I/O Psychology Comp Exam

Stage 2 LMX-Terminilogy switched to Leader-member exchange Theory

-relationship-based approach to leadership that focuses on the two-way (dyadic) relationship between leaders and followers. Leaders develop an exchange with each of their subordinates, and the quality of these influences subordinate's responsibility, decisions, and access to resources and performance. This research helped explain how the relationships develop and the consequences for the organization.

i.CT v. Teal

1982), held that an employer is liable for race discrimination where any part of its selection process, such as an examination, has a disparate impact on black applicants or employees, even if the "bottom line" result of the employer's hiring or promotional practice is racially balanced. This decision made clear that the fair employment laws protect the individual and therefore fair treatment of a group is no defense to an individual claim of discrimination.

10. What is the difference between exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis?

A confirmatory factor analysis assumes that you enter the factor analysis with a firm idea about the number of factors you will encounter, and about which variables will most likely load onto each factor.The criteria for variable inclusion are much more stringent in a confirmatory factor analysis than in an exploratory factor analysis. A rule of thumb is that variables that have factor loadings <|0.7| are dropped.An exploratory factor analysis aims at exploring the relationships among the variables and does not have an a priori fixed number of factors. You may have a general idea about what you think you will find, but you have not yet settled on a specific hypothesis.Or you may have formulated a research question based on your theoretical understanding, and are now testing it.Of course, in an exploratory factor analysis, the final number of factors is determined by your data and your interpretation of the factors. Cut-offs of factor loadings can be much lower for exploratory factor analyses.

1. Job rotation-

A job design technique in which employees are moved between two or more jobs in a planned manner. The objective is to expose the employees to different experiences and wider variety of skills to enhance job satisfaction and to cross-train them.

1. Path-Goal-

A leader can affect the performance, satisfaction, and motivation of a group by:Offering rewards for achieving performance goals,Clarifying paths towards these goals,Removing obstacles to performance,However, whether leadership behavior can do so effectively also depends on situational factors.

5. Briefly describe how to perform a meta-analysis.

A meta-analysis takes multiple scientific studies and pools the statistical results together to widen the generalizability of and to see the effects of the results more clearly. The combination of multiple studies can lead to higher statistical power. search for studies, selecting studies based on a set of objective criteria, dealing with incomplete data, analyzing the data, and accounting for or choosing not to account for publication bias.[2]A meta-analysis is usually preceded by a systematic review, as this allows identification and critical appraisal of all the relevant evidence (thereby limiting the risk of bias in summary estimates). The general steps are then as follows:a.Formulation of the research question, e.g. using the PICO model (Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome).b.Search of literaturec.Selection of studies ('incorporation criteria')1.Based on quality criteria, e.g. the requirement of randomization and blinding in a clinical trial2.Selection of specific studies on a well-specified subject, e.g. the treatment of breast cancer.3.Decide whether unpublished studies are included to avoid publication bias (file drawer problem)d.Decide which dependent variables or summary measures are allowed. For instance, when considering a meta-analysis of published (aggregate) data:•Differences (discrete data)•Means (continuous data)•Hedges' g is a popular summary measure for continuous data that is standardized in order to eliminate scale differences, but it incorporates an index of variation between groups:1. in which is the treatment mean, is the control mean, the pooled variance.e.Selection of a meta-analysis model, e.g. fixed effect or random effects meta-analysis.Examine sources of between-study heterogeneity, e.g. using subgroup analysis or meta-regression.

c. Discarding-

At some point the employees began to realizes not only that the change is going to happen, but the employees are going to have to change as well. Change is inevitable, thus old ways must go and start accepting new reality.

III. Specific Leader SkillsA.Leadership through decision making: Vroom-Yetton Model

Autocratic Type 1 (AI)Leader makes own decision using information that is readily available to him or her at the time. This type is completely autocratic.Autocratic Type 2 (AII)Leader collects required information from followers, then makes decision alone. Problem or decision may or may not be informed to followers. Here, followers' involvement is just providing information.Consultative Type 1 (CI)Leader shares problem to relevant followers individually and seeks their ideas and suggestions and makes decision alone. Here followers do not meet each other and the leader's decision may or may not reflect his followers' influence. So, here followers' involvement is at the level of providing alternatives individually.Consultative Type 2 (CII)Leader shares problem to relevant followers as a group and seeks their ideas and suggestions and makes decision alone. Here followers meet each other, and through discussions they understand other alternatives. But the leader's decision may or may not reflect the followers' influence. So, here followers involvement is at the level of helping as a group in decision-making.Group-based Type 2 (GII)Leader discuss problem and situation with followers as a group and seeks their ideas and suggestions through brainstorming. Leader accepts any decision and does not try to force his or her idea. Decision accepted by the group is the final one.

k. Smith v. Jackson

Azel Smith and group of other police department employees over the age of 40 sued Jackson, Mississippi, and the city police department in federal district court. The group alleged the department salary plan violated the Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA), which banned employers from engaging in age discrimination. The department plan gave officers with five or fewer years of tenure with the department larger raises than those with more than five years of tenure. The group made a "disparate impact" claim under the ADEA, arguing the department and city unintentionally engaged in age discrimination. The federal district court and the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled disparate impact claims could not be made under the ADEA. Other federal appeals courts ruled to the contrary.Azel Smith and group of other police department employees over the age of 40 sued Jackson, Mississippi, and the city police department in federal district court. The group alleged the department salary plan violated the Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA), which banned employers from engaging in age discrimination. The department plan gave officers with five or fewer years of tenure with the department larger raises than those with more than five years of tenure. The group made a "disparate impact" claim under the ADEA, arguing the department and city unintentionally engaged in age discrimination. The federal district court and the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled disparate impact claims could not be made under the ADEA. Other federal appeals courts ruled to the contrary.

