Introduction & Chapter 1 - Morality and Ethics

Intellectual Virtues

Acquired through education and teaches us to reason accurately and thoroughly, following rules of logic.

Act Utility

Act utilitarians believe that whenever we are deciding what to do, we should perform the action that will create the greatest net utility. In their view, the principle of utility—do whatever will produce the best overall results—should be applied on a case by case basis. The right action in any situation is the one that yields more utility (i.e. creates more well-being) than other available actions.

Beneficence

Acts performed for the overall benefit of a patient, designed to improve his quality or length of life. Ex: Doing good for or helping a patient.

What is the most significant challenge for morality?

Balancing self-interests with the interests of others, which forces us to put our own interests on par with the interests of everyone else who is affected by our actions or their outcomes.

How is a dilemma solved?

Based on the strength of the reasons given in support of all proposed actions and on the type, amount, and degree of desirable and undesirable outcomes in each case.

What are the seven duties of prima facie duty?

-Fidelity: Keeping both explicit and implicit promises. -Reparation: Righting previous wrongs one has committed. -Gratitude: Acknowledging services rendered by others. -Justice: Rewarding acts of merit and thwarting those that aren't meritorious. -Beneficence: Bettering the condition of others in the world. -Self-Improvement: Improving one's own virtue or intelligence. -Nonmaleficence: Refraining from injuring others.

What must people do when solving dilemmas?

1) Clarify contextual details of the case, identify the information gaps, and fill them in as far as possible. 2) Verify their own understanding of all new, special, or complex terminology, or procedures relevant to the situation. 3) Verify information, preferably with objective sources. 4) Analyze the arguments given for each proposed action choice. 5) Check the relevant code of ethics and/or appeal to a recognized moral theory. 6) Consider examples and counter-examples to compare what worked in the past with the current situation.

What are some problems with utilitarianism?

1) In hedonistic utilitarianism, too much of a good thing can become unpleasant or even harmful. 2) It calls for decisions to be made on a case by case basis, maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain the situation, making predictability difficult to achieve. Every situation is different, new, unusual, or familiar, making action guidance is extremely difficult, or impossible. 3) Utilitarians say to use reasonably foreseeable consequences as a guide for actions, but what's reasonable is different for everyone. 4) It requires us to look at individuals as if they are tools; instruments to be used to achieve outcomes. It makes predictability of behaviour/actions difficult. 5) The justice objection; which allows unjust behaviours to be done to a few people in order to create a greater good for more people. 6) Utilitarians state that it's simply a fact that justice isn't absolute, that it may be limited or overridden by mercy, benevolence, and the well-being of society. It's right to sacrifice one or a few for the greater good, when the stakes are high enough. 7) It's a backward-looking theory. It can only make judgments in retrospect and this makes it difficult to provide the required action guidance beforehand when it's needed.

What are the two important strengths of utilitarianism?

1) It uses a single, absolute principle that has potential answer for every situation and makes the theory easy to use. 2) People intuitively believe that morality is about providing help to those who are suffering, whether human or non-human, as well as obligations not to cause unnecessary harm. It makes beneficence just as obligatory as nonmaleficence, which accords with our experiences of morality.

Four Principles of Biomedical Ethics

1. Respect for autonomy 2. Beneficence 3. Nonmaleficence 4. Justice

What does a right always entail?

A corresponding duty or obligation that entitles the rights-holder to demand, not simply petition or ask for, performance of the correlative duties. What's not always clear is the identity of the individual who must fulfill the duty.

Deductive Arguments - Invalid

A deductive argument that fails at providing conclusive support (premises) for its conclusion is called invalid. Example: Pigs have wings. Any animal with wings can fly. So, pigs can fly. An argument can have all true premises and still fail to be valid. Example: Gasoline is poison. Bleach is poison. Therefore, gasoline is bleach.

