Leadership

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How can leaders cast light?

by mastering ethical challenges of leadership

ethical blind spots

moral judgement 1. Overestimating our ethicality. 2. Forgiving our own unethical behavior. 3. In-group favoritism. 4. Implicit prejudice. 5. Judging based on outcomes, not the process.

Precrisis Stage

Five Crisis Myths that are debunked: Myth 1:"Crises are inevitable." Myth 2:"We lack the basic knowledge to prevent or understand crises." Myth 3: "Better technology will prevent future crises." Myth 4:"Crisis management is inherently detrimental to progress." Myth 5:"Emotions have no place in crisis management."

Identifying values continued

Six Major Value Types (Prototypes are examples of occupations that best fit into the given orientation) 1. Theoretical: intellectuals who want to discover the truth 2. Economic: usefulness is the most important criterion 3. Aesthetic: value form and harmony 4. Social: love of others is the highest value 5. Political: power driven 6. Religious: seek unity through understanding and relating to the cosmos as a whole

Expert power

knowledge, skills, and education build expert power

Five psychological factors that account for the Abilene Paradox

1. Action anxiety 2. Negative fantasies 3. Real risk 4. Fear of separation 5. Psychological reversal of risk and certainty

Shadow casters include

1. Unhealthy motivations 2. Personality disorders 3. Faulty decision making caused by mistaken assumptions and failure of moral imagination 4. Failure of moral imagination 5. Moral disengagement 6. Lack of ethical expertise 7. Contextual (group, organizational, societal) pressures that encourage people to set their personal standards aside

authentic leadership

Proponents of Authentic Leadership Theory (ALT) identify authenticity as the "root construct" or principle underlying all forms of positive leadership. The practice of authentic leadership leads to sustainable (long-term) and veritable (ethically sound) organizational performance.

fostering ethical accountability

A group's success or failure is highly dependent on the behaviors of its individual members. The job of the leader is to foster ethical accountability, to encourage followers to live up to their moral responsibilities to the rest of the group. A critical moral duty of group members is to pursue shared goals—to cooperate. Creating a cooperative climate is also difficult when group members fail to do their fair share of the work. Social psychologists use the term social loafing to describe the fact that individuals often reduce their efforts when placed in groups.

Crisis Overview

A crisis is any major unanticipated event that poses a significant threat. Such events are rare (making them difficult to prepare for), they generate a good deal of uncertainty (their causes and effects are unclear), and they are hard to resolve (there is no set formula for determining how to act). Decisions about how to deal with the crisis need to be handled quickly.

Evil as Choice

A number of scholars argue that we become good or evil through a series of small, incremental decisions. Throughout our lives, we face many decisions where we need to decide which path to choose. We cannot correct poor decisions by continuing on that path. We must return to the fork in the road and choose the other path.

Justice as Fairness

According to Harvard philosopher John Rawls, we should follow these principles of justice and build them into our social institutions: Principle 1: Each person has an equal right to the same basic liberties that are compatible with similar liberties for all. Principle 2: Social and economic inequalities are to satisfy two conditions: (A) They are to be attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity. (B) They are to provide the greatest benefit to the least-advantaged members of society.

Altruism Applications

Applications Put the needs of the followers before your own needs. Act as a role model. Use compassion as an important decision-making guideline.

applications of aesthetic beautiful leadership

Applications of Aesthetic (Beautiful) Leadership: Recognize the physical dimension of leadership View leadership as a performing art Make aesthetic judgments Decide like an artist

ways to improve listening performance in group setting

Avoid interruptions Seek areas of agreement Search for meanings and avoid arguing about specific words Ask questions and request clarification Be patient Compensate for attitudinal biases Listen for principles, concepts, and feelings Compensate for emotion-arousing words and ideas Be flexible Listen, even if the message is boring or tough to follow

The Ethical Demands of Extreme Leadership

Extreme leaders demonstrate the following virtues: Courage Optimism Integrity/Authenticity Loyalty Caring Humility

Soft power

Based on attracting others rather than forcing them to comply; leaders who use soft power set a good example

transformational leadership continued again

Bass adopted the terms authentic and pseudotransformational to distinguish between ethical and unethical transformational leaders Authentic transformational leaders are motivated by altruism and marked by integrity; allow followers free choice, followers are viewed as ends in themselves Pseudotransformational leaders are self-centered; they manipulate followers for their own goals

Applications of Kant's Categorical Imperative

Be duty bound Always ask yourself if you would want everyone to make the same choice Demonstrate respect for others

Applications of Utilitarianism

Build on your prior experience Carefully examine the outcomes of your decisions Set personal interests aside Recognize when weighing consequences is critical

team think

Charles Manz and his colleagues believe that self-managing work teams should replace groupthink with "teamthink." In teamthink, groups encourage divergent views, combining the open expression of concerns and doubts with a healthy respect for their limitations. Teamthink, like thought self-leadership, is a combination of mental imagery, self-dialogue, and realistic thinking.