19. Distinguish adverse impact from disparate treatment.

Both disparate impact and disparate treatment refer to discriminatory practices. Disparate impact is often referred to as unintentional discrimination, whereas disparate treatment is intentional. The terms adverse impact and adverse treatment are sometimes used as an alternative.Disparate impact occurs when policies, practices, rules or other systems that appear to be neutral result in a disproportionate impact on a protected group. For example, testing all applicants and using results from that test that will unintentionally eliminate certain minority applicants disproportionately is disparate impact.Disparate treatment is intentional employment discrimination. For example, testing a particular skill of only certain minority applicants is disparate treatment. Federal laws prohibit job discrimination based on race, color, sex, national origin, religion, age, equal pay, disability or genetic information and prohibits both "disparate treatment" and "disparate impact" discrimination.

11.What are the characteristics of classical test theory (CTT)? How does CTT differ from item response theory (IRT)?

Classical test theory (CTT) in psychometrics is all about reliability. We use the word reliable or reliability often in our colloquial language. Your friend who is always on time is reliable, for instance. But in psychology, reliabilityrefers to how consistent a test or measure is. In other words, if you took the same test several times, you should get about the same score each time. The test score is what we call the observed score. So, if you take a math exam and get an 85, that's your test score. Errorrefers to, well, exactly what it sounds like! It's the amount of error that is found in a test or measure. This might be a mistake in the test, or it might also refer to things in the external environment that we can't totally control but that impact testing. Let's say you're taking your history exam, and there's construction going on in the building next door. Hammering isn't great for concentration, is it? This is a form of error because the terrible noise might impact your score. Then, we have the true score. This is the score you would have achieved if there were absolutely no errors in the measurement. Alas, this isn't really possible. But psychometrics assumes everyone has, in theory, a true score. We can calculate this true score with an equation.Item response theory (IRT) is all about your performance on an exam, and how it relates to individual items (or questions) on a test. IRT is an example of what psychologists call a latent trait model. These models try to figure if there's an underlying trait that that accounts for your performance on a test. The mathematical models we use to calculate IRT measurements are much more sophisticated than CTT and with IRT, we don't even need a sample of test takers!

a. ERG Theory

Clayton Alderfer. Added to Maslow's needs hierarchy by categorizing into Existance, Relatendness, and Growth.Existence- basic material existence including Maslow's physiological and safety needs.Relatedness- desire people have for interpersonal relationships, Maslow's social need, esteem, and interpersonal loveGrowth- Intrinsic desire for personal development. Including Maslow's self-esteem category and self-actualizationRegression theory- When needs in a higher category are not met the individual redouble their efforts invested in a lower category in hopes of achieving the higher need.relatedne

Task Inventory-

Create an initial itemized list of all the tasks, or specific activities, that make yp the performance of a specific job. Derive this data through studies, surveys, interviews, and detailed observations. Can include this as a summary along with the information and include it along with clarifying questions in a questionnaire that people in or around that job complete. This information can be used to further develop and refine job descriptions.This is efficient because the use of questionairres that quickly gathers data from employees, customers and experts.Because the answers are rated by numbers, the answers are easily quantifiable.Time consuming to create.Abiguous beauces of the nature of a survey leaves openness for questions that cannot be answered.

i. Premack Principle-

David Premack in 1965. some behavior that happens reliably (or without interference by a researcher), can be used as a reinforcer for abehavior that occurs less reliably.

Feedback-

Degree to which carrying out the work activities required by the job provides the individual with clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance.

•Grid theory breaks behavior down into seven key elements:Element

DescriptionInitiativeTaking action, driving and supportingInquiry Questioning, researching and verifying understandingAdvocacy Expressing convictions and championing ideasDecision making Evaluating resources, choices and consequencesConflict resolutionConfronting and resolving disagreementsResilience Dealing with problems, setbacks and failuresCritiqueDelivering objective, candid feedback

h.Dothard v. Rawlinson

Dianne Rawlinson applied to be a prison guard with the Alabama Department of Corrections. The Department had a minimum height and weight requirement of 120 pounds and 5 feet 2 inches. Rawlinson did not meet the minimum weight requirement, so the Department refused to hire her. Rawlinson sued on behalf of herself and all similarly-situated women under Title VII, alleging sex discrimination. While this suit was pending, the Alabama Board of Corrections adopted a rule banning women from working in "contact positions" that require close physical proximity to inmates. Rawlinson amended her complaint to challenge the new rule as well. The U.S. District Court for the Middle District of Alabama ruled in favor of Rawlinson. The U.S. Supreme Court heard this case on direct appeal.

d. Adaptation-

Employees test the new system, learn, begin to make adjustments in the way they perform. Tremendous energy is spent and employees can become frustrated and angry

