Intro to Political Science Final
The Civil Rights Movement
In the early decades of the twentieth century, African Americans continued their struggle for equal protection of the laws Movement enjoyed some early successes Century was nearly half over before momentous victories finally began to change the status of African Americans in revolutionary ways
The Three Faces of Parties
American political parties perform their various functions through three "faces," or spheres of operation.
Internment of Japanese Americans During WWII
Americans of Japanese ancestry were forced to move to government-established camps Two-thirds of the 120,000 were native-born U.S. citizens Relocated from the West Coast Japanese American Citizens League (JACL) fought for decades to obtain reparations In 1987, President Ronald Reagan signed a bill providing $1.2 billion in reparations
Citizens with Disabilities
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 Defines a disability as any "physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more of the major life activities of the individual" Americans with Disabilities Act Amendments of 2008 Act broadens what "substantially limits" and "major life activities" mean
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 (2)
Empowers the U.S. Attorney General to sue to desegregate public schools Bars government agencies from discrimination, and imposes the threat of the loss of federal funding if an agency violates the ban Establishes a standard of equality in employment opportunity
The Movement for Women's Civil Rights
Like African American men, women had to wait until the Constitution was amended and civil rights legislation was adopted for equal protection of the laws
Jurisdiction in the Dual Court System
In the dual court system, the cases that state courts have authority to hear differ from those that the federal courts have authority to hear. One twist is that a lawsuit that began in a state court can end up in the federal court system.
The People's Opinion of Democrats and Republicans
the figure shows the percentage of survey respondents who have a favorable view of the Republican and Democratic parties at selected dates between September 1993 and August 2016. A majority of Americans today believe that the Democrats and the Republicans are not doing an adequate job representing the American people.
The Bipartisan Campaign Finance Reform Act of 2002
McCain-Feingold Act, formally known as the Bipartisan Campaign Finance Reform Act (BCRA) of 2002, banned nearly all soft money contributions McConnell v. the Federal Election Commission (2003) upheld BCRA Federal Election Commission v. Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc. (2007) overturned BCRA
The Socialization and Opinions of Millennial Americans
Millennial Generation comprise about a third of the U.S. population Majority were "wanted" births, and this informed several spin-off characteristics: Helicopter parented, and socialized in a child-centric era Hyper-scheduled "leisure" activities Psychology of "specialness" American Millennials are the most educated, diverse, and tolerant generation of Americans
Support for Same-Sex Marriage by Generation
Millennials supported same-sex marriage earlier than other generations, and greater proportions of Millennials have always supported same-sex marriage.
Campaign Influences on Voter Choice
Modern campaign trends include a far deeper reliance on paid professional staffers and the prevalence of the media as a tool for communicating with voters Voter choices are also affected by increasingly negative campaigns Research shows that negative campaigning can suppress voter turnout in several ways
Money and Politics
Money is essential in electoral races today Federal regulations require any group that provides campaign contributions to a candidate register as a political action committee (PAC) PACs are subject to contributions limits Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010) allowed for super PACs Can raise and spend unrestricted amounts of money Contributions must be used independently of any candidate or official campaign
The Winner-Take-All Electoral System
Most U.S. elections are winner-take-all Candidate with the most votes wins Winner need not have a majority of the votes In a proportional representation system, political parties win the number of parliamentary seats equal to the percentage of the vote each party receives (Note- the U.S. does not have this system in any of its elections.)
General Elections
Most general elections are held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November General elections for Congress and most state legislatures feature a winner-take-all system (plurality rule) Some states require a runoff election when no candidate receives the majority of the votes cast (majority rule) In an instant runoff election voters rank candidates in order of preference (not used in the U.S.) If no one candidate receives a majority of the vote, the last-place vote-getter is eliminated and the votes are recalculated
The Movement Gains National Visibility
Murder of Emmett Till, 1955 Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott, 1955 Boycott was led by Martin Luther King, Jr.
Fighting Back: Early Civil Rights Organizations
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) formed in 1909 During the 1930s, lawsuits brought by the NAACP in several states ended discriminatory admissions practices in professional schools By the 1950s civil rights groups began to argue that segregation itself was unconstitutional
National Parties (2)
National committee elects a national chair National chair, along with the paid staff of the national committee, oversees the day-to-day operations of the political party One of the most important roles of the national chair has been to raise funds When a major party is out of power it plays the role of the loyal opposition by objecting to the policies and priorities of the party in power
Why Some People Do Not Vote
Negative campaigning is one reason why some people do not vote, but there are several others Lack of efficacy Voter fatigue and negative campaigns Structure of elections Rational abstention thesis Consequences of nonvoting
Revolutionizing the Campaign: New Technologies
New technologies have dramatically changed the conduct of political campaigns in recent years Through texting, tweeting, Instagram, YouTube, and Facebook, candidates can use technology to communicate with voters, mobilize supporters, and interact with the media
U.S. Court of Appeals
Next level of the federal judicial hierarchy is 13 federal courts of appeals who have mandatory appellate jurisdiction There are 179 judgeships Judges work in panels of three to review cases Courts of appeals review the legal procedures of a preceding case and decide whether the law was applied appropriately given the facts already admitted into evidence
The Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution
Nineteenth Amendment (1920) to the Constitution prohibited the national and state governments from abridging or denying citizens the right to vote on account of sex Right to vote was extended to another group of citizens in 1971 when the states ratified the Twenty-sixth Amendment, guaranteeing citizens 18 years of age and older the right to vote
Theoretical Structure of Political Parties: A Hierarchical Model of Party Organizations
Theoretically, political parties' organization resembles a pyramid, with a broad base of support at the bottom and power flowing up to a smaller group at the state level and then to an even smaller, more exclusive group at the national level.
The Electoral College
There are 538 electors in the Electoral College The number of electors is based on the number of members of Congress, plus 3 electors who represent the District of Columbia Presidential candidate needs a simple majority of votes (270) to win
Types of Third Parties
Third parties have existed in the United States since the early 19th century Third parties typically fall into one of three general categories Issue advocacy parties Ideologically oriented parties Splinter parties
Our Politics Are a Reflection of Us
Who we are often influences our life experiences, which shape our political socialization and therefore what we think Racial and ethnic groups to which we belong, our gender, our age, and where we live all play a role in how we are socialized to political and community life
Choosing Cases for Review (2)
Writ of certiorari is a higher court's order to a lower court to make available the records of a past case Justices determine whether they will consider a case according to a practice known as the Rule of Four Justices will hear a case if four or more of the nine justices decide they want to hear it
The Age Factor
Young adults are less likely to vote than Americans who are middle-aged and older, although the figure has increased in recent years In both 2008 and 2012, the youth vote was a key deciding factor Why don't young voters typically turn out?
Constitutionally Delegated and Reserved Powers
Conduct local, state, and national elections Build and maintain infrastructure (roads, bridges, canals, ports) Administer family law (e.g., marriage and divorce) Ratify amendments to the U.S. Constitution Establish criminal laws (except on the high seas) Provide education Redistrict U.S. House districts Protect public health and safety Regulate occupations and professions Regulate intrastate commerce Protect property rights Regulate banks and credit Establish insurance laws Regulate charities Regulate land use
Conflicted Federalism
Conflicted federalism describes the current status of national-state relations that involves the conflicting elements of dual, cooperative, and centralized federalisms Example: state and national laws regarding marijuana
Public Opinion About Government (3)
Congress also faces ups and downs in terms of its public approval rate Since the early 2000s the legislative branch has failed to win approval from the majority of Americans Often only one-third of Americans approve of the way Congress is handling its job Judicial branch consistently scores higher in levels of public trust than do the other two branches
Article I Courts
Congress created specialized Article I courts to administer and resolve conflicts regarding specific federal laws These include the U.S. Bankruptcy Court, the U.S. Court of Military Appeals, the U.S. Tax Court, the U.S. Court of Veterans' Appeals, and the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA) court FISA courts were charged with determining whether an individual could be subject to warrantless surveillance of his or her communications
The Power to Regulate Commerce
Congress's establishment of a national bank was contested; the Supreme Court decided in the government's favor McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) (i.e. implied powers) Necessary and proper clause allows Congress to broadly interpret the enumerated powers of the national government In Gibbons v. Ogden (1824), the Supreme Court established a broad definition of commerce: "all commercial intercourse—meaning all business dealings."