criticisms of servant leadership

Cynicism: The first response when this model is presented; some equate servant leadership with passivity A misunderstanding that equates service with weakness Misplaced goals: A problem for both servant leaders and followers Members of some minority groups, particularly African Americans, associate the word servant with a history of slavery, oppression, and discrimination

the foursquare protocol

Catholic University law professor and attorney Stephen Goldman's protocol method: Protocol Element 1: Close description of the situation. Protocol Element 2: Gathering accumulated experiences in similar situations. Protocol Element 3: Recognize the significant distinctions between the current problem and past ones. Protocol Element 4: Situating yourself to decide.

cautions of aesthetic beautiful leadership

Cautions of Aesthetic (Beautiful) Leadership Ignores the rational dimension of leadership Definitions of beauty vary Performances can be dishonest

Habits

Habits are repeated routines or practices designed to foster virtuous behavior. Habit 1: Be proactive Habit 2: Begin with the end in mind Habit 3: Put first things first Habit 4: Think win-win Habit 5: Seek first to understand, then to be understood Habit 6: Synergize Habit 7: Sharpen the saw

What are the 7 clusters of destructive leader behaviors?

Cluster 1: leader makes poor decisions; lies and engages in unethical behavior; cant deal w/ new technology, fails at prioritizing Cluster 2: leader lacks critical skills; cannot motivate subordinates Cluster 3: leader makes good decisions but is overcontrolling; micromanages Cluster 4: leader cannot deal with conflict; plays favorites, behaves inconsistently Cluster 5: leader is not good or bad, dont seek info from others, dont change their mind or coordinate their followers Cluster 6: leader isolates the group from the rest of the organization Cluster 7: leader is brutal, bullies and lies

Conformers

Conformers: Lost Souls: These individuals are needy and are vulnerable to destructive leaders because they have basic unmet needs. Conformers: Authoritarians: Authoritarians believe that leaders have a right to demand obedience, and it is their belief in the legitimacy of the leader that triggers their obedience. Conformers: Bystanders: Bystanders, perhaps the largest group of susceptible followers, are generally passive and motivated by fear.

Brutal bosses engage in what type of behaviors?

Deceit Constraint Coercion Selfishness Inequity Cruelty Disregard Deification

decision making formats

Decision-making guidelines or formats can help us make better ethical choices. Taking a systematic approach encourages teams and individuals to carefully define the problem, gather information, apply ethical standards and values, identify and evaluate alternative courses of action, and follow through on their choices.

Demonstrate Care

Demonstrating concern has practical as well as ethical benefits. While it is in the interest of leaders and organizations to act in a compassionate manner for image and financial reasons, it is even more important to do so for ethical reasons. i.e., altruism Showing concern during a crisis goes well beyond addressing the physical and financial needs of victims. Emotional and spiritual needs as well

cautions of taoism

Denies reason Rejects codes and laws Is ambiguous about many moral issues Does not adequately explain evil

Cons of the foursquare protocol

Disadvantages (Cons) Undervalues other important ethical values and principles Hard to recognize what is relevant and significant and what is not Self-interest may still influence our decisions

cautions of transformational leadership

Equating success with transformation Leader centric Fosters dependency Offers no guarantee against unethical behavior

Ethical Action

Ethical Action (following through on moral decisions) Resolving conflicts and problems Asserting respectfully Taking initiative as a leader Implementing decisions Cultivating courage Persevering Working hard

Hearing stories/living shared stories

Fictional stories foster character development Discuss the many ways this is done Shared narratives both explain and persuade Stories are lived and told Part of our moral identity comes from living up to the roles we play in the stories we tell

Character building

Finding Role Models We often learn what it means to be virtuous by observing and imitating exemplary leaders. If we are to develop worthy character, we need examples of those who demonstrate virtue on a daily basis. Because character is developed over time through a series of moral choices and actions, we need examples of those who live consistent moral lives.

Shadow of Irresponsibility

Followers: responsible for their own actions, or in the case of a self-directed work team, for those of their peers Leaders: they are held accountable for the performance of their entire department or unit How do we determine the extent of a leader's responsibility?

Evil leader example

Head of ISIS Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi

Veil of Ignorance

If a group stands behind a veil of ignorance, they will choose: (a) equal liberty, because they would want the maximum amount of freedom to pursue their interests; (b) equal opportunity, because if they turned out to be the most talented members of society, they would probably land the best jobs and elected offices; (c) the difference principle, because they would want to be sure they were cared for if they ended up disadvantaged.

Defining the small group

Several elements set small groups apart: A common purpose or goal. Interdependence. Mutual influence. Ongoing communication. Specific size.

Cons of Kidder's Theory

It is not easy to determine who has the responsibility for solving a problem The facts are not always available, or there may not be enough time to gather them Decisions don't always lead to action

taoism continued

Images (Cont'd.) Third image: Water provides an important insight into how leaders ought to influence others by illustrating that there is great strength in weakness. Fourth image: Valley. Taoists highlight the importance of the yin, or feminine side of leadership, which is represented by the valley metaphor. Leaders should seek to be valleys (which reflect the yin) rather than prominent peaks (which reflect the yang). Fifth image: The clay pot, which celebrates emptiness by elevating nothing to higher status than something.