27. What are the BIG 5 personality factors?

Five factor Model (FFM), is a taxonomy for personality traits. The five factors have been defined as openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism, often represented by the acronyms OCEAN or CANOE.The five factors are:• Openness to experience (inventive/curious vs. consistent/cautious). Appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, curiosity, and variety of experience. Openness reflects the degree of intellectual curiosity, creativity and a preference for novelty and variety a person has. It is also described as the extent to which a person is imaginative or independent and depicts a personal preference for a variety of activities over a strict routine. High openness can be perceived as unpredictability or lack of focus, and more likely to engage in risky behaviour or drug taking.[5] Also, individuals that have high openness tend to lean towards being artists or writers in regards to being creative and appreciative of the significance of the intellectual and artistic pursuits.[6] Moreover, individuals with high openness are said to pursue self-actualizationspecifically by seeking out intense, euphoric experiences. Conversely, those with low openness seek to gain fulfillment through perseverance and are characterized as pragmatic and data-driven—sometimes even perceived to be dogmatic and closed-minded. Some disagreement remains about how to interpret and contextualize the openness factor.[clarification needed]• Conscientiousness (efficient/organized vs. easy-going/careless). Tendency to be organized and dependable, show self-discipline, act dutifully, aim for achievement, and prefer planned rather than spontaneous behavior. High conscientiousness is often perceived as stubbornness and obsession. Low conscientiousness is associated with flexibility and spontaneity, but can also appear as sloppiness and lack of reliability.[7]• Extraversion (outgoing/energetic vs. solitary/reserved). Energy, positive emotions, surgency, assertiveness, sociability and the tendency to seek stimulation in the company of others, and talkativeness. High extraversion is often perceived as attention-seeking and domineering. Low extraversion causes a reserved, reflective personality, which can be perceived as aloof or self-absorbed.[7] Extroverted people tend to be more dominant in social settings, as opposed to introverted people who may act more shy and reserved in this setting.[8]• Agreeableness (friendly/compassionate vs. challenging/detached). Tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspiciousand antagonistic towards others. It is also a measure of one's trusting and helpful nature, and whether a person is generally well-tempered or not. High agreeableness is often seen as naive or submissive. Low agreeableness personalities are often competitive or challenging people, which can be seen as argumentative or untrustworthy.[7]• Neuroticism (sensitive/nervous vs. secure/confident). Tendency to be prone to psychological stress.[9] The tendency to experience unpleasant emotions easily, such as anger, anxiety, depression, and vulnerability. Neuroticism also refers to the degree of emotional stability and impulse control and is sometimes referred to by its low pole, "emotional stability". A high stability manifests itself as a stable and calm personality, but can be seen as uninspiring and unconcerned. A low stability expresses as a reactive and excitable personality, often very dynamic individuals, but they can be perceived as unstable or insecure.[7] Also, individuals with higher levels of neuroticism tend to have worse psychological well being.[10]

l. Gratz v. Bollinger

Gratz v. Bollinger. Jennifer Gratz and Patrick Hamacher v. Lee Bollinger, et al. A state university's admission policy violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment because its ranking system gave an automatic point increase to all racial minorities rather than making individual determinations.Facts. The University of Michigan receives a high volume of applicants each year to its College of Literature, Science and the Arts (LSA). To help with admission decisions, the University implements a point system. This point system is out of 100 points. A student that is from an underrepresented group automatically receives 20 points towards his or her over all score. The groups of students typically come from African-American, Hispanic, and Native American backgrounds. A student with extraordinary artistic talent only receives 5 points under the admission system. Also every student that is from an underrepresented group, and is otherwise qualified, is typically accepted into the school. A group of white student's, that were determined qualified by the University, where denied admission.Issue. Whether a School's admission policy to automatically grant 20 out of 100 points to students of a minority ethnicity is a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Constitution.

4. Job Characteristics Model-

Hackman and Oldham, 1976 developed the JCT. Job design has an effect on motivation, work performance, and job satisfaction. It is a framework for management to identify how certain job characteristics affect outcomes of the jobs. The model specifies the conditions under which workers will be internally motivated to perform their jobs effectively.

b. Two-factor Theory

Herzberg's motivation-hygeine theory and dual-factor theory-Certain factors in the workplace that cause job satisfaction, while a separate set of factors cause dissatisfaction. Satisfaction and dissatisfaction act independently of one another.Related to Maslow's hierarchy because of hierarchy. Therefore people are not content with minimum salary levels or safe pleasant working conditions, but need gratification of higher-level needs like achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, and the nature of the work itself. Increase of satisfaction does not lead to decrease in dissatisfaction. The two must be dealt with individually. In order to increase satisfaction deal with; Increase motivators, decrease hygiene factors.Motivators- e.g. challenging work, recognition, etc, that give positive satisfaction. Increase these and sat will increase.Hygeine factors- e.g. status, job security, good pay, etc. that do not give sat., though dissat. Results from their absence. Maintenance factors, extrinsic to the work itself. KITA kich ********** factors(incentives). These factors cause dissat. Eliminate these, eliminate dissat.

8. What is the difference between between-subjects and within-subjects designs? What are theadvantages and disadvantages of each?

In a between-subjects design, the various experimental treatments are given to different groups of subjects.A within-subjects design differs from a between-subjects design in that the same subjects perform at all levels of the independent variable.An advantage of within-subjects designs is that individual differences in subjects' overall levels of performance are controlled. This is important because subjects invariably will differ greatly from one another.Within-subjects designs control these individual differences by comparing the scores of a subject in one condition to the scores of the same subject in other conditions. In this sense each subject serves as his or her own control. This typically gives within-subjects designs considerably more power than between-subjects designs. That is, this makes within-subjects designs more able to detect an effect of the independent variable than are between-subjects designs.Within-subjects designs are often called "repeated-measures" designs since repeated measurements are taken for each subject. Similarly, a within-subject variable can be called a repeated-measures factor.

b. Pay-for-performance -

In the healthcare industry, pay for performance (P4P), also known as "value-based purchasing", is a payment model that offers financial incentives to physicians, hospitals, medical groups, and other healthcare providers for meeting certainperformance measures.