Federal System
Constitution's framers established dual sovereignty by detailing a new, sovereign national government for the United States and modifying the sovereignty of the existing state governments National government has no legal superior on matters over which the Constitution gives it authority State governments have no legal superior on the matters over which they are granted authority by the Constitution
The Supreme Court Interpretation of the Constitution's Distribution of Authority
Constitution's vague language continues to spark dispute over the national government's powers McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) established the use of the implied powers to expand the national government's enumerated authority
Judicial Competence
Constitutionally, federal judges are not required to have a law degree, nor do Supreme Court justices need to have prior judicial experience Today, a law degree is expected, and judicial experience has also become a means to assess the competence of judicial nominees Since 1953, more than two-thirds of Supreme Court nominees have been sitting judges Also, presidents and senators look for candidates who evidence professional and personal integrity, and solid oral and written communication skills
The Third Party System: The Republicans' Rise to Power, 1860-1896 (
"Party of Lincoln" enjoyed decades of support from newly franchised African American voters Political machines came to dominate the big-city political landscape during this period Both corrupt and useful Each headed by a boss whose power rested on patronage Patronage system rewarded political machine supporters with jobs and government contracts
Immigration and Other Civil Rights Issues
1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act Some employers refuse to hire some legal job applicants because they look or sound Latino About 11 million undocumented immigrants are in the United States Various approaches to address illegal immigration States try to legislate immigration Some aspects of these laws have been found constitutional, and others have been found unconstitutional
Early Struggles of Mexican Americans
1846, U.S. declared war on Mexico 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo Formation of the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC) in 1929 Mendez v. Westminster (1945) struck down segregated schools in California
Circumventing the Rules: 527s and 501(c)4s (2)
501(c)4s are nonprofit organizations exclusively operated for the promotion of "social welfare," including lobbying or engaging in political campaigning (quotes added) These nonprofits go largely unregulated by the Federal Election Commission, and their activities are not subject to the transparency requirements that regulated entities are
Number of Local Govs
89,400
Political Party Affiliation by Religiosity
A large proportion—at 49 percent, nearly a majority—of highly religious people are Republicans or lean Republican in voting. Among the moderately religious, Democrats held sway with 44 percent leaning Democrat and 38 percent leaning Republican. Among the nonreligious, 52 percent identify themselves as Democratic leaners, while 29 percent of the nonreligious identify as leaning Republican.
The First Wave of the Women's Rights Movement
Advocates for women's civil rights began their efforts in the mid-1800s, initially focusing on suffrage First wave of the movement began with the segregation of women delegates at the 1840 World Anti-Slavery Conference in London Seneca Falls 1848 Declaration of Sentiments Insisted "that [women] have immediate admission to all rights and privileges which belong to them as citizens of these United States" State-level rights cases: Bradwell case (1873) Minor v. Happersett (1875)
How Affirmative Action Works
Affirmative action requires that an organization make intentional efforts to diversify its workforce by providing equal opportunity to classes of people that have been historically, and in many cases are still today, subject to discrimination In the 1970s, institutions of higher education began to adopt intentional efforts to expand educational opportunities for both men and women from various minority groups
Race and Ethnicity (2)
African American youth are the most politically engaged racial or ethnic group Asian Americans are more likely to have been active in their communities Young Latinos are the least likely to be active in politics or their communities, but they are most likely to have engaged in political protests Young white people are moderately likely to engage in community and political activities
The Growth of PACs
After Buckley v. Valeo in 1976, the number of political action committees shot up dramatically Ballooning of the number of PACs over time is indicative of the increased power that PACs have wielded in campaigns for federal office since 1980 In light of the Citizens United decision, many campaign finance analysts predict PACs will continue to increase in numbers and in influence
Considering Legal Briefs and Oral Arguments (2)
After the justices have listened to the oral arguments in the case, they meet in conference to deliberate and ultimately vote on the case Who writes the court's opinion rests with either the chief justice, if he or she sided with majority, or with the senior justice who sided with the majority
Ideologically Oriented Parties
Agenda of an ideologically oriented party is typically broader than that of an issue-oriented party Examples of ideologically oriented parties: Libertarian Party Socialist Party
The Third Wave of the Women's Rights Movement
Although the first two waves advocated for formal equality or identical legal treatment to that of men, by the 1990s, feminists realized that a good deal still needed to be done to realize these goals in practice Third-wave feminism recognizes that women have unequal access to legal rights owing to differences in race, class, ethnicity, and religion Intersectionality: the experience of multiple forms of oppression simultaneously
The Impact of Third Parties
Although third parties usually do not win elections, they can influence electoral outcomes Some believe that in the 2000 presidential race, the Green Party candidate Ralph Nader cost Al Gore the election Third parties provide: A release valve for dissatisfied voters A means to bring national attention to variety of issues Third parties sometimes fold when their central ideology is co-opted by an existing major party
New Ideologies, New Technologies: The Parties in the Twenty-First Century
American political parties have changed dramatically in recent years Global events such as the end of the Cold War, international and domestic terrorism, a multifront war, and the impact of the Internet and cellular technologies have partly driven the changes
Geographic Region
Among the most important regional differences in the United States is the difference in political outlook between Northeast and the South These differences date from English colonial times Immigration patterns greatly shaped them Democrats are favored in the Northeast, on the West Coast, and in most major cities. Republicans are favored in the South, the West except the coast, and most of the Midwest Religiosity also contributes to differences in regional political climate
National Sovereignty
Article I (section 8) of the Constitution enumerates (lists) the matters over which Congress holds the authority to make laws—enumerated powers Constitution also gives Congress implied powers—that is, powers that are not explicitly described but that may be interpreted to be necessary to fulfill the enumerated powers Congress specifically receives implied powers through the Constitution's necessary and proper clause (or elastic clause)
Formal Eligibility Requirements
Article I of the U.S. Constitution specifies some minimum criteria to be a federal office holder President: natural born citizen, 35 years old, resident of the U.S. for 14 years Vice president: natural born citizen, 35 years old, must not be resident of the same state as the president U.S. senator: citizen for at least 9 years, 30 years old, and resident of the state U.S. representative: citizen for at least 7 years, 25 years old, and resident of the state
Checks and Balances (on the federal courts)
Article II of the Constitution explicitly gives the legislative and executive branches crucial checks on the structure of the courts Congress: Power to create all federal courts other than the Supreme Court Controls the Supreme Court's jurisdiction Sets the size of the judiciary including the Supreme Court Power to impeach federal judges President and the U.S. Senate determine who sits on all federal courts
The Senate's Role: Judicial Confirmation
Article II of the Constitution gives the president the authority, with the advice and consent of the Senate, to appoint federal judges Senate Judiciary Committee plays a key role Senatorial courtesy: if a senator from the nominee's home state opposes a nominee (in the action of submitting a "blue slip"), the senate will not confirm the nominee (in 2017, Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell is reviewing this) Today, senatorial courtesy is used in the selection of district court and courts of appeals judges
Executive Orders
Article II, Section 1, of the U.S. Constitution states that "the executive power shall be vested in [the] president of the United States" This power has been interpreted as allowing the president to issue orders that create and guide the bureaucracy in implementing policy
The Federal Court System
Article III of the Constitution states that "Judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one supreme Court and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish" Congressional legislation established the inferior courts and special courts with distinctive jurisdiction
Jurisdiction of Federal Courts
Article III, Section 2, of the Constitution strictly defines federal court jurisdiction Federal courts are empowered to hear cases involving a federal question or diversity of citizenship Federal question: a question of law based on interpretation of the U.S. Constitution, federal laws, or treaties Diversity of citizenship: the parties in the case are individuals from different states; or the case involves a U.S. citizen and a foreign government
The Government's Response to the Civil Rights Movement
As a result of the civil rights movement, Congress passed the 1965 Voting Rights Act, as well as the 1964 Civil Rights Act and the 1968 Civil Rights Act
Schools, Patriotism, and Civic Participation
As early as preschool, children in the United States are socialized to believe in democracy and express patriotism Schools socialize children to the concept of democracy by making the idea tangible for them Research indicates that higher levels of education are associated with higher levels of political activism, which is passed through generations
Citizens of Asian Descent
Asian Americans are from a number of different countries and diverse cultures, religions, histories, and languages Like other non-white groups, Asian Americans have had to fight continually for their civil rights Civil rights groups formed to take up the cause Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952
Election Laws That Favor the Two-Party System
At both the federal and the state level in the United States, election laws benefit the two major parties because they are usually written by members of one or both of those parties Third parties have a much steeper climb to get their candidates in office—sometimes, just getting a candidate's name on the ballot is a serious challenge
Third Parties Help the Out-of-Power Party
At the national level, third parties were a release valve for discontented voters in several elections.
Opposition to Affirmative Action
Bakke v. University of California (1978) University of Michigan cases of 2003 School's goal of creating a diverse student body serves a compelling public interest Supreme Court decisions: 2007: school districts cannot assign students to schools solely to enhance diversity Fisher v. the University of Texas (2016): Race can be considered as one factor among many in admissions
Independent Expenditures
Because expenditures are protected from limitations, many PACs now use independent expenditures to spend unlimited sums for or against political candidates Independent expenditures are outlays, typically for advertisements supporting or opposing a candidate, that are "uncoordinated" with a candidate's campaign. (I added the quotes.)
