executive organize information into a chronological sequence- so that, for example, you can keep track of a story you've just heard or a film clip you've just seen.

episodic buffer

the act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" Knowledge can be retrieved and reflected on consciously Requires effort to bring memories to the surface usually only aware of these memories

explicit memory

Someone with anterograde amnesia has no implicit memory for events after the onset of amnesia. implicit memory for events before the onset of amnesia. explicit memory for events before the onset of amnesia. explicit memory for events after the onset of amnesia.

explicit memory for events after the onset of amnesia. FEEDBACK: Anterograde amnesia involves the inability to form new long-term memories; hence, this person would have no new explicit memories after the event.

The dangers of source confusion are particularly relevant to which real-world situation? eyewitness identification playing the lottery second language acquisition jury selection

eyewitness identification FEEDBACK: Eyewitness testimony is difficult because the memory of the event can be changed by experiences that occur afterward.

All of the following statements accurately describe the effects of mnemonics EXCEPT that they facilitate multiple connections between new material and prior knowledge. can be detrimental if you wish to have many retrieval paths to the information. can impose organization on a list that does not have its own intrinsic organization. can help to recall, not only items, but also their serial order in the list.

facilitate multiple connections between new material and prior knowledge. (Mnemonics do not create multiple retrieval paths. They serve as a simple organizational way to remember things.)

Which of the following types of processing for a target word will probably lead to the best memory performance? thinking of a list of words that rhyme with the target word repeating the word over and over while trying very hard to memorize it noting whether the letters are upper-case or lower-case generating a sentence that uses the target word

generating a sentence that uses the target word FEEDBACK: This task involves having to create a complex elaborative context that is more likely to improve memory.

Kent Cochrane ("Patient K.C.") had a motorcycle accident and suffered brain damage that severely impaired his episodic memory but left his semantic memory intact. What effect did this have on his memory for his life?

he remembered his life as a series of impersonal facts rather than experienced events.

Damage to the __________ tends to result in __________. amygdala; unilateral neglect amygdala; anterograde amnesia hippocampus; unilateral neglect hippocampus; anterograde amnesia

hippocampus; anterograde amnesia FEEDBACK: Amygdala damage results in problems with emotion and emotional processing. The hippocampus is involved in the encoding of long-term memories, and hence, damage to it results in anterograde amnesia.

the mere repetition of information creates a sense of familiarity and more positive attitudes That people are more likely to identify as true statements those they have previously heard (even if they cannot consciously remember having heard them), regardless of the actual validity of the statement. In other words, a person is more likely to believe a familiar statement than an unfamiliar one. telling people that a consumer claim is false can make them misremember it as true

illusion of truth effect

On her way home, Veronica decided to go to the grocery store but couldn't write a shopping list because she was driving. She came up with several possible ways to remember what she needed to buy (listed in the answer choices). Which of her ideas is NOT a simple mnemonic strategy? imagining her drive to school and associating items on the list with prominent landmarks she passes every day using the first-letter technique to make a word or phrase composed of the first letter of each item from the list using the peg-word system to associate different items on the shopping list with words in an easy-to-remember rhyme imagining what she can cook with all of the items on the list and imagining what all the food would taste like

imagining what she can cook with all of the items on the list and imagining what all the food would taste like (This is actually an elaborative rehearsal strategy, in which she is adding meaning to the information. Mnemonics are complex organizational schemes for learning.)

Memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations influence behavior without one being aware of the memory itself. independent of conscious recollection. illusion of truth, no source or accuracy Knowledge that can influence thought and behavior without conscious awareness Requires little to no effort

implicit memory

engage elaborate processing that leads to better recall. like acronyms provide an effective way to organize material for better encoding. like the peg-word system use the structure of an external skeleton to organize and connect the to-be-remembered material. do not try to relate the to-be-remembered material to material you already know.

mnemonics

an individual unit within an associative network. in a scheme using local representations, represent single ideas or concepts, represented by a pattern of activation across a wide number of units activated when received a strong enough input signal, once activated it can activate others. energy will spread via its associations, and this will activate the units connected to the just activated unit

node

This span is a measure of the maximum number of items that can be stored and later recalled while simultaneously working with other material. used to assess working-memory capacity

operation span

How are preference and familiarity related?

people tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them

In using the rehearsal loop, the central executive is directly involved in the step of... storing visual information, such as mental images. subvocalizing the items in the list to be remembered. planning the end-goal of the rehearsal. transferring items into the phonological buffer.

planning the end-goal of the rehearsal. FEEDBACK: Planning and goal-directed behavior are the main responsibility of the central executive.

Maintenance rehearsal is... an efficient and effective way to enter information into long-term memory. well suited for delayed recall, but only if you knew were going to be tested. poorly suited for delayed recall, even if you knew you would be tested. not very efficient, but if done for long enough it will be effective at promoting memory.

poorly suited for delayed recall, even if you knew you would be tested.(Maintenance rehearsal involves simple repetition and does not effectively increase long-term retention.)