Deductive Arguments - Valid

A deductive argument that succeeds in providing conclusive support for its conclusion is said to be valid. Is one in which it is impossible for the premises to be true but the conclusion false. Thus, the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises and inferences. In this way, it is supposed to be a definitive proof of the truth of the claim (conclusion). If the premises are true (and they are), then it simply isn't possible for the conclusion to be false. If you have a deductive argument and you accept the truth of the premises, then you must also accept the truth of the conclusion; if you reject it, then you are rejecting logic itself. Example: Unjustly killing innocent people is wrong. The holocaust was a case of unjustly killing innocent people. So, the holocaust was wrong. The premises offered really ARE true, so the conclusion must also be true. A deductively valid argument with true premises is said to be sound.

Prima Facie Duty

A duty that is morally obligatory unless it conflicts with another moral duty, in which case the more pressing duty takes precedence. Generated by William David Ross, it is viewed as a solution to Kant's theory. Instead of appealing to absolute duties, there are duties that are obligatory unless there are strong, compelling reasons to override them. Seven limited duties which become self-evident to the individual after sufficient experience and reflection and may be "shuffled" in order of importance, depending on the situation. Fidelity, reparation, gratitude, justice, beneficence, self-improvement, and nonmaleficence. if any of the duties conflict, then we must make a considered decision to choose which is the most appropriate for the situation.

Deontology

A duty-based moral theory in which some behaviours are morally obligatory or prohibited regardless of the good consequences that may be achieved by doing them or not doing them. Individuals' motives are the basis for judging their actions morally right or wrong. The concept comes from German philosopher Immanuel Kant.

Categorical Imperative

A universally binding, unconditional or absolute moral requirement. The one principle in Kant's theory - in 2 forms: CI1 (Universalizability) and CI2 (Humanity as an end in itself).

Morality

A formal system meant to generate co-operate behavior and regulate interpersonal social relations through practical action guidance and conflict resolution. Generally considered to consist of views about how one ought to behave in society, about what is right and wrong, and about what is good or bad behavior. Often generalized, written or not. A system of rules, when followed, cause individuals to act in predictable, co-operative ways that minimize conflict between them. The best way to understand morality is with an analogy; morality is the "grease" that allows social relations to occur with as little function as possible. The formal system of rules obligating and prohibiting particular actions within a society for the purposes of: 1. Generating co-operative behavior. 2. Regulating interpersonal relations in such a way as to achieve that purpose.

Moral Community

A group of moral persons or moral agents, individuals who agree to voluntarily limit their behaviour in order to achieve personal and social benefits through promoting the goals of morality: practical action guidance and conflict resolution.

Non-Deductive Arguments

A non-deductive argument is intended to provide probable support for its conclusion. There are two types: inductive and abductive. One that succeeds in providing probable support for its conclusion is said to be strong. Example: Most Canadians like hockey. You're Canadian. So, you must like hockey. A strong argument with true premises is said to be cogent. A non-deductive argument is an argument for which the premises are offered to provide probable - but not conclusive - support for its conclusions. In a good non-deductive argument, if the premises are all true, you would rightly expect the conclusion to be true also, though you would accept that it may be false. If you like, think of non-deductive arguments in terms of bets. If the premises of a good non-deductive argument are true, then you would be happy to bet that the conclusion is also true. The argument would have provided you with the confidence that your bet is a sensible one, but - since it is a bet, after all - you would accept that the conclusion may turn out false and you may lose.

What are moral rights derived from?

A rational understanding of what is necessary for human individuals and communities to flourish - the objectively true moral behaviours required to facilitate co-operative behaviour.

Worldviews

A set of fundamental ideas that shapes how you view the world.

Argument

A set of statements consisting of one or more premises and a conclusion. There are two forms of arguments: Deductive and Non-Deductive.

Conflict of Interest

A situation in which an individual's personal interests appear to influence the exercise of their official responsibilities.

Premise

A statement given in support of another statement.

Conclusion

A statement that premises are used to support.