Issue Advocacy Parties
Because they are formed to promote a stance on a particular issue, many issue advocacy parties are short-lived Once the issue is dealt with or fades from popular concern, the mobilizing force behind the party disintegrates
Income—A Reliable Predictor of Voting
Besides education, income is one of the best predictors of whether an American will vote Typically, in recent presidential election years, U.S. citizens with the lowest income level have had voter turnout levels of 50-60 percent, whereas those with the highest income level have had turnout levels above 85 percent
Block Grants
Block grants consist of money granted by the national government to states or localities for broadly defined policy areas, with fewer strings than categorical grants, and in amounts based on complicated formulas
State Parties
Both national parties have committees in each state that effectively are the party in that state State committees act as intermediaries between the national committees and county committees Typically, state committees are made up of a few members from each geographical subdivision of a given state Soft money loophole in campaign finance law was created by the ruling in Buckley v. Valeo (1976) Political parties can raise unlimited funds for party-building activities such as voter registration drives and get-out-the-vote efforts
State Sovereignty
Broad set of powers are reserved to the states Tenth Amendment's reserved powers clause acknowledges domestic matters under the state's authority Powers to protect the health, safety, lives, and property of citizens are referred to as police powers Certain powers are delegated to the states State powers enumerated in the Constitution give the states a distinct voice in the composition and priorities of the national government
Constitutional Distribution of Authority
By distributing some authority to the national government and different authority to the state governments, the Constitution creates the dual sovereignty (recalling the "two-tier system of governance" in the colonial period) that defines the U.S. federal system To fulfill their responsibilities to their citizens, both the national and the state governments have the authority to engage in the functions inherent to all sovereign governments
What Political Parties Do (2)
By serving as a training ground for members, political parties also foster effective government Political parties promote civic responsibility among elected officials and give voters an important "check" on those elected officials Responsible party model: posits that a party tries to give voters a clear choice by establishing priorities or policy stances different from those of the rival party or parties
Centralized Federalism
By the time of Lyndon Johnson's presidency (1963-1969), a new kind of federalism emerged In centralized federalism, directives in national legislation force state and local governments to implement a particular national policy Presidents since Richard Nixon (1969-1974) have fought against this centralizing tendency Devolution refers to the return of policy responsibilities to state and local governments
The Nature of Political Campaigns Today
Campaigns today are different from the campaigns of the 1980s or even the early 1990s Main reasons for the changes are the professionalization of campaign staffs, the dramatically expanded role of the media and the Internet, and the changing nature of campaign finance
Decision Making on the Supreme Court
Cases on the U.S. Supreme Court's docket may come via the Court's original jurisdiction; or via applications for review by appeal or writ of certiorari from federal and state courts (justices use the Rule of Four to determine their docket). Briefs submitted by both sides; amicus curiae briefs filed by interested parties Oral arguments presented by attorneys for each side Justices' conference: cases discussed; nonbinding votes taken; opinion writing assigned Justices' opinions drafted and circulated for comment Court's final decision announced
The Chicano Movement
Chicano Movement was composed of Latino organizations focusing on many issues, including equal employment and educational opportunities Cesar Chavez and the United Farm Workers (UFW) Corpus Christi Independent School District v. Cisneros (1971)
Participating in Civic Life
Children whose parents are active in politics or in their community are more likely to be active themselves Schools also play an important role in socializing young people to become active in civic life Research indicates that socialization actually generates participation There is a strong link between being informed and the likelihood of engaging in civic participation
The Court Weighs In (Again): The Birth of Super PACs
Citizens United v. FEC (2010) Supreme Court ruled that corporations and labor unions are entitled to the same free speech rights that individuals enjoy Citizens United had an impact in the 2016 presidential campaign During the primary season alone, more than 2,200 super PACs had organized and raised more than $700 million Pro-Hillary Clinton super PAC, Priorities USA Action, spent nearly $150 million Pro-Donald Trump super PAC, Make America Number 1, spent nearly $20 million
Constitutional Amendments and the Evolution of Federalism
Civil War and the Fourteenth Amendment Thirteenth Amendment brought the legal end of slavery in every state Fourteenth Amendment extended the rights of citizenship to individuals who were previously enslaved, and also placed "due process" and "equal protection" limits and obligations on states Sixteenth Amendment enhanced the ability of the national government to raise money (viz. the creation of the IRS) Seventeenth Amendment provided for the direct election of U.S. senators
Civil Law and Trials
Civil law is the body of law dealing with private rights and obligations that are established by voluntary agreements, statutes, constitutions, or common law When the harm is to a person's body or property and is caused by another person's negligence or other wrongful act, other than the violation of a contract, it is known as a tort Standard of proof: the preponderance of evidence— it is more likely than not that the accused caused the harm claimed by the complainant
Party Competitiveness and Voter Turnout
Close races usually bring a higher voter turnout Voter efficacy is higher: one vote could make the difference Close races usually bring more media attention 2012 presidential election turnout rates were highest in states were the race was closest Turnout rate: the proportion of eligible voters who actually voted
Judicial Decisions: Common Law
Common law is judge-made law grounded in tradition and previous judicial decisions Stare decisis directs judges to identify previously decided cases with similar facts and then apply the rule of law used by the courts in the earlier cases Judges have the discretion to ignore a precedent if there are contradictory precedents or if they believe the earlier decision was wrong Previous cases with similar facts identified by judges are precedent cases
Cooperative Federalism
Cooperative federalism is a relationship between the national and state governments whereby the two levels of government work together to address domestic matters reserved to the states, driven by the policy priorities of the states Era began during the Depression Grants-in-aid—transfers of money from one level of government to another that need not be paid back (also known as intergovernmental transfers)—became a main mechanism of President Roosevelt's New Deal programs
County and Local Parties
County committees consist of members of municipal, ward, and precinct party committees County committees help recruit candidates for office, raise campaign funds, and mobilize voters In most major cities, ward committees and precinct committees dominate party politics
Public Accountability
Court rarely issues a decision that is completely out of step with the thinking of the majority of the population Rulings too far from public opinion risk being ignored Courts have little ability to enforce their decisions and must rely on the other branches, where the people have great influence
Judges as Policymakers
Courts make law—common law—by deciding cases and establishing legal principles that guide future litigants and judges Lawmaking function of courts ensures that judges have a powerful role as public policy makers, because the decisions they make profoundly affect not only the parties in the case but also society, the economy, and politics
Criminal Law and Trials
Criminal law is the body of law dealing with conduct considered so harmful to society as a whole, even when directed against an individual, that it is prohibited by statute Standard of proof in a criminal case is beyond a reasonable doubt: there is no reasonable doubt that the defendant committed the crime
How Americans Vote Varies Greatly from State to State
DRE = Direct Recording Electronic Voting Machines; VVPAT = Voter Verified Paper Audit Trail Printers; BMD = Ballot-Marking Device or System.
How the U.S. Supreme Court Functions
Decision making on the Court is a multistep process that provides many opportunities for conflict and compromise As a collegial court, meaning made up of a panel of justices who must evaluate a case together and decide by majority vote the outcome, the Supreme Court justices must work together as they navigate the process (less true in 2017)
Differences Between Democrats and Republicans
Democratic agenda includes civil rights, social welfare programs, gay rights, environmental protection, and freedom of choice with regard to abortion Republican agenda includes smaller government, fewer social welfare functions, pro-life and pro-business policies, and traditional moral values Both parties agree on the importance of managing the immigration system; keeping the country safe from terrorism; and responding to natural disasters
Representation of Demographic Groups
Descriptive representation: including representatives of major demographic groups in proportions similar to the population at large Substantive representation: serving the concerns of the racial, ethnic, gender, or other group to which he or she belongs Symbolic representation: the idea that the Court should mirror the contours of our national demographic profile, indicating equal opportunity to all
Political Participation: Engaging Individuals, Shaping Politics
Elections, campaigns, and voting are fundamental aspects of civic engagement These activities represent concentrated forms of civic engagement and are important both for the polity as a whole and for the individuals who participate Elections offer a wealth of opportunities for citizen involvement including GOTV (get out the vote) drives
Geographic Boundaries of Federal District Courts and Circuit Courts of Appeals
District courts are "lower" and have the responsibility for holding trials, while circuit courts are appellate courts that do not hold trials but only hear appeals for cases decided by the lower court. The district court system is spread over 94 different geographical areas while the circuit court has 13 administrative regions covering the United States. Several different district courts may fall under the same appellate (circuit) cour
Divided Government
Divided government: when one party controls both houses of Congress and the other party, the presidency Barack Obama, George W. Bush, and Bill Clinton all faced a divided government at some point in their presidencies Truncated government: when one party controls only one house of Congress and the presidency
The Party System Today: In Decline, in Resurgence, or a Post-Party Era?
Do the various historical changes to the U.S. political party system signify an end to party control in American politics? Can political parties adapt and find new sources of power?
A New Party System?