What are the 7 types of bad leaders?

Incompetent Rigid Intemperate Callous Corrupt Insular Evil

Common Spiritual Abuse Tactics 2

Insisting on rigid beliefs and behavior while demanding conformity and perfection Suppressing follower dissent through humiliation, deprivation, and other means Using nearly absolute power to engage in fraud, sexual immorality, and other unethical practices

Corrupt leaders

Lie, cheat, or steal Put self-interest ahead of public interest Example: The top officers of FIFA

Identifying values

Our values serve as a moral compass to guide us. Values provide a frame of reference, helping us to set priorities and to distinguish between right and wrong. Many discussions in organizations have an underlying value component. Working with a list of values can be helpful.

Common Spiritual Abuse Tactics

Overemphasizing spiritual authority and forbidding challenges from followers Demanding unquestioning obedience as a sign of follower loyalty, which takes away the right of subordinates to make their own choices Keeping members apart from outsiders and dismissing external critics while, at the same time, hiding character flaws and unethical practices from the public

Ethnic of Care

Philosopher Virginia Held's five key components of the care ethic: 1. Focuses on the importance of noting and meeting the needs of those we are responsible for. 2. Values emotions. 3. Specific needs and relationships take priority above universal principles. 4. Breaks down the barriers between the public and private spheres. 5. Views persons as both relational and interdependent.

Evil as Deception

Psychiatrist Scott Peck identified evil as an extreme form of narcissism or self-absorption. Evil people refuse to submit and try to control others instead. Evil people are consumed with keeping up appearances. Peck believes that truly evil people are more likely to live in our neighborhoods than in our jails.

component 3 - moral focus / motivation

Psychologists report that self-interest and hypocrisy undermine moral motivation. Sometimes individuals want to do the right thing, but their integrity can be "overpowered." Others never intend to follow an ethical course of action but engage in moral hypocrisy instead. Both self-interest and hypocrisy encourage leaders to set their moral principles aside.

Emotional intelligence continued

Raising team EI is an important leadership responsibility, which is accomplished largely through role modeling and establishing norms. Demonstrate our EI as leaders before we can improve the emotional climate of the group Display emotions that are appropriate to the situation Refrain from hostility Be sensitive to group moods Take the lead in confronting emotional issues

yukl's tactics

Rational persuasion Apprising Inspirational appeals Consultation Collaboration Ingratiation Personal appeals Exchange Coalition tactics Legitimizing tactics Pressure

Cautions of the Justice as Fairness Model

Rawls's principles can only be applied to democratic societies Groups disagree about the meaning of justice and fairness Lack of consensus about the most important rights

Build Resilence

Resilience refers to the collective ability to bounce back from a crisis. Resilient organizational cultures are marked by: 1. Psychological safety. 2. Deep social capital. 3. Diffused power and accountability. 4. Access to broad resource networks.

healthy ethical climate signs

There is no one-size-fits-all approach to creating an ethical climate. Key markers of highly ethical organizations include recognition of risk, zero tolerance for individual and collective destructive behaviors, justice, integrity, trust, process focus, structural reinforcement, and organizational citizenship.

climate building tools

To build or create ethical organizational climates, leaders rely heavily on four tools: Core ideology Codes of ethics Socialization Ethical learning

Virtues & Virtue Ethics

To keep from projecting our internal enemies and selfishness on others, we need to go on the offensive, replacing or managing our unhealthy motivations through the development of positive leadership traits or qualities called virtues. Premise of virtue ethics is good people (those of high moral character) make good, moral choices.

Temperance

To use things, therefore, and take pleasure in them as far as possible—not, of course, to the point where we are disgusted with them, for there is no pleasure in that—this is the part of a wise man. —Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza Moderation is key to practicing temperance Temperance is the ability to control emotions and pleasure Unfortunately, a great many leaders are intemperate; they are unable to control their anger and rail at subordinates

Give an example of an intemperate leader

Toronto Mayor Rob Ford

transactional leaders

Transactional leaders emphasize instrumental values, such as responsibility, fairness, and honesty, which make routine interactions go smoothly. Transactional leaders take a utilitarian approach, judging the morality of actions based on their outcomes. Transactional leaders are concerned with protecting their interests rather than in promoting the interests of the group. They are more likely to be controlling.

Callous Leaders

Uncaring or unkind Ignore or downplay the needs, wants, or wishes of their followers May yell, berate, or belittle followers Example: Former hotel magnate Leona Helmsley

Smart power

combo of hard & soft power

Derailed leaders:

act against the interests of both subordinates and the organization

Give an example off a rigid leader

former president of South Africa Thabo Mbeki

structural reinforcement

four elements of an organization's structure have a particularly strong impact on moral behavior: 1. Monetary and nonmonetary reward systems 2. Performance and evaluation processes 3. Decision-making rights and responsibilities 4. Corporate governance

What are some toxic leaders behaviors and characteristics?

leaving followers off worse, lack of integrity, stifling criticism, enormous egos

How can leaders cast darkness?

(1) abuse power, (2) hoard privileges, (3) mismanage information, (4) act inconsistently, (5) misplace or betray loyalties, and (6) fail to assume responsibilities.