Ethic Of Care

A two-pronged theory of moral development widely used to guide actions and resolve conflicts by (1) minimizing and avoiding harm, and (2) maintaining, protecting, and creating positive relationships. First put forward by psychologist Carol Gillian. It was the 1st time moral theory was based on real life as previous theories were theoretical. The more vulnerable/dependent a person is, the more consideration they are owed in moral deliberations. It uses a prima facie conception of impartiality in which it is the default position, but we can make exceptions when we have strong justifications. Impartiality is sometimes appropriate depending on the situation and individual. There is no maximizing of benefit, and requires we interact with others in situations that are not exploitative or harmful to us. It doesn't require an equal, impartially assigned designation of duties to group members whether that be a family, etc. Viewed as superior because its based on real-life moral decision making. Reflects what we actually do when making moral decisions and is expected to be better for practical applications. It recognizes special obligations to others who are vulnerable to our choices and their outcomes and justifying giving them extra consideration which fits with intuitions that we do have a special obligation to particular others. It allows for exceptions and decisions that are best able to protect and promote the actual specific interests of those involved, over one's interpretation of another's very general interests. Bases decision making on interdependence and vulnerability to the choices of others. Particularly appropriate for health care situations.

Utilitarianism

Also called cost-benefit analysis. A consequence based theory in which the rightness or wrongness of actions is determined by the outcome of the actions. Judgments are by necessity made in retrospect and after the action and its outcome has occurred. Action guidance must be made on a best estimate of the reasonably foreseeable consequences of one's proposed actions. The individual applies the principle of utility to decide what should be done; requiring one to maximize benefit/good consequences while minimizing harm/bad consequences to create an overall balance of benefit or good.

Moral Rights

Also known as "basic human rights" and are viewed as universally applicable, regardless of whether or not a government or culture acknowledges them. The existence of moral rights is what allows countries to speak about "human rights violations" in the international political arena and be understood.

How are moral decisions made under the ethics of care?

Always made on the basis of one's affectedness, one's level of vulnerability to and dependence upon the choices made and their outcomes in conjunction with the contextual details of the situation, regardless of whether or not a relationship exists.

Selfish Egoist

An exclusively self-interested person who promotes primarily short-term interests. Someone who pursues only their own interests.

Moral Agent

Any rational, mentally mature individual who is capable of understanding the various obligations and action options of a situation and who is held recognizable for the choices they make. One must look at the consequences of their actions in order to gauge the morality of their behaviour.

Principle of Autonomy

Assumes that rational individuals, as ends in themselves that should never be treated merely as a means to some end, know their own lives, hopes, dreams, goals, and so on, better than anyone else; therefore, they should be left free to formulate and pursue their own interests with minimal interference from others, so long as they're not harming anyone. If anyone wants to limit/disregard the autonomy of rational, competent individuals, the burden of justifying the limitation rests on those doing the limiting, and the reason(s) better be compelling enough to override the societal harm of this kind of interference.

Inductive Argument

Attempts to infer that some pattern probably holds in general (or some set of unobserved cases). Is one in which the premises are supposed to support the conclusion in such a way that if the premises are true, it is improbable that the conclusion would be false. Thus, the conclusion follows probably from the premises and inferences.

Abductive Argument

Attempts to infer that some theory is probably true, because it provides the best explanation for the evidence.

Why can't the source of mortality be subjectivism?

Because according to which an individual decides what to do according to his own conscience because all individuals are equally "right" and no one is wrong. Subjectivism makes morality unpredictable, because no one knows what the next person will do or what actions they (dis)approve of. It leads to chaos, not co-operation. There is no conflict resolution and moral judgments aren't possible. There is no action guidance, because nobody is wrong and all are right. Morality loses its function because it becomes a matter of personal likes and dislikes.

What is a problem with paternalism?

Because it is a liberty-limiting principle that interferes with and potentially harms individuals, those who support its use bear the burden of justifying it.

How are conflicts of rights resolved?