Donald Trump's election in 2016 raises the question as to whether a new party system is emerging Support for the idea: Six Republican presidents since 1968 Southern whites switching from Democrat to Republican Conservative Christians active in Republican politics Additional characteristics of this possible new party system, according to scholars, include intense party competition and divided government
Dual Federalism
Dual Federalism refers to a relationship between the national and state governments whereby the two levels of government functioned independently of each other to address their distinct constitutional responsibilities Dominant between 1789 and 1932
The Fourth Party System: Republican Dominance, 1896-1932
Election of 1896 ushered in an era of Republican dominance that would last until the election of 1912 In the 1912 presidential election Theodore Roosevelt ran as a Progressive Republican vote split between Taft and Roosevelt and gave Democrat Woodrow Wilson the presidency Many of the Progressives' reforms were enacted during Wilson's presidency After Wilson's two terms, the Republicans retained control of the presidency throughout the 1920
The Gender Gap in the 2016 Election
In 2016, the gender gap was particularly apparent, with Hillary Clinton, the Democratic nominee, garnering a sizable majority of women's votes.
The Fifth Party System: Democratic Dominance, 1932-1968 (2)
Era of the Fifth Party System significantly opened up party politics and civic activity to more Americans FDR's elections marked the first time that women and African Americans were courted by political parties Eisenhower was the sole republican president of the era Democrats won the White House in 1960 and 1964, but events of the decade wreaked havoc on the party Vietnam War Civil rights for African Americans
National Parties
Every four years, political party activists meet at a national convention to determine their party's nominee for the presidency National party committees are the national party organizations charged with conducting the conventions and overseeing the operation of the national party during the interim between conventions
Elections in the United States
Every state holds at least two types of elections Primary election comes first and determines the party's nominees—those who will run for office Some states hold caucuses—meetings of party members where the delegates are chosen In a general election, the parties' respective nominees run against each other, and voters decide who should hold office, since the person with the most votes wins
Dual Court System
Existence of both a federal court system and 50 independently functioning state court systems defines the dual court system that exists in the United States If a state court case raises questions about federal laws, the case may be brought to a federal appeals court—after the state court of last resort (usually state of federal Supreme Court), the highest court in the state's court system, has an opportunity to hear the case
The Process of Political Socialization
Family and school have the strongest influence on political socialization In recent times, media have also become one of the prime agents of political socialization
Early Efforts to Regulate Campaign Finance
Federal Corrupt Practices Act of 1925 Hatch Act of 1939 Banned partisan political activities by all federal government employees Exceptions for the president, the vice president, and Senate-confirmed political appointees Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA) of 1971 Considerable limitations placed on campaign contributions and expenditures
The Structure of the Federal Courts
Federal court system is an Article III, three-tiered hierarchical system U.S. Supreme Court U.S. courts of appeals U.S. district courts, which are trial courts with original jurisdiction over a case
Political Ideology
Federal judges typically serve far beyond the tenure of the presidents who appoint them Mindful of this fact, presidents nominate judges—and more significantly, Supreme Court justices—with whom they are ideologically compatible These appointments help presidents cement their political and ideological legacies well into the future
The Second Wave of the Women's Rights Movement (2)
Federal legislation: Equal Pay Act (1963) Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act Title IX of 1972 Amendment to the 1964 Civil Rights Act Women's rights and the equal protection clause: Reed v. Reed (1971) Craig v. Boren (1976) United States v. Virginia (1996)
Evolution of Intergovernmental Relations in the Federal System
Federal system established by the Constitution has evolved from a simple system of dual federalism to a complex system of intergovernmental relations characterized by conflicted federalism
US Federal System
Federal system has two constitutionally recognized levels of government, each with sovereignty over different policy matters and geographic areas Sovereignty meaning ultimate governing authority, with no legal superior American colonists' experience with a unitary system, and subsequently the early U.S. citizens' life under a confederal system (1781-1788), led to the creation of the innovative federal system
Major Factors in Voter Decision Making
First and foremost, an issue must be salient to voters—that is, it must resonate with them and reflect something that they care deeply about Incumbent—the person already holding the office—is a "known" commodity and thus more likely to receive a voter's support More than 93 percent of incumbent U.S. senators and 95 percent of incumbent members of the House of Representatives win reelection
Public Opinion About Government
For decades, public opinion researchers have measured the public's trust in government Survey respondents are asked to rate their level of trust in the federal government's ability to handle domestic and international policy matters and to gauge their amount of trust and confidence in the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government
Appointing Federal Judges
Framers wanted to ensure judicial independence (see Marbury v. Madison) so that federal judges could make impartial decisions To that end, Article III protects seated judges "[S]hall hold their offices during good behavior" "[S]hall at stated times, receive for their services, a compensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office" Article II establishes the president's authority to appoint, with the advice and consent of the Senate, Supreme Court justices and other federal officers
The Fifth Party System: Democratic Dominance, 1932-1968
Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) was elected president in 1932 His New Deal was a broad program in which the government would bear the responsibility of providing a "safety net" to protect the most disadvantaged members of society He was supported by a New Deal coalition Southern Democrats, northern city dwellers, Catholics, unionized and blue-collar workers, African Americans, and women
Peers and Group Norms
Friends, neighbors, coworkers, and other peers influence political socialization Research indicates that the primary function of peers is to reinforce our already-held beliefs and values
Voter Fatigue and Negative Campaigns
In the United States, campaigns tend to be long-drawn-out affairs Some scholars say that the lengthiness of the campaigns leads to voter fatigue
Gender
Gender gap: the measurable difference in the way women and men vote for candidates and in the way they view political issues Since the 1980 election, women voters are more likely than men to favor Democratic candidates Women in most age groups—except those under age 25—are more likely to vote than their male counterparts Women's and men's opinions also differ on public policy, although often in unexpected ways
Age and Events
Generational effect: the influence of a significant external event in shaping the views of a generation 9/11 for younger Americans Vietnam War and the societal changes of the 1960s for the Baby Boom generation Great Depression and World War II for the oldest Americans
What Political Parties Do
Grassroots organizing: tasks that involve direct contact with voters or potential voters Parties provide a structure for citizens to: Volunteer on party-run campaigns Make campaign contributions Work in the day-to-day operations of the party Run for office Parties foster cooperation between divided interests and factions, and building coalitions
Impact of the Civil Rights Movement
Had a momentous impact on society by working for the laws and rulings that bar discrimination in employment, public accommodations, education, and housing Also had a profound impact on voting rights by establishing the principle that the laws governing voter registration and participation should ensure individuals are permitted to vote regardless of race Mississippi registration rates for African Americans went from 7 percent in 1965 to 90 percent in 2012
The Dualist Nature of Most Conflicts
Historically, many issues in the United States have been dualist, or "two-sided" Political scientists Seymour Martin Lipset and Stein Rokkan asserted that the dualist nature of voter alignments or cleavages shapes how political parties form
Categorical Grants
Historically, the most common type of grant-in-aid has been the categorical formula grant This is a grant of money from the federal government to state and local governments for a narrow purpose, as defined by the federal government Since the 1960s, the national government has also offered categorical project grants State and local governments compete for these grants by proposing specific projects they wish to implement and what level of funding they need
The Wage Gap, by Gender and Race
If white, non-Hispanic men are at 100 percent, then white non-Hispanic women are at 75 percent, African American men at 73 percent, African American women at 60 percent, Hispanic men at 62 percent, and Hispanic women at 55 percent. How do these data demonstrate the intersectionality discussed by Third Wave Feminists?
Contemporary Issues for Asian Americans
Immigration waves from Asia in the 1960s and 1980s brought different focuses to their communities In the 1960s: civil rights In the 1980s: voting rights, hate crimes, and employment discrimination With the exception of Korean Americans and Vietnamese Americans, Asian Americans have the highest median income compared with the population as a whole Like women, Asian Americans hit a glass ceiling
The First Party System: The Development of Parties, 1789-1828
In 1788, George Washington was elected president, but consensus surrounding his election was short-lived Alexander Hamilton and the loosely-knit Federalist Party favored a strong national government Jefferson and his backers who feared a strong national government were in opposition
The Origins of Public Opinion Polls (2)
In 1935, George Gallup founded the American Institute of Public Opinion, which would later become the Gallup Organization Gallup gained national recognition when he correctly predicted the outcome of the 1936 election Scientific opinion polls, which rely on the random selection of participants rather than their own self-selection, gained enormous credibility during this era
The Power to Provide for the General Welfare
In 1937, the Supreme Court had to decide if Social Security was a matter of general welfare for which Congress is delegated the authority to raise and spend money; or was Social Security a matter for the state governments to address? Court found the national policy (of Social Security) to be constitutional—a reasonable congressional interpretation, the justices wrote, of the enumerated and implied powers of the national government.
The End of Separate But Equal
In 1954 the Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka that segregated schools violate the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment
Early Efforts to Regulate Campaign Finance (2)
In 1974, FECA was amended More stringent limitations on individual contribution Limit on expenditures by PACs Revamped the presidential election process by restricting spending and providing public financing option Required public disclosure of contributions and expenditures by all candidates for federal office Most importantly, the act created an enforcement mechanism in the Federal Election Commission
Partisan Control of State Legislatures, 2016
In 2016 the Republican Party held sway in the majority of states. The Democratic Party held the West Coast, Hawaii, and New Mexico, along with Illinois, Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. Control was split in Colorado, New York, and Maine.