5 strengths of servant leadership

1. Altruism: Concern for others (followers) comes before the self 2. Simplicity: Having one goal in mind—to serve others 3. Self-awareness: Servant leaders take time to listen to themselves and others and to reflect 4. Moral sensitivity: Servant leaders are acutely aware of the importance of pursuing ethical purposes that bring meaning and fulfillment to work 5. Ongoing development

Zero Tolerance for Destructive Behaviors continued

Common categories of misbehaviors in an organization: Incivility Aggression Sexual harassment Discrimination

applications of transformational leadership

Applications of Transformational Leadership Start small Employ the full range of leadership behaviors Recognize the universal appeal of transformational leadership

Unhealthy Motivations

Selfishness (driven by self-centeredness and manifests through pride and greed) Self-centeredness Pride: reference to Greek mythology Greed: driven to earn more and to accumulate additional perks, focuses attention on making the numbers

organizational citizenship

Three components of organizational citizenship: Stakeholder focus Corporate social responsibility (CSR) Sustainability

Shadow Casters

Unhealthy Motivations Internal Enemies or Monsters Monster 1: Insecurity Monster 2: Battleground Mentality Monster 3: Functional Atheism Monster 4: Fear Monster 5: Denying Death Monster 6: Evil

Supportive-disloyal leaders:

they care for welfare of subordinates at the expense of organizational goals

What are toxic leaders?

those who engage in destructive behaviors and who exhibit dysfunctional personal characteristics

standing on moral common ground

Cross-cultural research suggests that there might be moral commonalties when making ethical decisions. Research into the neurological basis of moral judgments is in the initial stages but suggests that, when it comes to ethics, there might be some cultural unity to go along with cultural diversity. Two approaches to uncovering ethical commonalities: Common Morality Cosmopolitanism

Contextual Pressures

Conformity is a problem for many small groups. Some groups might pressure dissenters, shield themselves from negative feedback, keep silent when they disagree, and so on. Top managers at some organizations may fire employees who talk about ethical issues so that they can claim ignorance if followers do act unethically.

norms that regulate emotions

Confronting Caring Creating resources for working with emotions Creating an affirmative environment Building external relationships

Cautions of Utilitarianism

Consequences are difficult to identify, measure, and evaluate There may be unanticipated outcomes Decision makers reach different conclusions

commitment and consistency

Consistency reduces the need for careful thought and reduces the likelihood of regret or dissonance after making a decision. Once we make a commitment, no matter how minor, we want to remain consistent.

discovering core values

Core Ideology Management experts James Collins and Jerry Porras use the term core ideology to refer to the central identity or character of an organization. Core values are the first component of core ideology. Core purpose is the second part of an organization's ideology. Your organization's purpose statement should inspire members.

defining culture

Cultures are comprehensive, incorporating both the visible (architecture, physical objects, nonverbal behavior) and the invisible (thoughts, attitudes, values). Elements of culture: Created Learned Shared Dynamic

defensiveness vs. supportive communication

Defensiveness is a major threat to accurate listening. On the other hand, supportive messages increase accuracy because group members devote more energy to interpreting the content and emotional states of sources.

Unethical Leaders

Deny having knowledge that is in their possession, Withhold information that followers need, Use information solely for personal benefit, Violate the privacy rights of followers, Release information to the wrong people, and Put followers in ethical binds by preventing them from releasing information that others have a legitimate right to know.

applications of responsible leadership

Develop your sense of social responsibility Encourage corporate social responsibility Play the roles of the responsible leader Broaden your focus to outside the organization

Evil as Exclusion Continued

Dispute resolution expert Susan Opotow believes that moral exclusion progresses through five states or elements that reinforce one another and can become a vicious cycle: 1. Conflicts of interest are salient. 2. Group categorizations are salient. 3. Moral justifications are prominent. 4. Unjust procedures are described as expedient. 5. Harmful outcomes occur.

Spirituality & Leadership Pt.3

Donde Ashmos and Dennis Duchon define workplace spirituality as "the recognition that employees have an inner life that nourishes and is nourished by meaningful work that takes place in the context of community." The inner life refers to the fact that employees have spiritual needs (their core identity and values) just as they have emotional, physical, and intellectual wants, and they bring the whole person to work. Meaningful work refers to the fact that workers typically are motivated by more than material rewards. Community refers to the fact that organization members desire connection to others.

Emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence (EI) consists of: 1. Awareness and management of personal emotions 2. Recognizing and exerting influence on the emotions of others Teams with a high emotional intelligence effectively address three levels of emotions: Individual Within the team Outside groups

Ethical Focus

Ethical Focus (motivation to act ethically) Respecting others Cultivating conscience Acting responsibly Helping others Finding meaning in life Valuing traditions and institutions Developing ethical identity and integrity

Ethical issues in influence

Ethical Issues in Influence The key for leaders is not whether to exercise influence but how to do so in an ethical manner. This chapter examines the ethical issues surrounding four sets of influence tools important to leaders: Compliance gaining The communication of expectations Argumentation Negotiation

Ethical Judgement

Ethical Judgment (decision making) Understanding ethical problems Using codes and identifying judgment criteria Reasoning generally Reasoning ethically Understanding consequences Reflecting on process and outcome Coping and resiliency

Ethical Sensitivity

Ethical Sensitivity (recognition of ethical problems) Understanding emotional expression Taking the perspective of others Connecting to others Responding to diversity Controlling social bias Interpreting situations Communicating effectively

negotiation continued

Fisher, Ury, and Patton's principled negotiation model of problem solving: 1. Separate the people from the problem 2. Focus on interests, not positions 3. Invent options for mutual gain 4. Insist on objective criteria

concepts of servant leadership

Five concepts that appear to be central to Servant Leadership 1. Stewardship: Being a servant leader means acting on behalf of others. 2. Obligation: Servant leaders take their obligations or responsibilities seriously. 3. Partnership: Servant leaders view followers as partners, not subordinates. 4. Emotional healing: Servant leaders help followers and organizations recover from disappointment, trauma, hardship, and broken relationships. 5. Elevating purpose: Servant leaders also serve worthy missions, ideas, and causes.

Justice as Fairness Model

Follow fairness guidelines Weigh both individual freedom and the good of the community when making decisions Step behind the veil of ignorance when making choices

focus on follower ethics

Followers have the greatest impact on leaders when they develop psychological ownership, foster trust, and practice transparency. Psychological ownership: Authentic followers feel like they "own" the organizations where they work and volunteer. Trust: They build trust with their leaders by taking on challenges without being asked. Transparency: By sharing their thoughts, values, and feelings, they help create transparent relationships with their leaders.

Crisis Overview Continued

Crisis management experts Matthew Seeger, Timothy Sellnow, and Robert Ulmer identify ten types of crises. 1. Public perception 2. Natural disasters 3. Product or service 4. Terrorist attacks 5. Economic 6. Human resource 7. Industrial 8. Oil and chemical spills 9. Transportation 10. Outside environment

declaration of human rights

Following World War II, a conflict fought in large part to protect human freedoms, the United Nations adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Rights protect the inherent dignity of every person regardless of race, ethnic background, place of residence, age, income, physical ability, or social status. More recently, the United Nations launched the Global Compact to encourage multinational corporations to honor human rights, labor rights, and the environment while at the same time fighting corruption.

more on responsible leadership

Only responsible leadership incorporates globalization and stakeholder theory. Responsible leadership theory is in the beginning stages of development, which accounts for many of its shortcomings. Additional theoretical development may address what is perhaps the greatest concern about responsible leadership, which is whether this perspective can serve as a general theory of leadership ethics.

cautions of authentic leadership

Overstates the importance of authenticity Equates authenticity with morality Differing interpretations of authentic behavior Authenticity can be defined as a personal characteristic or as a perception

appreciative inquiry (AI)

Participants in the AI process set out to discover the organization's "positive core" and use the group's strengths to guide individual and collective action. AI begins by choosing an affirmative topic, based on the assumption that what organizational members study will determine the kind of organizations they create. The discovery phase identifies "the best of what has been and what is." In the dream phase, participants look to the future to ask "What might be?"

What is the shadow of power?

Power is the foundation for influence attempts. The more power we have, the more likely others are to comply with our wishes. Power comes from a variety of sources. There are advantages and disadvantages of using each power type

Components of Ethical Crisis Management Continued

Practice Transparency Like responsibility, transparency is another requirement placed on groups and organizations operating freely in society. Failure to disclose information spawns abuses of power and privilege and makes it impossible for individuals to act as informed members of the community. Transparency begins with openness. Transparency also involves symmetry.

Cautions of Pragmatism

Pragmatism lacks a moral center. The approach can lead to undesirable decisions. Measuring growth is difficult.

Pragmatism

Pragmatism was the dominant philosophical movement in the United States from the Civil War through World War II. John Dewey (1859-1952) emerged as its most prominent spokesperson. Dewey and other pragmatists believed that scientific methods could be applied to solving human dilemmas. Dewey argued that ethical dilemmas should be approached scientifically as well.

Overcoming Attitudinal Obstacles

Prejudice: the prejudgment of others based on prior experiences and beliefs Stereotyping: the process of classifying group members according to their perceived similarities Ethnocentrism: the tendency to see the world from our cultural group's point of view

More on Making Ethical Choices in Culturally Diverse Settings

University of Louisiana professors J. Brooke Hamilton, Stephen Knouse, and Vanessa Hill (HKH) offer another set of guidelines for making choices in ethically diverse contexts. They provide six questions specifically designed to help managers at multinational enterprises (MNEs) make moral choices when corporate values conflict with business practices in the host country.

Evil as a Dreadful Pleasure

University of Maryland political science professor C. Fred Alford defines evil as a combination of dread and pleasure. He discovered that people experience evil as a deep sense of uneasiness, "the dread of being human, vulnerable, alone in the universe and doomed to die." Evil can also be a product of chronic boredom. Ordinary distractions such as television, movies, surfing the Internet, social media, shopping, and sports don't fill the void, so people turn to evil instead.