Because they are the codified protection of society's most important values, resolution comes from considering the degree of need for the object of the right - what happens to a person if they don't get the object of the right, vs. what happens if they do get it in the required situation. The rights of an individual can be set aside in response to the actions of the individual, in order to protect a greater body of rights.

Why can't the source of morality be moral or ethical relativism?

Because this states a majority in the individual culture, society, or country decides what is morally correct. This model says that all views are equally right and none is wrong, that there is no one, objectively true moral rule or system that applies to all people in all times and places. The group decides what is best for the group. It precludes judgment of other cultures' behaviour. Only if the society is small can it be influenced by an argument to change minds of a majority all at once, so it's not likely that moral change could occur in a relativist state. A serious problem with relativism is that one could belong simultaneously to many cultures and subcultures that dictate conflicting behaviors, and have no means to decide how to act or to resolve the conflict. Moral relativism tells us that since there is no one moral rule that applies to all people everywhere, we must tolerate one another's moral approach.

How do ethicists discover the laws of morality?

By considering what rational entities need to do to be able to co-operate.

How are political and legal rights validated?

By laws, which in turn must be justified.

How are moral rights justified?

By the reasoning of an enlightened conscience regarding human needs and welfare based interests.

Statement

Claim; an assertion that something is or is not the case. Ex: 2+3=5, The earth is flat, Taxes are high. Not all sentences are statements. Ex: Does 2+3=5?, Go Canucks Go!, How are you?

What are the five "C's" of morality?

Co-operation, compromise, compassion, conquer conflict.

How do we know when we have treated those we are using with respect as ends in themselves?

Consent

Eugenics

Controlled breeding practices used to improve the genetic quality of offspring.

Microallocaiton

Decisions made by particular institutions or HCPs concerning who will obtain available resources; ex: which patient will receive an available organ.

What is the difference between inductive, abductive and deductive arguments?

Deductive reasoning: conclusion guaranteed Inductive reasoning: conclusion merely likely Abductive reasoning: taking your best shot

Active Euthanasia

Direct actions that result in the patient's death, such as giving the patient a lethal injection.

Allocation

Distribution of goods and services among alternative possibilities for their use.

Imperfect Duties (Kant)

Duties that aim at a particular outcome, like duties of beneficence; they are of secondary importance and will always be superseded by perfect duties when in any conflict.

Virtue Ethics

Focuses on how one ought to live and what type of person one should be, requiring that each individual cultivate an excellent character. One must possess two types of virtues to function well as a human being and as a member of society: intellectual and moral virtues. Has the view that "one size fits all" does not work in all situations. All decisions are context driven. When applying intellectual virtues to the needs of the situation, we should be able to discover the appropriate moral virtue to guide our behaviour and end up doing the right thing most of the time. There is an ease to the theory, and is particularly appealing to health care practitioners.

How did John Stuart Mill improve on hedonistic utilitarianism?

He included quality of pleasures over quantity, and included intellectual pleasures. He required that people only make decisions after they had fully considered anyone who might be affected by our actions and their consequences - now or later. He deemed happiness as what was desirable as an end and people be as free as possible to formulate/pursue their own definition of happiness. He identified/justified limits of interference with the individual and their interests as being only when the individual is harming others. Harming oneself wasn't justifiable for intervention because people might wonder if the government could interfere in to their lives at any time thus causing greater harm. Moral decisions are to apply a standard or goodness. Goodness or badness of consequences is to be measured by those values which do not vary (no personal definitions) - a general interest.

What is Jeremy Bentham's theory called?

Hedonistic Utilitarianism

How did Kant propose the use of the categorical imperative?

In its 2 forms: CI1 and CI2, any proposed action should be put through CI1 (universalizability) first to see if it could be used by everyone, everywhere. If the action can't be universalized, then it's not morally appropriate and must not be done. If the proposed action can be successfully universalized, then it must be put successfully through CI2 in order to be deemed a morally appropriate act. Humanity as an end in itself means respect for an individual's rationality and autonomy. We treat ourselves and others as ends in themselves and never only as means to our own ends. We must not use people only as tools to achieve our own purposes.