The Most Important Problem
In 2016, 27 percent of Americans cited economic issues as the most important problem Among non-economic issues: Race relations and racism, 18 percent Dissatisfaction with government, 16 percent Other problems Americans identify as important include ethics, immigration, and national security
State-to-State Obligations: Horizontal Federalism
In Article IV, the Constitution sets forth obligations that the states have to one another Collectively, these state-to-state obligations and the relationships they mandate are forms of horizontal federalism Interstate compacts Extradition Privileges and immunities Full faith and credit clause
The Court Weighs In: Money = Speech
In Buckley v. Valeo (1976), the Supreme Court ruled that an individual could spend as much of their wealth they wished on their own campaign Ruling paved the way for the subsequent explosion in the formation of PACs Recognized political expenditures as protected speech
Methods of Voting in the States
In Colorado, Oregon and Washington State, all voters are sent mail ballots automatically. In 34 states plus the District of Columbia, any registered voter can cast a ballot in person during a designated period before Election Day.
Confederal System
In a confederal system, several independent sovereign governments agree to cooperate on specified matters while each retains ultimate authority over all other governmental matters within its borders Cooperating sovereign governments delegate some responsibilities to a central governing body Sovereign governments retain ultimate authority
Difference between the three systems
In a unitary system, the sovereign central government creates, delegates power to, and can eliminate regional governments, which are not sovereign governments. In a confederal system, the sovereign regional governments create, delegate power to, and can eliminate the central government, which is not a sovereign government. In a federal system, the people create a sovereign central government as well as sovereign regional governments. Each of the two levels of sovereign governments (central and regional) is sovereign over different matters. Thus, dual sovereignty defines the federal system of government.
Types of Primary Elections
In an open primary election any registered voter can vote in any party's primary, as can independent voters not registered with a party In a closed primary election, voting in a party's primary is limited to members of that party
Trials versus Appeals
In more serious criminal trials, the defendant usually has the choice between a jury trial and a bench trial Jury trial: a group of citizens determines guilt or liability based on the evidence and testimony Bench trial: a judge determines guilt or liability based on the evidence and testimony Appellate cases involve briefs by lawyers and an examination of trial transcripts Cases are decided by majority vote of the judge panel hearing the case
Presidential Campaigns
In presidential election years, nonstop campaigning affords ample opportunities for the public to learn about the candidates and their positions Campaigns also provide avenues for participation by the people
Are Political Parties Today in Crisis? (2)
In recent years, both parties have struggled to win the approval of the American people Increased polarization One-party dominance in districts facilitates the election of extremely ideological candidates Tea Party movement and the Republican Party 2015 resignation of the moderate Republican Speaker of the House of Representatives, Rep. John Boehner Donald Trump became president with the election of 2016
The Third Party System: The Republicans' Rise to Power, 1860-1896
In the 1850s, slavery became the primary concern for both the Whigs and the Democrats New antislavery party, the Republicans, formed in 1854 and gained the support of abolitionist Whigs and northern Democrats Lincoln's victory in the election of 1860 began a period of dominance for the antislavery Republicans
Affirmative Action: Is It Constitutional?
In the 1960s the federal government began implementing policies aimed at reinforcing equal access to employment by mandating recruitment procedures that actively sought to identify qualified minority men for government positions This policy of affirmative action was extended to women in employment and then to educational opportunities
The 2000 Election and Its Impact
In the 2000 presidential election between Democrat Al Gore and Republican George W. Bush, enormous controversy erupted over the voting in Florida In the end, the U.S. Supreme Court had the final say Changes were made in federal policy regarding the conduct of elections by the states Key revision came through passage of the Help America Vote Act of 2002 (HAVA) HAVA allocated $650 million to assist states in changing from punch card ballots to electronic voting systems and set a deadline of 2005 for states to comply
Administrative Rules and Regulations: Administrative Law
In the lawmaking process known as administrative rule making, bureaucrats use their administrative discretion to establish specific rules, regulations, and standards necessary for the effective and efficient implementation of policy Rules, regulations, and standards made by bureaucrats through administrative rule making have the force of law
Choosing Cases for Review
In the vast majority of cases, the Supreme Court is reviewing a decision made by a lower court rather than exercising original jurisdiction Approximately 10,000 certiorari petitions are filed with the Court each year, each asking for case review Each certiorari petition is reviewed by a law clerk, and he or she writes a cert memo with pertinent information and a recommendation for hearing the case Ultimately, the justices agree to review about 80 cases
Voting Rights Act of 1965
In the voter registration drive of 1964, two hundred and fifty thousand new voters registered Violent attacks on civil rights activists and citizens took place Congress passed the Voting Rights Act of 1965 Banned unfair voter registration practices Changes in some voting procedures required pre-approval from the Justice Department Shelby v. Alabama (2013) eliminated some protections provided by the VRA
Public Opinion About Government (2)
Individual officeholders can use the data as a measure of how well they are performing their jobs Trust in government is one measure of the public's belief that the government is working for them If people trust their government, they are more likely to believe that it is responsive to citizens' needs Trust peaked just after 9/11 but sank as conflicts continued Faith in Obama's ability to handle international problems increased leading up to the 2012 election but declined after an early bungled response to ISIS
Education Level—the Number One Predictor of Voting
Individual's level of education is the best predictor of whether that person will vote As education increases, so too does the likelihood of voting, with measurable differences even between those who have only attended college and those who have graduated
The Second Party System: The Democrats' Rise to Power, 1828-1860
Jacksonian Democrats espoused populism and the spoils system Populism succeeded in mobilizing the masses and taking Jackson to presidential victory in 1828 Jackson rewarded his political supporters with jobs (spoils) Economic elites founded the Whig Party in 1836 Represented the interests of southern plantation owners and northern industrialists against populism Second party system saw the politicization of a previously excluded mass of citizens
The First Party System: The Development of Parties, 1789-1828 (2)
Jefferson's triumph in the election of 1800 marked the end of the Federalist Party Jefferson's supporters became known as Jeffersonian Republicans; later, Democratic-Republicans The modern descendants of the Democratic-Republicans today are called Democrats Era of Good Feelings (1815-1828) saw widespread popular support for Democratic-Republican presidents James Madison, James Monroe, and John Quincy Adams
The Supreme Court Today: The Roberts Court
John G. Roberts became chief justice in 2005 Since the appointments of Clarence Thomas and Samuel Alito, the Court's ideological distribution has tilted more conservative With the death of Associate Justice Antonin Scalia in February 2016, the legacy of the Roberts Court will depend on Scalia's replacement (in 2017, Justice Neil Gorsuch, a staunch conservative)
Constraints on Judicial Policy Making
Judges and justices face checks and constraints that limit how they decide cases, make law, and act as policymakers They are checked or otherwise constrained by other branches of government, lawyers, interest groups, and individual citizens
Judicial Activism versus Judicial Restraint
Judicial activism refers to the courts' willingness to strike down laws made by elected officials, as well as to step away from past precedents Judicial restraint is the belief that the judiciary should not check the power of the democratically elected executive and legislative branches unless their actions clearly violate the Constitution
Judicial Federalism
Judicial federalism: state courts' use of their state constitutions to determine citizens' rights, particularly when state constitutions guarantee greater protections than does the U.S. Constitution Practice began in the 1970s
Judicial Review
Judicial review: Supreme Court's authority to determine that an action taken by any government official or governing body violates or does not violate the Constitution Marbury v. Madison (1803) established the principle of judicial review for the U.S. Supreme Court Today, all courts in the United States, federal and state, have judicial review authority
Resolving the Legal Dispute: Deciding How to Vote
Judicial scholars offer three decision-making models Legal model focuses on legal norms and principles as the guiding force in judicial decision-making Those following the attitudinal model follow their policy and ideological preferences when deciding cases According to the strategic model, "while justices' decisions are primarily motivated by policy concerns, institutional constraints exist that limit the ability of the justices to vote in a manner that is compatible with their attitudes and values in every case"
Legal Reasoning: Writing the Opinion
Justice assigned the majority opinion will circulate a draft and revise it based on others' opinions to strengthen it and its support Concurring opinions agree with how the majority opinion decides the case but disagree with at least some of the legal arguments or conclusions reached in the majority opinion Dissenting opinions not only disagree with these arguments and conclusions but also reject the underlying decision in the case
Sampling Error
Key to accurate opinion polls is having a sample that accurately reflects the population To adjust for problems with sampling, polls use a compensatory calculation called a sampling error Sampling error or margin of error is a statistical calculation of the difference in results between a poll of a randomly drawn sample and a poll of the entire population Most polls have a sampling error of plus or minus 3 percentage points
Sources of Law in the United States