Hard power

Uses bonuses, raises, or threats to get people to go along

Ethical Perspectives

Utilitarianism: Do the Greatest Good for the Greatest Number of People Utilitarianism is based on the premise that ethical choices should be based on their consequences. Utilitarianism is attempting to do the greatest good for the greatest number of people. Utility can be based on what is best in a specific case (act utilitarianism) or on what is generally best in most contexts (rule utilitarianism).

ethical challenges off virtual teams

Virtual teams pose special ethical challenges for leaders. Collaboration Physical distance Less personal connection Anonymity Conflict is more common

Virtues

Virtues 1. Virtues are not easily developed or discarded but persist over time 2. Virtues shape the way leaders see and behave 3. Virtues operate largely independently of the situation 4. Virtues help leaders live better lives

Forming a moral identity

Virtues need to be embedded into our self-concepts and behavior to develop a moral identity. This is both a trait and a state Act consistently regardless of the situation Those with a highly developed sense of moral identity believe that to betray ethical values is to betray themselves

liking

We are more likely to comply with the requests of people we like Liking is based on: 1. physical appearance 2. similarity 3. compliments 4. contact and cooperation 5 association

facing the challenges

We can reduce our levels of negative prejudice, stereotyping, and ethnocentrism by committing ourselves to the following: Mindfulness Openness to new categories, openness to new information, recognizing the existence of more than one perspective Dignity and Integrity Moral Inclusion Cosmopolitanism

Wisdom & Prudence aka Practical Wisdom

We judge a person's wisdom by his hope. —American poet Ralph Waldo Emerson . . . the goal of human life is to be good. Prudence assists us in getting there. —Baldwin-Wallace College professors Alan Kolp and Peter Rea Wisdom draws upon knowledge and experience to promote the common good over both the short term and the long term. Prudence is especially important to leaders who make decisions for the collective fate.

Reward power

based on being able to give something valuable to others

Coercive power

based on penalties or punishments

Describe a rigid leader

competent but unyielding Unable to accept new ideas Inflexible Doesn't accept new information or changing conditions Example: former president of South Africa Thabo Mbeki

Insular leaders

draws clear boundaries between the welfare of his or her immediate group or organization and outsiders Example of former president Bill Clinton

ethics training

effective ethics training can make a positive difference. Effective training does the following: Focuses on the organization's unique ethical problems. Taps into the experiences of participants. Actively engages participants. Reinforces the organization's ideology and standards. Is integrated into the entire curriculum.

Laissez-faire leaders:

engage in passive and indirect negative behavior

Strategies for improving organization-wide performance should focus on building follower self-efficacy or self-confidence by:

1. Breaking down tasks into manageable segments and providing followers with the time to practice their skills 2. Delivering constructive suggestions about how to improve performance or how to carry out tasks 3. Modeling skills as well as positive thinking and how to deal with failure 4. Verbal persuasion backed with reasons why the follower will succeed

Categories of hardship events

1. Business mistakes and failures 2. Career setbacks 3. Personal trauma 4. Problem employees 5. Downsizing

Four steps to conducting a utilitarian analysis of an ethical problem:

1. Clearly identify the action or issue under consideration. 2. Specify all those who might be affected by the action (e.g., the organization, the local community, a professional group, society), not just those immediately involved in the situation. 3. Determine the good and bad consequences for those affected. 4. Sum the good and the bad consequences.

Four channels leaders use to signal high or low expectancies

1. Climate: the social and emotional atmospheres leaders create for followers 2. Feedback: leaders give more frequent positive feedback when they have high expectations of followers 3. Input: refers to the attention and focus given to followers 4. Output: high performers are given more opportunities to speak

Faces/Perspectives of Evil

1. Evil as Dreadful Pleasure 2. Evil as Exclusion 3. Evil as Deception 4. Evil as Bureaucracy 5. Evil as a Choice 6. Evil as Ordinary

Tips to learn from specific failure

1. Identify a significant failure from your professional or personal life and summarize the failure in a sentence (be sure to use the word failure). 2. Describe how you felt and thought about the failure immediately after it happened. 3. Move forward in time to identify any positive outcomes that came out of the failure, including skills you acquired, lessons you learned, and any relationships you established. 4. Identify how the failure changed or shaped you as a person, noting any new traits or attitudes you have adopted and whether you are any more mature now than before the failure event.34

Immoral to Moral Conduct

1. Moral justification: Leaders persuade themselves that their harmful behavior is actually moral and beneficial. 2. Euphemistic labeling: Euphemistic language has a sanitizing function, making harmful behavior appear more respectable and reducing personal responsibility. 3. Advantageous comparison: Contrast involves comparing unethical or criminal acts with even worse activities, thus making them appear more tolerable.