Deductive Arguments

Intends/attempts to provide conclusive support for its conclusion. There are valid and invalid. Valid if successful. Sound if valid with all true premises. Consider two issues with deductive arguments: Are the premises true? Do those premises lead to this conclusion?

What can studying philosophy lead to?

It has an inherent value. Moral philosophy (or lack thereof) can play an important role in shaping the world we live in. Philosophy generally develops skills in critical thinking, reading and writing.

What do laws require?

It must be justified according to moral reasoning, have strong, compelling reasons supporting it, if it is to obligate compliance. If laws don't accord with morality, then we must change the laws.

Moral Virtues

Must be habituated, training our emotions to obedient to the virtuous intellect in all of our actions, causing us to do the right thing at the right time and for the right reasons.

What is the critical limitation to virtue ethics?

It tells us how to be, not what to do in a particular situation. Any moral theory must provide methods of practical action guidance and conflict resolution if it is to be viable. When there are three or more action options available, virtue ethics doesn't provide a way to solve the conflict and tell which is the right option. There's no mechanism in the theory to justify actions, placing one figure over the other beyond considering the needs of the situation, and those calculations can differ on the basis of many considerations beyond moral virtues. It can't always meet the requirement of action guidance or conflict resolution. It works at best as a support system action-guiding moral theory. It can be used to cultivate character, become the best person possible, guides logical reasoning, and uses moral theories to tell us how to act.

Who was the first Western thinker to provide a full formulation of utilitarianism?

Jeremy Bentham

What must morality have as its source?

Logical reasons, rational justifications on which all people - regardless of time, location, religion, or culture - can agree. There can be one or many rules.

What do all laws rely on?

Moral justifications. All laws are aimed at creating social co-operation, protecting the vulnerable, guiding action, and resolving conflicts - the very things morality is aimed at. They serve a fundamentally moral purpose.

What are the three categories of conceptions and what properly constitutes rights?

Moral, Political, and Legal Rights.

What are some problems with Kantian deontology?

One is that the absolute nature of the imperatives makes the theory result in horrific and sometimes immoral outcomes. Kant's perfect duties obligate you to tell the truth no matter what. Even if a moral crime such as murder is taking place, you're demanded to tell the truth even though the moral crime has nothing to do with you because perhaps you tried to help even though your good deed didn't turn out right in the end. Second, beneficence is only an imperfect duty, not obligatory always, and secondary to perfect duties whenever there is a conflict. Kant's theory requires we treat all rational human beings scrupulously equally, but critics argue that impartiality shouldn't always be absolute. There is too much emphasis on rationality in his theory and it doesn't protect non-rational entities like animals, infants, or end of life care. The most problematic is that his theory doesn't provide any action guidance or means to resolve conflicts when perfect duties conflict.

Enlightened Egoist

One who recognizes themselves as one important person among many important people, all with interests potentially in conflict, all needing a method of existing co-operatively together. Suggests that helping others is in your interest, and claims that it is in our self-interest to serve others, as well as ourselves. Sometimes 'enlightened egoism' is advocated as a means rather than an end, on the grounds that for everyone to pursue their own interest will maximize the general prosperity.

How can conflict resolution be successful?

Only through appealing to a consensus opinion or weight in numbers. Ex: use an official policy, find a 3rd party, etc., to settle the matter.

What is necessary to make morality obligatory and generate predictability of behaviour according to Immanuel Kant?

Perfect and imperfect duties.

Ethicists

Philosophers who specialize in studying morality and its practical application. They try to ensure that whatever it is morality tells us to do is strongly justified and therefore worthy of acceptance as morally appropriate.

Principle of Justice

Requires that we treat similar cases similar and different cases different.