Law is a body of rules established by government officials that binds governments, individuals, and nongovernment organizations There is a variety of sources of law in the United States, including constitutions, pieces of legislation, executive orders, rules and regulations made by administrative bodies, and judicial decisions
Internal Constraints
Law schools train lawyers, and hence judges, to focus on the facts of the case when deciding cases Limitations are also imposed by the common-law doctrine of stare decisis Federal court judges do not diverge far from Supreme Court precedent, to avoid being overturned According to judicial scholar Paul Collins, "Judges are concerned with making good law: attempting to determine the most legally appropriate answer to the controversy"
Legislation: Statutes
Laws written by legislatures are called statutes U.S. Code is a compilation of all the laws ever passed by the U.S. Congress, and it reflects that body's priorities and concerns Each state has a penal code, which is a compilation of all its criminal law
Agents of Socialization
Learning, culture, and socialization occur through agents of socialization: the individuals, organizations, and institutions that facilitate the acquisition of political views
Circumventing the Rules: 527s and 501(c)4s
Loopholes in the campaign finance law became apparent with the emergence of new forms of political groups, so-called 527s and 501(c)4s Named after the sections of the Internal Revenue Service tax code that regulate such organizations 527 is a tax-exempt group that raises money for political activities, much like those allowed under the soft money loophole
Nominations and Primary Elections (2)
Major U.S. parties made reforms to the earlier delegate-selection process after the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago Reforms, many of which both the Democratic Party and the Republican Party adopted, significantly increased the influence of party voters
Federal System for Citizens
Majority of U.S. citizens live under the jurisdiction of at least five governments: national, state, county, municipal or township, and school district Each of these governments can impose responsibilities on the people living in its jurisdiction For example, taxes Each government can also guarantee personal liberties and rights
Unitary System
Majority of world's nations, including Great Britain, have unitary systems, in which the central government is the sovereign Central government can also unilaterally take away any responsibilities it has delegated to the regional governments it creates and can even eliminate the regional governments
Concurrent Powers of National and State Governments
Make policy Raise & spend money Borrow money Implement policy Charter banks and corporations Establish courts Take private property for public use (eminent domain)
Mandates
Mandates are portions of federal laws that require state and local governments to do something Funded mandate: the national government pays the entire cost Unfunded mandate: state and local governments must pay all or part of the cost
Lack of Efficacy
Many people do not believe that the government listens to people like them or that their vote actually matters Poorer people are more likely than better-off individuals to feel that the government does not listen to people like them
From Judicial Review to Judicial Policy Making
Marbury v. Madison (1803) Plessey v. Ferguson (1896) Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954) Because of their policy-making role, judges participate in a larger political discourse that goes far beyond the concerns of individual litigants
Local Organizing and the Strategies of Civil Disobedience
Martin Luther King, Jr., advocated protesting government-sanctioned discrimination through civil disobedience and peaceful demonstrations, boycotts, and marches Other groups, including the SNCC and CORE, advocated voter registration drives and sit-ins Coalition of Federated Organizations' 1964 Summer Project Voting Rights Act was passed in 1965 April 4, 1968, Martin Luther King, Jr., was assassinated
The Consequences of Nonvoting
Nonvoting is both a symptom and a result of a lack of civic involvement on the part of individuals When relatively few people vote in a given election, the outcome is likely to represent the will of only that subset of the electorate who voted There is a great deal of debate about nonvoting's cause and effect Some assert that democracies with low voter turnout are more likely to generate threats to their own well-being Others claim that low voting rates mean that the people are satisfied with the status quo
Who Votes? Factors in Voter Participation
Not all people are equally likely to participate in the voting process to select government officials Voting predictors: Education level—the number one predictor Age Race and ethnicity Income Party competitiveness and voter turnout
A Post-Party Era?
Notable characteristics of a new party system: Dealignment: voters identifying as independent Ticket splitting: voting for candidates from two or more different parties Candidate-centered politics have grown in importance since 1968 Rise of candidate committees: organizations candidates form to support their individual election
The Professionalism of Political Campaigns
One of the most significant changes in the conduct of campaigns is the rise of the campaign consultant Paid professional who specializes in the overall management of political campaigns or an aspect of campaigns, such as fund-raising or advertising Key campaign professionals include the campaign manager, the pollster, the fundraising consultant, and the media consultant
Third Parties in the United States
One of the most significant obstacles to the formation of a viable third party is that the people who are dissatisfied with the two dominant parties fall across the ideological spectrum In 2016, 78 percent of Independents saw the need for a third party, compared with 47 percent and 45 percent of Democrats and Republicans As a result, third parties have had little success in contesting elections
The Party's Just Begun?
Others disagree that parties' prime has passed According to this view, the parties' ability to rebound is alive and well Scholars argue that continued dominance of two political parties in the United States is likely Scholars also cite the lack of viable alternatives to the two-party system
The Civil Rights Act of 1964
Outlaws arbitrary discrimination in voter registration practices within the states Bans discrimination in public accommodations, including hotels, restaurants, and theaters Prohibits state and local governments from banning access to public facilities on the basis of race, religion, or ethnicity
Changing Both Parties: New Technologies
Parties are increasingly using new technologies and "big data" to target potential supporters Democrats work with NGP VAN Republicans work with Aristotle Companies collect data from different sources, both public and private Voter's age; address; years casting a ballot; organizational membership lists; subscriber lists; customer lists, etc. Political parties increasingly connect with potential supporters via social media, Youtube, and campaign
Parties Today and Their Functions
Parties differ from other political organizations They run candidates under their own label, or affiliation They seek to govern They have broad concerns, focused on many issues They are quasi-public organizations that have a special relationship with the government
Considering Legal Briefs and Oral Arguments
Parties to the lawsuit file briefs with the Court Person or group that is not party to the lawsuit may file amicus curiae brief, or "friend of the court" brief with the Court Bench memo, written by a justice's law clerk, is a summary of the case that may also suggest questions to be asked during oral arguments Oral arguments give the justices the opportunity to ask the parties and their lawyers specific questions about the arguments in their briefs
Continued Socialization to the Two-Party System
Party identification—like ideology, values, and religious beliefs—is an attribute that often passes down from one generation to the next Even children who do not share their parents' political outlook have usually been socialized to the legitimacy of the two-party system
The Party in Government
Party in government: the partisan identification of elected leaders in local, county, state, and national government Party in government significantly influences the organization and running of the government at these various levels
The Party in the Electorate
Party in the electorate: all those who identify with or tend to support a particular party Party identifier: an individual who identifies himself or herself as a member of one party or the other; party identifiers typically are measured by party registration Independent: a voter who does not belong to any organized political party; often used as a synonym for an unaffiliated voter The party in the electorate also includes those individuals who express a tendency to vote for one party or a preference for that party
The Party Organization
Party organization: the formal party apparatus, including committees, headquarters, conventions, party leaders, staff, and volunteer workers Theoretically, parties' organization resembles a pyramid In reality, the national committees exist separately from the committees of the state and local parties Real political power can usually be found at the local or county party level
Political Parties in U.S. History
Party system: the categorization of the number and competitiveness of political parties in a polity Demarcation of party systems typically occurs when social scientists recognize points where there has been realignment, a shift in party allegiances or electoral support
Types of Ballots
Party-column ballot organizes the candidates by party, so that all of a given party's candidates for every office are arranged in one column Increases voters' tendency to vote the "party line" and increases the coattail effect whereby down-ballot candidates benefit from the popularity of the top-of-the-ticket nominee Office-block ballot (Georgia uses this one) arranges all candidates for a particular office under the name of that office These ballots are more likely to encourage ticket splitting—dividing votes between candidates from different parties
Opinion Shapers
Political and community leaders also help to socialize people and influence public opinion President plays an especially important role in shaping Americans' views Often we rely on the recommendations and priorities of well-respected leaders who have earned our trust
Party Conventions and the General Election Campaign
Political parties hold conventions in presidential election years to select their party's nominee for president of the United States Delegates to the national conventions are chosen by citizens in each state who vote in their party's primary election Rarely, there is a contested convention No candidate has won the required number of delegates to win the nomination on the first ballot
How Parties Engage Individuals
Political parties represent one of the main channels through which citizens can make their voices heard Parties today are a fixture in the politics of American communities large and small, accessible to virtually everyone
Are Political Parties Today in Crisis?