4-Stage Model off Forgiveness

1. Uncovering: the victim may deny the problem exists; the person does acknowledge the hurt, and may experience intense feelings of anger, shame, and betrayal 2. Decision: the injured party realizes that he or she is paying a high price for dwelling on the injury, considers the possibility of forgiveness, and commits to forgiving 3. Work: forgiveness is accomplished in this stage; attempts to understand the victim's background; may experience empathy; absorbing the pain is the key in this stage 4. Deepening: this stage describes the outcomes of forgiveness; the person offering the forgiveness may develop a new purpose in life and find peace

HKH 6 questions

1. What is the questionable practice (QP) in this situation? 2. Does the QP violate any laws that are enforced? 3. Is the QP simply a cultural difference, or is it also a potential ethics problem? 4. Does the QP violate the firm's core values or code of conduct, an industry-wide or international code to which the firm subscribes, or a firmly established hypernorm? 5. Does the firm have leverage (something of value to offer) in the host country that allows the firm to follow its own practices rather than the QP? 6. Will market practices in the host country improve if the firm follows its own practices rather than the QP in the host country marketplace?

Minimizing Harm

4. Displacement of responsibility: These individuals often put the blame on someone else so as to minimize their responsibility for doing damage to others. 5. Diffusion of responsibility: Diffusing or spreading out responsibility also lessens personal accountability for immoral behavior. 6. Disregard or distortion of consequences: Hiding suffering is one way to disregard the consequences of harmful actions.

How many ethical challenges of followership is there? Pg 8

5 The Challenge of Obligation The Challenge of Obedience The Challenge of Cynicism The Challenge of Dissent The Challenge of Bad News

How many clusters of destructive leader behaviors are there?

How many type of bad leaders are there?

Devaluing Humans

7. Dehumanization: It is easier to mistreat others if they are seen as less than fully human. 8. Attribution of blame: Blaming others is an expedient way to excuse unethical behavior.

Spirituality & Leadership

A great number of leaders turn to spirituality to equip themselves as they make choices and attempt to forgive by reshaping our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. More and more academics are studying the link between spiritual values and practices and organizational performance. Downsizing, restructuring, rapid change, and information overload have generated fear and uncertainty in the workplace, which prompts us to seek stability and to reexamine our lives.

Breaking the Cycle of Evil

A growing number of social scientists believe that forgiving instead of retaliating can prevent or break cycles of evil. In a cycle of evil, aggressive acts provoke retaliation followed by more aggression. Forgiving evildoers is controversial. What do skeptics assert?

transformational leadership

According to Bass and Avolio, transformational leadership is characterized by the following: Idealized influence: They become role models for followers and put followers' needs above their own Inspirational motivation: Motivate by providing meaning and challenge to the tasks of followers, and they arouse team spirit Intellectual stimulation: Transformational leaders stimulate innovation and creativity Individualized consideration: Act as coaches or mentors who foster personal development

Programmed Value Patterns

According to Geert Hofstede of the Netherlands, important values are "programmed" into members of every culture. Four value orientations from Hofstede's study: Power Distance Individualism versus Collectivism Masculinity versus Femininity Uncertainty Avoidance

The forgiveness process

According to Robert Enright, professor of educational psychology and president of the International Forgiveness Institute at the University of Wisconsin, forgiveness is not the following: Forgetting past wrongs to "move on" Excusing or condoning bad, damaging behavior Reconciliation or coming together again (forgiveness opens the way to reconciliation, but the other person must change or desire to reconcile) Reducing the severity of offenses Offering a legal pardon Pretending to forgive in order to wield power over another person Ignoring the offender Dropping our anger and becoming emotionally neutral

Personality Disorders

According to a number of psychologists, narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy are the "Dark Triad" behind the dark side of leadership Narcissism A certain degree is normal; the problem is high levels of this trait Machiavellianism Highly self-centered; skilled at manipulating others to achieve their ends Psychopathy Total lack of conscience; desire for power and wealth

integrity continued

According to business ethicist Lynn Paine, managers who act with integrity see ethics as a driving force of an enterprise. Paine believes that any effort to improve organizational integrity must include the following elements: There are sensible, clearly communicated values and commitments. Company leaders are committed to and act on the values. The values are part of the routine decision-making process and are factored into every important organizational activity. Systems and structures support and reinforce organizational commitments. Leaders throughout the organization have the knowledge and skills they need to make ethical decisions.

Evil as Bureaucracy

According to public administration professors Guy Adams and Danny Balfour, the combination of science and technology made the 1900s so destructive. In administrative evil, organizational members commit heinous crimes while carrying out their daily tasks. Balfour and Adams argue that the true nature of administrative evil is masked or hidden from participants.

social loafing

According to the collective effort model, leaders can minimize social loafing by: Evaluating the inputs of individual members. Keeping the size of work groups small. Making sure that each person makes a unique and important contribution to the task. Providing meaningful tasks that are intrinsically interesting and personally involving. Emphasizing the collective group identity. Offering performance incentives. Fostering a sense of belonging.

crisis leadership competencies

Additional competencies to navigating each crisis phase: Precrisis: Sense making Perspective taking Issue selling Organizational agility Creativity Crisis Event Decision making under pressure Communicating effectively Risk taking Postcrisis Promoting organizational resiliency Acting with integrity Learning orientation

Pros of the foursquare protocol

Advantages (Pros) Highlights the importance of justice and fairness Applies broad principles to individual situations Situates the decision maker Recognizes the influence of self-interest Incorporates both intuition and reason