Negative Rights

Rights to non-interference, according to which others refrain from doing something to or interfering with an individual. Ex: The right not to be harmed or killed generates an obligation that others refrain from hitting/shooting you. These rights readily identify who owes the duty or obligation to you: the person in front of you right now or the person considering doing something that would affect you owes you the duty not to interfere unjustly.

Positive Rights

Rights to the provision of some item or service, for example the right to receive an elementary school education or health care. Also known as welfare rights. With these rights it's much harder to identify who owes the duty or obligation since the duty holder isn't usually specified. Ex: You have a right to receive medical care from a doctor, but you don't have the right for that doctor to be specifically Dr.Phil.

Rule Utility

Rule utilitarians adopt a two-part view that stresses the importance of moral rules. According to rule utilitarians, a) a specific action is morally justified if it conforms to a justified moral rule; and b) a moral rule is justified if its inclusion into our moral code would create more utility than other possible rules (or no rule at all). According to this perspective, we should judge the morality of individual actions by reference to general moral rules, and we should judge particular moral rules by seeing whether their acceptance into our moral code would produce more well-being than other possible rules.

What is the two level strategy that modern utilitarians use to deal with criticisms of their theory?

Rule utility and act utility.

What did Jeremy Bentham believe that people seek?

Seek pleasure and to avoid pain.

Macroallocation

Social decisions made about the expenditure for and distribution of resources intended for health care; ex: how much money will the federal government put toward health care.

Normative Ethics

Statements, often in the form of principles or rules, that tell people what to do or how to behave to live a moral life. Considers the content of morality by evaluating the justification given for various statements of moral behavior. Ex: Take your shoes off when you visit someone's home, don't torture animals for fun.

What did Immanuel Kant propose about rational human motives?

That they have two types of duties: perfect and imperfect.

Philosophy

The attempt to formulate and answer fundamental questions. Ethics: the study of fundamental questions about what's morally right, wrong, permissible, etc.

Objectivism

The belief that certain things, especially moral truths, exist independently of human knowledge or perception of them. There is at least one standard or principle that is accepted by all people in all places and times. This standard can be either an authority figure - the traditional source of most people's morality - or reason/rationality.

Weak Paternalism

The belief that it is permissible to interfere with the autonomy of a competent individual only when they are acting in an apparently irrational fashion that could lead to harm themselves or to others. Proponents believe that the only time it is permissible to (temporarily) interfere with a rational, mentally mature individual is to determine their mental state when they are acting in an apparently irrational fashion; otherwise the individual must be left free to do what they want, even if it's imprudent or even dangerous.

Strong Paternalism

The belief that it is permissible to override the autonomy of a competent individual in order to promote beneficence and nonmaleficence. Proponents believe that's its permissible to interfere with rational, mentally mature individuals in order either to stop them from harming themselves, thereby promoting nonmaleficence, or to promote their well-being, beneficence. Ex: Withholding information from a patient if they think the information will lead the patient to make an unwise medical decision. Even lying if they think it will benefit them and by not lying would cause them harm.

Principle of Utility

The belief that we ought to maximize benefit or good consequences and minimize harm or negative consequence for the greatest number of individuals affected by a situation or our actions.

Justice

The duty to give each individual equal consideration based on the contextual details of the situation, or to treat similar cases similarly and different cases differently, according to the needs of the situation.

Autonomy

The general ability of the individual to govern themselves, to formulate and pursue their own life plans, goals, and values. Comes from Kantian deontology, and from the Greek word for "self-rule".

Metaethics

The identification, explanation, and critical evaluation of morality as a concept, abstracted from specific content or specific statements of behavior. Involves considering whether morality can exist, whether morality can be justified, what the nature of morality is, what the sources for morality are, and what is the nature of moral statements.

What is the difference between act and rule utility?

The key difference is that act utilitarians apply the utilitarian principle directly to the evaluation of individual actions while rule utilitarians apply the utilitarian principle directly to the evaluation of rules and then evaluate individual actions by seeing if they obey or disobey those rules whose acceptance will produce the most utility.