Political party: an organization of ideologically similar people that nominates and elects its members to office in order to run the government and shape public policy Parties identify potential candidates, nominate them to run for office, campaign for them, organize elections, and govern Political party seeking to build a broad coalition of diverse individuals is using the big tent principle (not so much in this decade (2010-2017)
Sampling
Pollsters frequently rely on random sampling, a scientific method of selection in which each member of the population has an equal chance at being included in the sample However, there are number of methodological problems in obtaining a truly random sample Population identification Landline to cellular transition Nonresponse rates among cellular users
Religious Institutions: Faith as an Agent of Socialization
Predictor of the impact of religion on voting is not so much the religion an individual practices but how regularly he or she practices it In general, those who regularly attend religious services are more likely to share conservative values—and support Republican candidates in general elections
Why Ballot Design Matters
Presidential election voting in Florida in 2000 provides evidence that not only the voting process but also the design of ballots can make a difference in outcomes In Florida's Palm Beach County, where voters push a button on their voting machine ballot to register their vote, critics charge that the ballot in use, the butterfly ballot, was particularly confusing to voters
Selection Criteria
Presidents seek competent nominees who will win Senate consent In addition, presidents since at least Jimmy Carter have also considered demographic characteristics
Political Socialization and Civic Participation
Process by which we develop our political values and opinions is called political socialization Children absorb the political views of their parents One key aspect of political socialization is whether children are socialized to participate in politics
The Act of Voting
Process of voting begins when a voter registers to vote Voting registration requirements vary greatly from state to state (Here are the requirements for every state and territory in the U.S. The "register by" dates in the list are for 2016, when Election Day was November 8. So, the "register by" date was October 11, the closest Monday to the 30-dat requirement in Georgia.) In the United States, voters use an Australian ballot, a secret ballot prepared by the government, distributed to all eligible voters, and, when balloting is completed, counted by government officials in an unbiased fashion, without corruption or regard to individual preferences
The Second Wave of the Women's Rights Movement (3)
Proposed Equal Rights Amendment (1972) In 1972, Congress approved the ERA, which states that "equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex" Opponents were successful in defeating the ERA, which by the deadline of 1982 had not been ratified by enough states
Measuring Public Opinion
Public opinion consists of the public's expressed views about an issue at a specific point in time One of the most important ways public opinion is measured is through the act of voting Another important tool that policy makers, researchers, and the public rely on as an indicator of public opinion is the public opinion poll: a survey of a given population's opinion on an issue at a particular time
What Americans Think About Politics
Public opinion research is the means by which individuals can convey their opinions and priorities to policy makers Consequently, public opinion polls connect Americans to their government
Trust in Government to Handle International Problems
Public trust in the government's ability to deal with international problems has decreased since 2012. Why do you think this is the case?
Enumerated Powers of National Government
Punish offenses against the laws of the nation Lay and collect taxes for the common defense and the general welfare Coin and regulate money Establish courts inferior to the U.S. Supreme Court Raise and support armies Administer the Capitol district and military bases Declare war Organize, arm, and discipline state militias when called to suppress insurrections and invasions Provide for copyrights for authors and inventors Regulate interstate and foreign commerce Provide, organize, and maintain armed forces Establish standard weights and measures Create naturalization laws Punish the counterfeiting of money Punish piracies and felonies on the seas Develop roads and postal service Admit new states to the union Make treaties
Sampling (2)
Quota sampling is a more scientifically sophisticated method of sampling than random sampling Pollster using this method structures the sample so that it is representative of the characteristics of the target population Another method used to address problems in sampling is stratified sampling National population is divided into fourths, and certain areas within these regions are selected as representative of the national population
The Rational Abstention Thesis
Rational abstention thesis: some individuals decide that the "costs" of voting—in terms of the time, energy, and inconvenience required to register to vote, to become informed about candidates and elections, and actually to vote—are not worth the effort when compared with the expected "benefits," or what the voters could derive from voting in light of these cumulative "costs"
Referendum, Initiative, and Recall
Referendum: an election in which voters in a state can vote for or against a measure proposed by the state legislature Initiative: a citizen-sponsored proposal that can result in new or amended legislation or a state constitutional amendment Proposition: a proposed measure placed on the ballot of an initiative election (this is the name for both referendums and initiatives) Recall election: allows voters to cut short an officeholder's term of office
Republicans Today: How to Cope with the Tea Party
Republican Party faces a battle for the soul of the party Donald Trump His alienation of groups the party was trying to woo Inconsistencies in his policy positions Unhappiness of core Republican constituencies Tea Party, born out of frustration with Washington Six key beliefs: less government; fiscal responsibility; lower taxes; states' rights; national security; border security Sixteen-day shutdown of the federal government took place in 2013
The Second Wave of the Women's Rights Movement
Several factors account for the mobilization of the second wave of the movement in the 1960s: By the 1960s, large numbers of women were working outside the home in the paid labor force Women recognized that as a class of citizens they did not have equal protection of the laws Goal of the new mass activity was equal legal rights for women
Running for Office: The Choice to Run
Several types of motivation are generally in play when a person decides to declare a candidacy Sense of civic responsibility Sense of party loyalty Interest in increasing the candidate's name recognition and stature in the community, often for business reasons Personal goals (politics as a career)
Black Lives Matter
Shooting death of Trayvon Martin in 2012 and acquittal of George Zimmerman galvanized young activists It was the killing of Michael Brown that propelled the creation of the Black Lives Matter movement DOJ found the shooting of Brown to be justified Investigation also found continuous violations of the rights of black citizens in Ferguson, MO, by the local police Protests took place in Ferguson over the violence of the state against its African American citizens
Federal Grants-in-Aid to State and Local Governments (Select Years 1940-2020)
Since the Great Depression, state and local governments have come to depend on federal grants-in-aid. These graphs present data using two measures: the total amount of grants-in-aid provided in billions of constant dollars and the value of grants-in-aid provided as a percentage of total federal government spending. Constant dollars adjust for inflation, thereby removing the effect of price changes (changes in the value of the dollar) over time.
Two-Party Domination in U.S. Politics
Since the ratification of the Constitution in 1787, the United States has had a two-party system for all but about 30 years Third party: a political party organized as opposition or an alternative to the existing parties in a two-party system
The Party's Over?
Some scholars note the declining power of political parties make them essentially impotent Party loyalty has decreased Elimination of political patronage and spoils Government has a greatly increased role in providing social welfare benefits Primary elections: voters, not party bosses, choose candidates Voters now rely on media sources for information Candidate-centered campaigns, where the individual is the focus and not the party slate, have further weakened parties
How Voters Decide
Some voters evaluate candidates on the basis of their positions on issues and then cast their ballots for those who best represent their views Called prospective voting, this method of candidate evaluation focuses on what the candidates will do in the future A more common form of candidate evaluation is retrospective voting, in which a voter evaluates an incumbent candidate on the basis of whether the incumbent's past decisions and actions are satisfactory to the voter
Splinter Parties
Splinter party is a political party that breaks off, or "splinters," from one of the two dominant parties Some view the Tea Party as a splinter party States' Rights Party in 1948 was a splinter party Also known as the Dixiecrat Party Opposed the Democratic Party's support of civil rights for African Americans
Presidential Primaries
States determine the timing of primary elections Historically, states that held their presidential primary earlier in the year had a greater say in determining the nominee than did states with later primaries Super Tuesday is the day in early March on which the most presidential primary elections take place, many of them in southern states
Future of the Movement
Sustainability of individualized movements is questionable Less clearly articulated agenda Pulled different directions with competing policy positions Younger leaders have begun running for office Counter-protests perceive Black Lives Matter as merely a challenge to law enforcement's authority In a historical context, the movement is focusing on the fact that Black Lives Matter, just as others do
The Media's Ever-Increasing Role in Socialization
Television, radio, social media, the Internet, and various forms of electronic entertainment and print media help shape our political perspectives Help shape societal norms and reinforce core democratic values Help to determine the national agenda Educate the public about policy issues
A Battle for the Soul of the Democratic Party Today
Tensions have grown between factions in the Democratic Party Democratic-socialist positions of Senator Bernie Sanders Moderately liberal views of Secretary Hillary Clinton This division has been ongoing since 1992 Bill Clinton shaped a "New Democratic Party" more open to smaller government and globalization Barack Obama's party more closely resembled the mid-20th century party, emphasizing a strong role for government and supporting civil rights of groups marginalized in society
National Obligations to the States
The federal government: must treat states equally in matters of the regulation of commerce and the imposition of taxes. cannot approve the creation of a new state from the property of an existing state without the consent of the legislatures of the states concerned. cannot change state boundaries without the consent of the states concerned. must guarantee a republican form of government. must protect states from foreign invasion. must, at their request, protect states against domestic violence.
Levels of Religiosity in the United States
The most religious states are found primarily in the South (Mississippi, Alabama, Louisiana, Arkansas, South Carolina, Tennessee, North Carolina, and Georgia), and none of the most religious states are in the Northeast or on the West Coast. Contrast that with where we find the least religious states: Nearly all are found in the Northeast (Vermont, New Hampshire, Maine, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, and Rhode Island), and four are in the West (Alaska, Oregon, Nevada, and Washington).
Age and Voting in Presidential Elections
The percentage of people in various age groups who voted in the 2012 presidential election illustrates a historic trend: As Americans age, they are more likely to vote.
Trust in the Executive Branch of Government
The public's trust in the executive branch declined steeply (from 73 percent to 40 percent in two years) during the Nixon presidency as a result of the Watergate scandal. The declines during George W. Bush's and Barack Obama's presidencies were more gradual, from 72 percent to 42 percent and 61 to 43 percent, respectively, in six years. Was this decline partly to be expected for any second-term president?