2.What is the difference between internal and external validity?

Internal validity refers to whether the effects observed in a study are due to the manipulation of the independent variable and not some other factor. In-other-words there is a causal relationship between the independent and dependent variable.Internal validity can be improved by controlling extraneous variables, using standardized instructions, counter balancing, and eliminating demand characteristics and investigator effects.External validity refers to the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other settings (ecological validity), other people (population validity) and over time (historical validity).External validity can be improved by setting experiments in a more natural setting and using random sampling to select participants.

15.What are the advantages and disadvantages of IRT, including differential item functioning?

It offers many advantages over its predecessor, classical test theory, by implementing more sophisticated mathematical modeling.Advantages of IRT are contribution of each item to precision of total test score can be assessed, can tailor test to needs: for example, can develop a criterion-referenced test that has most precision around the cut-off score, and good for tests where a core of items is administered, but different groups get different subsets (i.e., cross-cultural testing, computer adapted testing). Some disadvantages of IRT are strict assumptions, large sample size (minimum 200; 1000 for complex models), more difficult to use than CTT: computer programs not readily available and models are complex and difficult to understand.Differential item functioning (DIF) is a statistical characteristic of an item that shows the extent to which the item might be measuring different abilities for members of separate subgroups. Average item scores for subgroups having the same overall score on the test are compared to determine whether the item is measuring in essentially the same way for all subgroups. does not necessarily indicate the presence of bias. it displays DIF if and only if people from different groups with the same underlying true ability have a different probability of giving a certain response.However, the issue more closely revolves around whether the amount of people per group is sufficient for there to be enough statistical power to identify DIF. For instance, using IRT approaches may require larger samples than required for the Mantel-Haenszel procedure. This is important, as investigation of group size may direct one toward using one procedure over another. If only certain items are suspected of DIF with adequate reasoning, then it may be more appropriate to test those items and not the entire set. However, oftentimes it is difficult to simply assume which items may be problematic. For this reason, it is often recommended to simultaneously examine all test items for DIF. Reasoned judgment is of critical importance when evaluating items for DIF. For instance, depending on the statistical procedure used for DIF detection, differing results may be yielded. Some procedures are more precise while others less so. For instance, the Mantel-Haenszel procedure requires the researcher to construct ability levels based on total test scores whereas IRT more effectively places individuals along the latent trait or ability continuum.

2. Job enlargement-

Job enlargement means increasing the scope of a jobthrough extending the range of its job duties and responsibilities generally within the same level and periphery. Job enlargement involves combining various activities at the same level in the organization and adding them to the existing job.

1. Equity Theory

John Stacey Adams. Fairness and equity are key to a motivated individual.People motivated by fairness. If they perceive unfairness or inequity, they will seek to adjust those. Higher perception of equity=higher motivation. Visa-versa. Often seen through eyes of people who compare themselves to those who get paid more than they do. Referent group-people or group of people used to compare oneself to the larger population.Equity- measured by comparing the ratio of contribution (or costs) and benefits (or rewards) for each person. Lack of perceived equity results in distress. If a person sees themselves as either over or under rewarded they experience distress. Under oayment inequity-anger. Overpay inequity-guilt. This inequity in pay is the case of inequity in most cases.Self-inside- individuals seek to maximize outcomesSelf-outside- groups can maximize rewards by developing accepted systems for distributing coosts and rewards.Others-inside- Inequitable relationships-distress. Either over or under rewarded.Other-outside- Individuals who perceive inequity will try to restore it. The greater the inequity the greater distress and the more they try to restore equity.

23. What is a KSAO?

KSAOs are the job-related Knowledges, Skills, Abilities, and Other characteristics that an applicant must have to perform successfully in the position. KSAOs typically fall into two major categories - technical and behavioral.

35. What are some characteristics of a good performance management system (refer to Agu

Meaningfulness, The standards and ideals must be cosidered menaingful and relevant. Practicality, They cannot be too expensive, time consuming, or difficult to understand.Easy to use systems are preffered. Thouruoughness, All employees should be evaluated. Second, all major job responbibilities should be evaluated. Third, it should cover performance for a whole review period not just aprt of it. Fourth, feedback shouls be given on good performance and performance that needs improvement. Acceptability and Fairness, It should be perceived by all participants as fair and equal. You must ask participants what they think. Including employees, managers, and peers in the creationof the PMG are good ways to keep everyone happy. Distributive justice-how it is distributes. Procedural justice, how the ratings are determined. Informational justice, expectations about performance goals. Interpersonal justice, between people.

Positional Analysis Questionaire-

Minimum training to administer. Purpose is to define the duties and responsibilities of a position in order to determine the appropriateness of the position classification, essential functions and whether or nomt the position is exempt from overtime. Contains 195 items called "job elements" and consists of 6 divisions: Information input, mental processes, work output, relationships with other persons, job context, and job related variables. Inexpensive, little time to conduct.Very standardized, can be analyzed by computer.Some say it is too broad and cannot be used to accurately analyze all job types. PAQ was written at the college level, while many takers were at lower educational levels.

2. Situational leadership theory

No leadership style is the best, it depends on the situation. The most effective leaders are those that are able to adapt their style to the situation and look at cues such as the type of task, the nature of the group, and other factors that might contribute to getting the job done.

1.What are the differences between nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales? What are the limitations of these distinctions?