Nonmaleficence

The medical principle of doing no long-term harm to a patient or worsening their condition. Ex: Not inflicting unnecessary pain, suffering, and/or harm on patients.

Paternalism

The policy or practice on the part of people in positions of authority of restricting the freedom and responsibilities of those dependent on them in their supposed interest. Comes from the Greek word meaning "father-rule" and reflects the "father knows best" mentality. Paternalists act like father figures who believe that, because of their experience, knowledge, and skill, they know what really is best for the individual. There are two kinds: weak and strong.

What is the foundation for Western society?

The principle of respect for autonomy.

Commodification

The selling, buying, or profiting from the sale of the human body, its tissue, and/or the information derived from research on it.

Applied Ethics

The study of the theoretical and practical moral issues involved in specific contexts, such as medicine, business, engineering or advertising. The study of morality and the problems associated with very specific practical contexts. Ex: To consider whether it is morally permissible for a physician to kill a patient or an engineer to substitute sub-standard materials to cut costs.

Biomedical Ethics

The study of: 1) the theoretical foundation of rights and obligations in health care relationships between various types of health care professionals and the patient or research participant. 2) the practical moral issues arising within these relationships. Class Slides: The study of right and wrong, duty and obligation, moral norms, individual character, and responsibility - in the context of health care. Not the same as health care law: an action can be illegal but ethical, and an action can be legal but ethically questionable. It is not about professional etiquette, social science, doesn't tell us how to be ethical and it won't always give settled answers. It studies fundamental questions about what's morally right, wrong, permissible, as they arise in the context of health care.

Ethics

The systematic study of morality; the study of the concepts and theoretical justification involved in practical reasoning or reasoning meant to be applied to govern individual behavior - a source of behavioral guidance. Can be divided into 3 categories: -Metaphysics -Normative Ethics -Applied Ethics Class Slides: The study of fundamental questions about what's morally right, wrong, permissible, etc.

Hedonistic Utilitarianism

The theory by Bentham that in any particular situation people seek pleasure and try to avoid pain. It is based on physical sensations.

Passive Euthanasia

The withdrawing or withholding of life-sustaining treatment to allow the patient to die from the underlying illness or injury.

What did Immanuel Kant believe about moral duties?

They are categorical - meaning unqualified, non-conditional - universal, and absolutely binding on all people at all times. Everyone must do the right thing because it is the right thing to do, regardless of the consequences. If individuals use self-seeking motives, if they do something only because of what it will get them as a consequence, then their action isn't moral.

What are the four possible sources for morality?

They are grouped into three categories: 1) Subjectivism 2) Moral or Ethical Relativism 3) Objectivism a) An authority b) Reason/Rationality

What are the criticisms of ethics of care?

They are typically based on misconceptions and misunderstandings of the theory. It is because of the inclusion of relationships and caring in the prescriptive moral theory. People have chosen to focus on the feminist roots and characteristics. Critics also focus on nepotism or preferential treatment - relationship in combination with an impartiality criterion that isn't absolute.

What allows individuals to live co-operatively together in a society and feel save enough to express and pursue their interests?

They must (1) know what is expected in their own behaviours and (2) to predict with a high degree of accuracy how others will behave. There are two requirements - practical action and predictability of others behaviour.

Perfect Duties (Kant)

Those duties that are obligatory and can never be breached, ever. Ex: Don't lie, do not kill, keep your promises.

What is the most wides recognized moral theory?

Utilitarianism, also known as the cost-benefit analysis. Most social policy is decided according to this theory.

Physician-Assisted Suicide

Voluntary suicide by a patient committed with the assistance of their physician, who typically provides the means to end the patient's life.

When do moral dilemmas occur?

When we have good reasons for two or more alternative action choices, but if either is acted on the outcomes will be desirable in some ways and undesirable in other ways.

Advance Directives

Written statements made while the patient is competent for use at a time when they are no longer competent, stating what medical treatment would (or would not) be acceptable to her.