Religious Institutions: Faith as an Agent of Socialization (2)
The relationship between frequency of church attendance and identification with the Republican Party is particularly strong among white Protestants African Americans are likely to be Democrats no matter how religious they are Religious Latinos and Asians are more likely to be Republican By and large, however, majorities of both groups identify as Democrats
U.S. District Courts
There are 94 federal district courts with 677 judgeships District courts have mandatory jurisdiction: they must hear all cases filed with them Do the bulk of the work of the federal judiciary Judge presides over the trial court, and the judge— or a jury if the defendant chooses the jury option—decides what happened in the case based on the application of the law to the facts presented in the courtroom
Original and Appellate Jurisdiction
There are two kinds of legal disputes: questions of facts and questions of law Trial courts have original jurisdiction They are the first courts to hear a case Try to resolve the case based on the facts of the case Courts of appeal have appellate jurisdiction Review trial court procedures of a specific case Ensure the law was correctly applied Choose between conflicting laws, and sometimes make law in the process
Third Parties in the United States (2)
Third parties have played, and continue to play, an influential role in American electoral politics; even the threat of forming a third party is enough Republicans feared that if Donald Trump lost the primary he would run in the general election as an Independent Third parties are particularly effective at encouraging the civic engagement of people who feel that the two dominant parties do not represent their views or do not listen to them
How Public Opinion Polls Are Conducted
Those conducting a poll first need to determine the population they are targeting for the survey—the group of people whose opinions are of interest and about whom information is desired Polling organizations construct polls carefully to ensure that the questions actually measure what the client wants to know
National Treaties with Indian Nations
Throughout U.S. history, the national government has signed treaties with Native American nations, which are legally viewed as sovereign foreign nations Today, the federal government recognizes more than 550 Indian tribes Even though Indian reservations lie within state borders, national treaties and national laws—not state or local laws—apply to the reservation populations and lands
Concurrent Powers
To function, sovereign governments need the authority to make policy, raise money, establish courts to interpret policy when a conflict arises about its meaning, and implement policy In the U.S. federal system, these inherent governing functions are the concurrent powers because the national and the state governments hold them jointly and each can use them at the same time
Support for Marijuana Legalization by Generation
Today, 69% percent of Millennials support legalization, with support more than doubling in less than a decade. Among Gen-Xers, 53 percent agree that marijuana should be legalized (up from 19 points in 2006), and 52 percent of Baby Boomers say it should (up from 18 percent). Members of the Silent Generation (those born between 1928 and 1945) remain largely opposed, at 30%.
Tools of IGR: Grants, Mandates, and Preemption
Today, federal grants-in-aid amount to close to 20 percent of federal annual spending, which covers about 25 percent of the annual spending by state and local governments Fiscal federalism refers to the relationship between the national, state, and local governments that grows out of the grants of money that the national government provides to state and local governments
PAC Count, 1974 to Present
Today, over 5,800 organizations raise and spend money to influence federal elections. The figure shows that the number of corporate PACs alone nearly doubled between 1977 and 1980.
Media and New Technologies: Transforming Political Campaigns
Today, with the presence everywhere of the media in all forms—television, Internet news sites, blogs, Twitter, radio, podcasts, newspapers, magazines—citizens' access to information is unprecedented Given the abundance of information disseminated today, and in light of its diverse and sometimes questionable sources, engaged citizens have a greater responsibility to be discerning consumers of the news
Types of Political Polls
Tracking polls measure changes in public opinion over the course of days, weeks, or months by repeatedly asking respondents the same questions and measuring changes in opinion Push polls attempt to skew public opinion about a candidate and provide information to campaigns about candidate strengths and weaknesses Exit polls are conducted at polling places on Election Day to project the winner of an election before the polls close
Voting by Mail
Traditionally, absentee voting, in which voters cast their ballots in advance by mail, was allowed only when disability, illness, school, work, service in the armed forces, or travel prevented voters from casting a ballot in their voting precinct Increasingly, many states accept mail-in ballot applications simply for the convenience of the voter Washington, Oregon, and Colorado now only use vote-by-mail ballots
Types of Lawsuits
Trial courts resolve disputes over the facts in a case May involve the claim that a defendant harmed society by violating criminal law, or it may involve the claim that a defendant caused harm to an individual, a group, or an organization by violating civil law Verdicts in criminal trials and civil trials may be appealed for review to correct errors in the interpretation or application of law
Trust in the Judicial Branch of Government
Trust in the judicial branch is consistently high, but has declined since 2012.
Trust in the Legislative Branch of Government
Trust in the legislative branch plummeted from 62 percent in 2005 to 28 percent in 2014 before rebounding slightly—to 35% in 2016.
The U.S. Courts of Appeals
Twelve courts of appeals cover specific geographic regions (circuits). The twelfth is the District of Columbia (D.C.) Circuit. A thirteenth circuit, the Federal Circuit, is also located in D.C.
Constitutions: Constitutional Law
U.S. Constitution is the supreme law of the land In cases concerning the U.S. Constitution, the highest court is the U.S. Supreme Court Body of law that comes out of the courts in cases involving constitutional interpretation is known as constitutional law Courts regularly have to resolve disputes over the proper balance between the common good and individual civil rights and liberties
The U.S. Supreme Court
U.S. Supreme Court is the court of last resort for conflicts over the U.S. Constitution and national laws Has appellate jurisdiction and limited original jurisdiction Court's appellate jurisdiction is discretionary jurisdiction: the Court may select the cases it wishes to hear among all cases appealed to it (less than 1%). Court is comprised of nine justices—the chief justice and eight associate justices Chief justice provides both organizational and intellectual leadership on the Court
Citizens of Latin American Descent
U.S. citizens of Latin American descent (Latinos) include those whose families hail from Central America, South America, or the Caribbean Latinos are the largest minority group in the U.S. Up to 17 percent of the total U.S. population Of this Latino population, 65 percent is composed of natural-born U.S. citizens Group has lower voter turnout rates that other voting groups
What Do Courts Do?
United States has an adversarial judicial system, which is a system in which two parties in a legal dispute present their case and the court determines the winners and the losers Court must have jurisdiction: the legal authority, established by a constitution or statute, to resolve a case
The Supremacy Clause
Unless the Supreme Court finds a national law to be outside of the enumerated or implied powers, that law is constitutional and hence the supreme law of the land, as defined by the supremacy clause in Article VI of the Constitution
Native Americans' Rights
Until passage of the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924, Native Americans had virtually no rights to U.S. citizenship, and laws that allowed immigrants to become citizens did not apply American Indian Movement (AIM), founded in 1968 Indian Civil Rights Act 1968 Indian Gaming Regulatory Act 1988 Even with gaming profits, the prospects for many Native Americans today remain bleak
Expansion of the Movement
Use of social media allowed for a more Afrocentric interpretation of political events Movement had no central organizational structure and was criticized for having no clear agenda, giving rise to the individualized nature of the movement Campus issues State disregard and violence toward black citizens Environmental racism
Race, Ethnicity, and Voter Participation
Voter participation among African Americans is about equal to that of whites Voting participation among Hispanics and Asian Americans lags behind that of whites and African Americans
Informal Eligibility Requirements
Voters expect candidates for federal office to have higher qualifications than candidates for state and local offices "Qualified" could mean: already in the office; a college degree; considerable professional and leadership experience; and strong communications skills In races for the U.S. Senate and the presidency, the popular press examines the smallest details of candidates' professional and educational background
The Structure of Elections
Voting rights activists claimed that the registration requirements in many states were too complicated National Voter Registration Act of 1993 was intended to address this, but the so-called "Motor Voter" Act's impact has been negligible Overly frequent elections discourage participation Timing of elections also affects voter participation
The Origins of Public Opinion Polls
Walter Lippmann's Public Opinion, published in 1922 In 1916, Literary Digest conducted its first straw poll, a poll conducted in an unscientific manner to predict the outcome of an election Between 1920 and 1932, Literary Digest correctly predicted the winner of each presidential election In the 1936 presidential election, Literary Digest wrongly predicted a win for Alf Landon
Family Influences on Attitudes, Opinions, and Actions
We learn whether our family members value civic activism by observing their actions and listening to their views Our families also influence what we believe While parents or older siblings may discuss specific issues or policies, their attitudes and outlook also shape children's general political attitudes and ideology Weekly Reader poll
Nominations and Primary Elections
Which voters decide a primary election varies greatly from state to state In U.S. presidential primaries, voters do not vote directly for the candidate whom they would like their party to nominate Instead, the popular vote determines which candidate's delegates will attend the party's nominating convention and vote for that party's nominee
Race and Ethnicity
Whites, African Americans, Latinos, and Asian Americans prefer different candidates, hold different political views, and have different levels of civic involvement In the 2016 election, 58% of whites supported Donald Trump, whereas 88% of African Americans supported Hillary Clinton Donald Trump also had weak support from Hispanics, Asians, and other ethic groups, at 29%
Who "Belongs" to Each Political Party
Whites, men, people with some college education, upper middle class individuals, and conservatives are more likely to be Republicans Key voting blocs for the Democrats include African Americans, non-Cuban Hispanics, working class individuals, women, liberals, and people with no college education In 2016, however, Republican Donald Trump attracted the support of many Americans with no college education but struggled to attract the support of more educated voters
Chapter 6
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Chapter 8
deh deh
Chapter 5
new shit
Chapter 15
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