Nominal- Name, ex. Gender, hair color. Ordinal- With ordinal scales, it is the order of the values is what's important and significant, but the differences between each one is not really known. Take a look at the example below. In each case, we know that a #4 is better than a #3 or #2, but we don't know-and cannot quantify-how muchbetter it is. For example, is the difference between "OK" and "Unhappy" the same as the difference between "Very Happy" and "Happy?" We can't say. Interval- scales are numeric scales in which we know not only the order, but also the exact differences between the values. The classic example of an interval scale is Celsius temperature because the difference between each value is the same. No true zero. Ratio- Ratio scales are the ultimate nirvana when it comes to measurement scales because they tell us about the order, they tell us the exact value between units, AND they also have an absolute zero-which allows for a wide range of both descriptive and inferential statistics to be applied. At the risk of repeating myself, everything above about interval data applies to ratio scales + ratio scales have a clear definition of zero. Good examples of ratio variables include height and weight.

16. What is the difference between norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests?

Norm-referenced tests (or NRTs) compare an examinee's performance to that of other examinees. Standardized examinations such as the SAT are norm-referenced tests. The goal is to rank the set of examinees so that decisions about their opportunity for success (e.g. college entrance) can be made.Criterion-referenced tests (or CRTs) differ in that each examinee's performance is compared to a pre-defined set of criteria or a standard. The goal with these tests is to determine whether or not the candidate has the demonstrated mastery of a certain skill or set of skills. These results are usually "pass" or "fail" and are used in making decisions about job entry, certification, or licensure. A national board medical exam is an example of a CRT. Either the examinee has the skills to practice the profession, in which case he or she is licensed, or does not.

9. What are the advantages and disadvantages of qualitative research? How can qualitativeresearch be effectively used in I/O research?

On one hand, you have the perspective of the data that is being collected. On the other hand, you have the techniques of the data collector and their own unique observations that can alter the information in subtle ways.1.Subject materials can be evaluated with greater detail.2.The structure of qualitative studies allows the researcher to "go where the information takes them"3.This can leads to a lack of uniformity and therefore a lack of translation into numbers.4.Qualitative research data is based on experience and observations5.Data can be predictive as long as the groups of people are the same in other ways.6. Follow up questions can be asked to clarify7. The complexities of human experience can more easily be defined and represented therough qualitative research8.The open-ended format allows for access to base emotions, erceptions, attitudes, and beliefs behind decisions.9.Can encourage more honest answers than quantitative where people will respond with acceptable, expected answers10.Smaller sample sizes=lower cost & lower time11.Disadvantages12.Subjective13.Data validity is harder to prove14.Time consuming to go through data15.Findings are difficult to represent because the answers are subjective and not easily sorted into black/white answers16.Researcher influence17.Difficulty replicating results18.Impact of results greatly depends on the ability of the researcher to make meaningful suppositions from the vast amount of material19.Not statistically representative

c. Managerial Grid1964 Robert R. Blake.

Originally identified five different leadership styles based on the concern for people and the concern for production.The model is represented as a grid with concern for production as the x-axis and concern for people as the y-axis; each axis ranges from 1 (Low) to 9 (High). The resulting leadership styles are as follows:•The indifferent (previously called impoverished) style (1,1): evade and elude. In this style, managers have low concern for both people and production. Managers use this style to preserve job and job seniority, protecting themselves by avoiding getting into trouble. The main concern for the manager is not to be held responsible for any mistakes, which results in less innovation decisions.The accommodating (previously, country club) style (1,9): yield and comply. This style has a high concern for people and a low concern for production. Managers using this style pay much attention to the security and comfort of the employees, in hopes that this will increase performance. The resulting atmosphere is usually friendly, but not necessarily very productive.•The dictatorial (previously, produce or perish) style (9,1): control and dominate. With a high concern for production, and a low concern for people, managers using this style find employee needs unimportant; they provide their employees with money and expect performance in return. Managers using this style also pressure their employees through rules and punishments to achieve the company goals. This dictatorial style is based on Theory X of Douglas McGregor, and is commonly applied by companies on the edge of real or perceived failure. This style is often used in cases of crisis management.•The status quo (previously, middle-of-the-road) style (5,5): balance and compromise. Managers using this style try to balance between company goals and workers' needs. By giving some concern to both people and production, managers who use this style hope to achieve suitable performance but doing so gives away a bit of each concern so that neither production nor people needs are met.•The sound (previously, team) style (9,9): contribute and commit. In this style, high concern is paid both to people and production. As suggested by the propositions of Theory Y, managers choosing to use this style encourage teamwork and commitment among employees. This method relies heavily on making employees feel themselves to be constructive parts of the company.•The opportunistic style: exploit and manipulate. Individuals using this style, which was added to the grid theory before 1999, do not have a fixed location on the grid. They adopt whichever behaviour offers the greatest personal benefit. The paternalistic style: prescribe and guide. This style was added to the grid theory before 1999. In The Power to Change, it was redefined to alternate between the (1,9) and (9,1) locations on the grid. Managers using this style praise and support, but discourage challenges to their thinking.

d. ADA

Passed by Congress in 1990, the Americans with Disabilities Act(ADA) is the nation's first comprehensive civil rights law addressing the needs of people with disabilities, prohibiting discrimination in employment, public services, public accommodations, and telecommunications.

f.Executive Order 111246

Passed in Septembert of 1965, this document covers equal employment opportunity for specific jobs. It covers nondiscrimination in government employment, including contractors and subcontractors. It describes the powers and duties of the secretary of labor and the contracting agencies, sanctions and penalties, certificates of merit, and nondiscrimination provisions in federally assisted construction contracts.

18.Define predictive validation, concurrent validation, and validity generalization.