For a procedure that relies on processing fluency, what matters most is that you __________ the test stimulus. previously encountered specifically recognize fully understand consciously remember FEEDBACK: Processing fluency involves having been exposed to a stimulus before.

previously encountered FEEDBACK: Processing fluency involves having been exposed to a stimulus before.

A type of long-term memory of how to perform different actions and skills. Essentially, it is the memory of how to do certain things. a type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits

procedural memory

What do you do when you tie your shoelaces?

procedural memory

what are the memory subcategories for implicit memory?

procedural memory, perceptual learning, classical conditioning, priming

Use of a processing pathway strengthens the pathway. In other words, use of a pathway increases the pathway's ________ ________

processing fluency

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test. greatly depends on memory connections to complete the memory search.

recall

Which testing method mainly targets explicit, rather than implicit, memory? recall tasks lexical decision word-stem completion tachistoscopic recognition

recall tasks FEEDBACK: Of these options, recall is the only one that always involves explicit memory.

A question like, "What's the name of the waiter?" requires __________; a question like, "Isn't that the guy we usually see on the bus?" requires __________. familiarity; source memory recall; recognition source memory; familiarity recognition; recall

recall; recognition FEEDBACK: The first question requires you to come up with the actual name (recall), but the second only requires you to decide if the person matches someone you have seen before (recognition).

these confusions emerge if the inputs are presented visually. So, having seen "F" people are likely to report back "S"; they aren't likely in this situation to report back the similar looking "E?

sound-alike error

Which behavior is LEAST likely to be demonstrated by a Korsakoff's patient? recalling that a sentence was heard earlier in the test but feeling no sense of familiarity about the sentence learning the correct answer to a previously taught question, without a memory of being previously taught refusing to shake hands with someone who hurt him or her during a previous handshake even though he or she will have no explicit memory of the first handshake not remembering tunes heard before as familiar but preferring them to ones not heard before

recalling that a sentence was heard earlier in the test but feeling no sense of familiarity about the sentence FEEDBACK: Korsakoff's patients have anterograde amnesia; therefore, they would be unable to remember that they heard a sentence since this relies on explicit memory.

a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test often depends simply on a sense of familiarity

recognition

Which of the following is an example of recall? remembering the name of your fifth-grade teacher when asked suddenly experiencing the "tip-of-the-tongue" phenomenon only knowing a phone number if you have a phone in front of you identifying an old friend you meet in the store even though he or she has gained weight

remembering the name of your fifth-grade teacher when asked FEEDBACK: Remembering the name of your teacher requires you to recall the information because you have to come up with the name on your own.

Which of the following would be the least helpful in improving recall of a difficult-to-understand paragraph? chunking the sentences in the paragraph into smaller, meaningful groups repeating the paragraph aloud many times giving the paragraph a meaningful title quizzing yourself in order to improve comprehension of the paragraph

repeating the paragraph aloud many times (This option is reliant on maintenance rehearsal, which is the least efficient way to learn material.)

When you want to locate information in memory, you travel on these paths, moving from one memory to the next until you reach the target material.

retrieval path

an inability to retrieve information from one's past loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss of memory for the past

retrograde amnesia

Eli can remember what he did last week, but he cannot remember the birth of his cousin (which happened immediately before Eli received a head injury in a motorcycle accident). What is Eli's condition? Capgras syndrome anterograde amnesia retrograde amnesia Korsakoff's syndrome

retrograde amnesia FEEDBACK: It is retrograde amnesia because it is loss of memory before the brain damage.

what are the memory subcategories for explicit memory?

semantic and episodic memory

memory for knowledge about the world a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

semantic memory

A process in which activation of an idea in memory causes activation to spread to other ideas related to the first in meaning.

semantic priming

This form of memory holds on to the input in "raw" sensory form- an iconic memory for visual inputs and an echoic memory for auditory inputs. modern discussions of perception often make no mention of this memory

sensory memory

the place where you hold information while you're working on it

short term memory

Which event will improve long-term memory performance during a free-recall task? delaying the recall for a few seconds after the list end (with no interpolated activity) having participants count backward by threes for 30 seconds before recalling the list slowing down the presentation of the list using words that all have similar sounds (like "bay," "day," "gray," etc.)

slowing down the presentation of the list (Slowing down the presentation rate allows more time for each word to be rehearsed and hence increases the likelihood it will be transferred to long-term memory.)

a form of memory that enables a person to remember the time or place in which the information was learned, or the event took place. It is distinct from (and not dependent on) familiarity.

source memory

The process through which activity in one node in a network flows outward to other nodes through associative links. Occurs when one item brought into working memory triggers an activation of related memory

spreading activation

When asked, "What is the capital of South Dakota?" participants who cannot initially remember the answer often show improved recall when given the prompt, "Is it perhaps a man's name?" This phenomenon is best explained by priming. implicit memory. spreading activation. context reinstatement.

spreading activation. FEEDBACK: Spreading activation is the phenomenon whereby a node receives activation from multiple sources, which causes it to surpass the threshold required for conscious recollection.