Predictive validation-In psychometrics, predictive validity is the extent to which a score on a scale or test predicts scores on some criterion measure. For example, the validity of a cognitive test for job performance is the correlation between test scores and, for example, supervisor performance ratings.Concurrent validation-Concurrent validity is a type of evidence that can be gathered to defend the use of a test for predicting other outcomes. It is a parameter used in sociology, psychology, and other psychometric or behavioral sciences.Validity Generalization-Validity generalization is an application of meta-analysis to the cor- relations between an employment test and a criterion, typically job. or workplace training performance.

a. Predictor-

Predictor variables are variables that are being used to predict some other variable or outcome. Predictor variables are often confused with independent variables, which are manipulated by the researcher in an experiment.

d. Reliability

Reliability in statistics and psychometrics is the overall consistency of a measure. A measure is said to have a high reliability if it produces similar results under consistent conditions. ... For example, measurements of people's height and weight are often extremely reliable.

D. Relationships with Subordinates (vertical dyad Linkage/LMX)

Stage 1 Vertical Dyad Linkage-Many managerial processes in orgs occurred on a dyadic basis, with managers forming differentiated relationships with those who reported to them. Instudies different employees gave different descriptions of the same managers. Some described "high-quality exchanges" "in group", others described "low-quality exchanges or "out group". This resulted because a manager has limited time and resources allowing only a few high-quality exchange relationships.

c. Validity

Statistical Validity is the extent to which the conclusions drawn from a statisticaltest are accurate and reliable. ... With such a small sample size, your conclusions are not statistically valid.

14.What is the difference between test bias and test fairness? Why is this distinction important?

Test fairness has no single meaning. Could be equal group outcomes COULD BE EQUITABLE TREATMENT OF EXAMINEES Could mean examinees have a comparable opportunity to learn the subject before exam Could be the lack of predictive biasTest bias is any construct-irrelevant source of variance that results in systematically higher or lower scores for identifiable groups of examinees Specifically predictive and measurement bias. Predictive bias-

17.Define test validity, distinguish content, criterion, & construct validity. (We will soon consider content validation and criterion validation as approaches to the "big" validity - construct validity.)

Test validity-The term validity refers to whether or not the test measures what it claims to measure. On a test with high validity the items will be closely linked to the test'sintended focus. ... The face validity of a test is sometimes also mentioned.Content validity-In psychometrics, content validity (also known as logical validity) refers to the extent to which a measure represents all facets of a given construct. ... A disagreement about a personality trait will prevent the gain of a high content validity.Criterion validity-In psychometrics, criterion or concrete validity is the extent to which a measure is related to an outcome. Criterion validity is often divided into concurrent and predictive validity. Concurrent validityrefers to a comparison between the measure in question and an outcome assessed at the same time. In Standards for Educational & Psychological Tests, it states, "concurrent validity reflects only the status quo at a particular time."[1] Predictive validity, on the other hand, compares the measure in question with an outcome assessed at a later time. Although concurrent and predictive validity are similar, it is cautioned to keep the terms and findings separated. "Concurrent validity should not be used as a substitute for predictive validity without an appropriate supporting rationale."[1]Construct validity-Construct validity is "the degree to which a test measures what it claims, or purports, to be measuring. Modern validity theory defines construct validity as the overarching concern of validity research, subsuming all other types of validity evidence.

20. What is the 80% rule in selection?

The 80% rule states that the selection rate of the protected group should be at least80% of the selection rate of the non-protected group. In this example, 4.8% of 9.7% is 49.5%. Since 49.5% is less than four-fifths (80%), this group has adverse impact against minority applicants.

c.ADEA of 1967

The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA) protects certain applicants and employees 40 years of age and older from discrimination on the basis of age in hiring, promotion, discharge, compensation, or terms, conditions or privileges of employment.

a. Civil Rights Act of 1964

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Pub.L. 88-352, 78 Stat. 241, enacted July 2, 1964) is a landmark civil rights and US labor law in the United States that outlaws discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.

b. 1991 Amendment to the Civil Rights Act

The Civil Rights Act of 1991 is a United States labor law, passed in response to United States Supreme Court decisions that limited the rights of employees who had sued their employers for discrimination. ... President Bush had used his veto against the more comprehensive Civil Rights Act of 1990.

d. Pygmalion Effect-

The Pygmalion effect, or Rosenthal effect, is the phenomenon whereby higher expectations lead to an increase in performance. The effect is named after the Greek myth of Pygmalion, a sculptor who fell in love with a statue he had carved, or alternately, after the Rosenthal-Jacobson study (see below).

24. What is a competency model and how does it compare to traditional job analysis?

The difference between job analysis and competency models is that: A. competency modeling is more work- and task-focused, whereas job analysis is worker-focused. B. competency modeling is used to generate specific requirements of employees for a job, and job analysis is used to generate more general requirements.

3.Procedural and Distributive JusticeProcedural Justice-

The idea of fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources. Can be related to the textual laws such as administration of justice, due process, fundamental justice, etc. Can also be related to nonlegal contexts in which some process is employed to resolve conflict or divide benefits or burdens.Ex. Hearing all parties before decisions are made.Distributive Justice- Concerns the nature of a social justice allocation of goods. Includes available quantities of goods, the process by which they are distributed, and the resulting allocation of the goods to members of the society.Focuses on outcomes.

b. McGregor's Theory X

Theory of Work motivation and management. Douglas McGregor 1950s. Theopry X explains the importance of heightened supervision, external rewards, and penalities. This assumes that the typical worker has little ambition, avoids responsibility, and is individual-goal oriented. Managers who believe this are more likely to use rewards or punishments as motivation. Due to these assumptions Theory X concludes the typical workforce operates more efficiently under a hands-on approach to management.

c. McClelland's Needs Theory

Three Needs Theory- motivational model that helps explain the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation affect the actions of people from a managerial context. Created two decades before Maslow's hierarchy. All ppl have these needs regardless of age, sex, race, or culture. Motivation by which each individual is driven derives from their life experiences and opinions of their culture.Need for achievement- Prefer tasks of moderate difficulty, results based on effort, prefer to receive feedback. These individuals avoid high-rish and low-risk situations. Low-risk is too easy to be valid, high-risk is based on luck so not worth it. Motivated by accomplishment and an employment hierarchy with promotional positions.Need for Affiliation- Prefer to spend time creating and maintaining social relationships, enjoy groups, need love and acceptance. Adhere to norms of culture and do not change for fear of rejection. Prefers collaboration over competition, does not like high-risk. Work well in areas based on social interactions like customer service.Need for Power- Enjoy work and place a high value on discipline. Goals can become zero0sum in nature, that is, for one person to win, another must lose. Though can be used to motivate groups. Needs status recognition, winning arguments, competition, and influencing others. Needs personal prestige, and a constant need for a better personal status.Effect on management.- 86% of people are dominant in one, two, or all three of these. Top managers have high need for power and low need for affiliation. People with high need for achievement will do best when they can succeed through own efforts.

4.What is the difference between experimental and quasi-experimental designs? How is this distinction important in I/O psychology?

True experiments, in which all the important factors that might affect the phenomena of interest are completely controlled, are the preferred design. Often, however, it is not possible or practical to control all the key factors, so it becomes necessary to implement a quasi-experimental research design.Similarities between true and quasi-experiments:1.Study participants are subjected to some type of treatment or condition2.Some outcome of interest is measured3.The researchers test whether differences in this outcome are related to the treatmentDifferences between true experiments and quasi-experiments:• In a true experiment, participants are randomly assigned to either the treatment or the control group, whereas they are not assigned randomly in a quasi-experiment•In a quasi-experiment, the control and treatment groups differ not only in terms of the experimental treatment they receive, but also in other, often unknown or unknowable, ways. Thus, the researcher must try to statistically control for as many of these differences as possible•Because control is lacking in quasi-experiments, there may be several "rival hypotheses" competing with the experimental manipulation as explanations for observed results

j.Wards Cove v. Atonio

Wards Cove Packing Co. employed primarily nonwhite workers for unskilled seasonal jobs canning fish. A group of nonwhite workers filed suit in federal district court alleging that Wards Cove practiced discriminatory hiring in violation of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. As evidence, the group compared the high percentage of nonwhites in unskilled work with the high percentage of whites in skilled work. The District Court rejected this claim because it found that Ward received unskilled workers through a hiring agency that enrolled primarily nonwhites. The United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit reversed. It held that Ward had the burden of proof to sho

i. watson v. Fort Worth bank

Watson v. Fort Worth Bank & Trust, 487 U.S. 977 (1988), is a United States Supreme Court case on US labor law, concerning proof of disparate treatment under the Civil Rights Act of 1964. On certiorari, the United States Supreme Court vacated the judgment of the Court of Appeals and remanded the case for further proceedings.Seven members of the Court (1) agreed that disparate impact analysis may be applied to allegedly discriminatory subjective or discretionary employment practices, and (2) agreed regarding certain aspects of the evidentiary standards applicable in such cases. In that portion (Parts I, II-A, II-B, and III) of the opinion by Justice O'Connor, it was held that, in a Title VII action, disparate impact analysis may properly be applied to subjective or discretionary employment practices.

g.Griggs v. Duke

Willie Griggs file a class action against Duke Power Company. He challenged the transfer policy re quiring employees who want to work in the company to register a minimum score on two separate aptitude tests and to have a high school education. He claimed that the policy discriminated against African-American Employees in violation of 1964 Civil Rights Act. The Court of Appeals found no discriminatory practices, the Supreme Court granted certiorari.

f. stock options-

a benefit in the form of an option given by a company to an employee to buy stock in the company at a discount or at a stated fixed price.

d. profit sharing-

a system in which the people who work for a company receive a direct share of the profits.