Activation levels below response threshold. Will not trigger a response; nonetheless, this activation is important because it can accumulate, leading eventually to an activation level that exceeds the response threshold.

subthreshold activation

What does the scuba-diving study demonstrate?

the content of the divers' memory must have been shaped somehow by the context in which the learning took place.

When asked to recall a list of 25 words, participants are likely to remember only some of them. The words they can recall are likely to include... approximately the last 12 words on the list. the first few words on the list and approximately the last 5 or 6 words on the list. approximately the first 12 words on the list. words drawn from positions scattered throughout the list.

the first few words on the list and approximately the last 5 or 6 words on the list.

Name modern changes to the Modal Model- Sensory memory and it's role.

the idea of "sensory memory" plays a smaller role in current theorizing, so modern discussions of perception often make no mention of this memory.

Marla is given the following list of words: "giraffe, bird, alligator, lion, eagle, gorilla." She is likely to remember the word "giraffe" because of relational mnemonics. the encoding effect. elaborative processing. the primacy effect.

the primacy effect. FEEDBACK: Primacy effects allow items at the beginning of a list to be better remembered by putting them into long-term memory.

According to the modal model, all of the following are true EXCEPT that memory takes place in a series of discrete steps. new information moves from one information-processing component to the next. incoming information goes through sensory and short-term memory on the path to long-term memory. the size of short-term memory can be expanded with sufficient practice.

the size of short-term memory can be expanded with sufficient practice. FEEDBACK: Short-term memory is fixed at 7 plus-or-minus 2 items.

The short-term storage of verbal materials is often supported by the rehearsal loop. The short-term storage of mental images is accomplished by the visual-cortex loop. the visuospatial buffer. the operation span. perseveration.

the visuospatial buffer. FEEDBACK: The visuospatial buffer is the part of working memory dedicated to memory of visual and spatial information, which is key for mental images.

All of the following contribute evidence for a dissociation between explicit and implicit memory EXCEPT that... people sometimes treat a familiar name as famous because they have retained their implicit memory of it but lost their explicit memory of where they saw it. having a word in front of one's eyes has more impact on a subsequent word-completion task than thinking about the word's meaning, but on a subsequent-recall task, the opposite is true. patient H.M. failed to recognize the "Tower of Hanoi" problem, despite showing improvement over repeat testing sessions. there is a dissociation between the primacy and recency effect in the serial position curve.

there is a dissociation between the primacy and recency effect in the serial position curve. FEEDBACK: Both primacy and recency are due to long-term or working-memory mechanisms, which are part of the explicit memory system.

how does articulatory suppression support the notion of a phonological loop?

this study is designed to demonstrate the role played by the phonological loop defined by Baddeley's model of working memory. The operation of the phonological loop can be disrupted by oral repetition of sounds while attempting to utilize working memory, a task known as articulatory suppression. The study utilized a between-group, experimental design to demonstrate the effectiveness of articulatory suppression for reducing accuracy of serial recall of a visually presented list of phonologically dissimilar letters.

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse neurons reach activation from other neurons; once a neuron reaches this

threshold

Cryptoplagiarism happens when you... copy someone else's passwords. steal ideas or words from a spy. intentionally steal someone else's idea, but then deny it. unintentionally steal someone else's ideas.

unintentionally steal someone else's ideas. FEEDBACK: Cryptoplagiarism is an unconscious and unintentional theft of ideas.

responsible for the short-term storage of visual and spatial information, such as memory for objects and their locations. It also plays a key role in the generation and manipulation of mental images

visuo-spatial sketchpad

what is the process of the modal model of memory?

when information first arrives, it is stored briefly in sensory memory. A process of selection and interpretation then moves the information into short term memory. Some of the information is then transferred into long-term memory.

As part of a pronunciation task, you are presented with a list of made-up names. Later, during a second, unrelated task, some of the names appear again. Which factor will have the LEAST influence on the likelihood that you will think the name belongs to a famous person? whether the names are presented in the auditory or visual modality the degree of processing fluency experienced when seeing names for the second time the amount of time between the pronunciation task and the second task the attribution given for the sense of familiarity experienced when seeing the names for the second time

whether the names are presented in the auditory or visual modality FEEDBACK: It is only the fact that it has been encountered before that changes the familiarity, but not the modality, of the presentation.

When it comes to successful memory retrieval, which of these factors is most important?

whether your mental context at retrieval matches your mental context at encoding. Retrieval is most successful when the encoding and retrieval contexts match, but what matters is the mental context, not the physical environment.

A task in which research participants are given the beginning of a word (e.g., "TOM") and must provide a word that starts with the letters provided. In some versions of the task, only one solution is possible, so performance is measured by counting the number of words completed. In other versions of the task, several solutions are possible for each stem, and performance is assessed by determining which responses fulfill some other criterion.

word-stem completion

refers to a process more than a storage system. (Considered a status). When we say that ideas are here, we simply mean that these ideas are currently activated and being worked on by a specific set of operations.

working memory

How does the concept of working memory differ from that of short term memory?

working memory is concerned with both holding and processing information.