26. There are three major documents that guide the practice of personnel selection testing.

a. Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection roceduresBased on the Civil Rights Act of 1964 that established that employment decisions based on race, color, sex, or national origin are discriminatory or illegal. In 1978, the U.S. civil Service Commission, the dept of Labor, the Dept of Justice, and the Equal employment Opportunity Commission created this document. The document provides standards for employment testing, selection procedures, including hiring, promotion, demotion, referral, retention, licensing or certification, training, and transfer. The document covers adverse impact in practices and claims these practices illegal unless the justified by business necessity. It considers and defines content, criterion, and construct validity of selection procedures and how they relate to the successful performance of the job. It gives options for employers to take in the event of one or more of their selection practices being deemed unsuitable. The document defines and covers disparate impact and says that it cannot be imposed on protected people. Content Validity is covered in depth, including how to determine appropriateness of, job analysis for, standards for demonstrating, and ranking in the basis of content-valid selection procedures. b. SIOP Principles for the Validation and use of Personnel Selection ProceduresThis document provides guidelines for the evaluation, development, and use of testing instruments to be used in selection procedures. The Principles provide standards for the proper selection, evaluation, development, and use of personnel assessment procedures. Including cognitive ability tests, biodata instruments, assessment center evaluations, personality inventories, and structured interviews. Content, construct, and criterion related validities are defined and recommendations for proper validation is discussed. Why, when, and how to use each type of validity and its importance are covered in this document, as well as in depth definitions with instances of actual uses are covered. Job analysis is covered and suggestions are made as to how to use it in the development of personnel selection procedures. There is mention of the identification and use of KSAs in the selection procedure. c. APA Standards for Educational and Psychological Tests."This document is intended to promote the sound an ethical use of tests anf to provide a basis for evaluating the quality of testing practices." In Part I test construction, evaluation, and documentation are covered in detail. This section includes information on validity, reliability, errors of measurement, test development and revision, scaling, norming, and scale comparison, test administration, scoring, and reporting, and guidelines for supplying supportive documents for testing. Part II covers fairness in testing. This section includes information on bias and fairness, rights and responsibilities of test takers, testing individuals of diverse linguistic backgrounds, and testing individuals with disabilities. Art III covers testing applications. This section includes standards involving general responsibilities of test users, Psychological testing and assessment, educational testing and assessment, testing in employment and credentialing, and testing in program evaluation and public policy. Write a paragraph for each to summarize their key points.

c. Merit pay-

also known as pay-for-performance, is defined as a raise in pay based on a set of criteria set by the employer. This usually involves the employer conducting a review meeting with the employee to discuss the employee's work performance during a certain time period.

e. gainsharing-

an incentive plan in which employees or customers receive benefits directly as a result of cost-saving measures that they initiate or participate in.

A. Group cohesiveness-

arises when bonds link members of a social group to one another and to the group as a whole. Although cohesion is a multi-faceted process, it can be broken down into four main components: social relations, task relations, perceived unity, and emotions.[1]Members of strongly cohesive groups are more inclined to participate readily and to stay with the group.

3. Job enrichment-

can be described as a medium through which management can motivate self-driven employees by assigning them additional responsibility normally reserved for higher level employees. By doing this, employees feel like their work has meaning and is important to the company.

Skill variety-

degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities in carrying out the work, involving the use of a number of different skills and talents.

Task significance-

degree to which the job has substantial impact on the lives of other people, whether those people are in the immediate organization or in the world at large.

Autonomy-

degree to which the job provides substantial freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedure to be used in carrying it out.

Task Identity-

degree to which the job requires completion of a whole, identifiable piece of work, that is doing a job from beginning to end with visible outcome. In involves being able to work on an entire process, rather than just bits and pieces of it. Assess whether the job has clear beginning, middle, and end.

a. Denial-

denies that any changes will take place. Try to convince that old ways work, find reasons the new way will not work.

e. Internalization-

employees become immersed in new culture, become comfortable with new system and accept their new coworkers and the new work environment.

30. What is negligent hiring?

is a claim made by an injured party against an employer based on the theory that the employer knew or should have known about the employee's background which, if known, indicates a dangerous or untrustworthy character.

C. Types of leadership power (types of power) D. Transformational leadership

is a style of leadership where a leader works with teams to identify needed change, creating a vision to guide the change through inspiration, and executing the change in tandem with committed members of a group.[1] Transformational leadership serves to enhance the motivation, morale, and job performance of followers through a variety of mechanisms; these include connecting the follower's sense of identity and self to a project and to the collective identity of the organization; being a role model for followers in order to inspire them and to raise their interest in the project; challenging followers to take greater ownership for their work, and understanding the strengths and weaknesses of followers, allowing the leader to align followers with tasks that enhance their performance.

c. Intrinsic motivation-

is defined as performing an action or behavior because you enjoy the activity itself. Whereas acting on extrinsic motivation is done for the sake of some external outcome, the inspiration for acting on intrinsic motivation can be found in the action itself.

1. Social facilitation and inhibition-

is the tendency for people to perform differently when in the presence of others than when alone. Compared to their performance when alone, when in the presence of others, they tend to perform better on simple or well-rehearsed tasks and worse on complex or new ones.Social Inhibition is the tendency to perform worse at a new or poorly-learned task when in the presence of other people.

7.What is the difference between probability sampling and nonprobability sampling?

nonprobability sampling does not involve random selection and probability sampling does

g. Expectancy theory-

proposes an individual will behave or act in a certain way because they are motivated to select a specific behavior over other behaviors due to what they expect the result of that selected behavior will be.[1] In essence, the motivation of the behavior selection is determined by the desirability of the outcome.

B.Leadership through contact: Management by walking around

refers to a style of business management which involves managers wandering around, in an unstructured manner, through the workplace(s), at random, to check with employees, equipment, or on the status of ongoing work.[1] The emphasis is on the word wandering as an unplanned movement within a workplace, rather than a plan where employees expect a visit from managers at more systematic, pre-approved or scheduled times.The expected benefit is that a manager, by random sampling of events or employee discussions, is more likely to facilitate improvements to the morale, sense of organizational purpose, productivity and total quality management of the organization, as compared to remaining in a specific office area and waiting for employees, or the delivery of status reports, to arrive there, as events warrant in the workplace.

b. Criterion In regression analysis (such as linear regression)

the criterion variable is thevariable being predicted. In general, the criterion variable is the dependent variable.

2. Social loafing is

the phenomenon of a person exerting less effort to achieve a goal when they work in a group than when they work alone.

F. Groupthink

the practice of thinking or making decisions as a group in a way that discourages creativity or individual responsibility.

b. Defense-

when employees begin to believe that change will occur, they become defensive and try to justify their positions and ways of doing things.