Pros and Cons of Lonergan/Baird Method

Advantages (Pros) Is widely used Emphasizes the importance of paying attention and gathering data Incorporates ethical principles, reason, and emotion Recognizes the importance of follow-through Disadvantages (Cons) Overlooks many other types of ethical conflicts Used as a tool rather than as part of an ongoing process

Pros and Cons of Nash's 12 Questions

Advantages (Pros) of Nash's 12 Questions Highlights the importance of gathering facts Encourages perspective taking Forecasts results and consequences over time Disadvantages (Cons) of Nash's 12 Questions Is extremely time consuming May not always reach a conclusion Ignores implementation

Altruism

Advocates of altruism argue that love of neighbor is the ultimate ethical standard. Our actions should be designed to help others whatever the personal cost. The command to love God and to love others as we love ourselves is our most important obligation in Judeo-Christian ethics. Concern for others promotes healthy social relationships. Researchers from social psychology, economics, political science, and other fields have discovered that altruistic behavior is more often than not the norm, not the exception.

Engage the Head as Well as the Heart Continued

Aircraft carrier example Navy leaders encourage five mindful practices: Carrier crews are preoccupied with failure. Those who work on carriers are reluctant to simplify. Third, carrier crews sustain continuous sensitivity to operations. Fourth, people on carriers share a commitment to resilience. Fifth, carrier personnel demonstrate deference to expertise.

Compassion- kindness generosity love

All happiness in the world comes from serving others; all sorrow in the world comes from acting selfishly. —Leadership expert Margaret Wheatley An orientation that puts others ahead of the self Value others regardless of whether or not they get anything in return

comprehensive critical listening

All listening involves receiving, paying attention to, interpreting, and then remembering messages. Type of listening: Discriminative listening Comprehensive listening Therapeutic or empathetic listening Critical listening Appreciative listening

applications off servant leadership

Applications of Servant Leadership Focus on followers Act as a steward Cultivate self-awareness Pursue elevating purposes

applications of taoism

Applications of Taoism Use "soft" tactics Focus on being, not doing Temper your use of power and privilege Follow nature's example

Applications of Pragmatism

Approach ethical problems as you would other dilemmas. Immerse yourself in the details of the situation. Engage your imagination. Acknowledge your limitations. Look for creative solutions. Embrace your emotions. Recognize that your ethical choices shape your character.

Cooperative groups

Are more willing to take on difficult tasks and persist in the face of difficulties Retain more information Engage in higher-level reasoning and more critical thinking Generate more creative ideas, tactics, and solutions Transfer more learning from the group to individual members Are more positive about the task Spend more time working on tasks

focus on followership ethics

Arizona State University professor Jeffrey Kassing's five strategies workers use to express dissent to the organizational leaders Direct-factual appeals Solution presentations Repetition Circumvention Threatening resignation

3 Elements to increase your ethical competence

Assessment Feedback about how well you handle ethical dilemmas, how others perceive your character, and how your decisions affect followers Challenge You need the challenges and practice that come from moving into new leadership positions Support You need the support of others to maximize your development

Components of Ethical Crisis Management

Assume Broad Responsibility Responsibility is the foundation of ethical crisis leadership. Preventing, managing, and recovering from crises all depend on the willingness of leaders and followers to accept their moral responsibilities. In addition to engaging in, and fostering, ethical behavior, the responsible crisis leader fights against complacency, human biases, institutional weaknesses, special-interest groups, and other obstacles to crisis prevention.

transformational leadership continued

Bass found that transformational leadership uses both transactional and transformational elements. The transformational leader uses the active elements of the transactional approach (contingent reward and management-by-exception) along with idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration. Evidence from more than 100 empirical studies establishes that transformational leaders are more successful than their transactional counterparts.

Spirituality & Leadership Pt.4

Belief systems found in leaders who engage in common spiritual practices: Demonstrating respect for others' values Treating others fairly Expressing care and concern Listening responsively Appreciating the contributions of others Engaging in reflective practice

process focus (Concern for Means and Ends)

Concern for how an organization achieves its goals is another important indicator of a healthy ethical climate. When leaders pressure employees to produce sales and profits by whatever means possible, followers can feel alienated and powerless. Sociologists use the term anomie to refer to this sense of normlessness and unease that results when rules lose their force. Leaders can address the problem of anomie by making sure that goals are achieved through ethical means.

aesthetic beautiful leadership continued

British leadership professor Donna Ladkin identifies three components that contribute to a beautiful leadership performance: The first is mastery. An ethical/beautiful leader is competent and possesses the necessary skills and abilities to perform in a given moment. The second component is coherence. The beautiful, ethical leader is authentic, acting in a way that is consistent with his or her message and purpose. The third component is purpose. The beautiful leader serves the best interests of the community and improves the human condition.

components of moral actions

Business ethics educators Charles Powers and David Vogel identify six factors or elements that underlie moral reasoning and behavior and that are particularly relevant in organizational settings. Moral imagination Moral identification and ordering Moral evaluation Tolerating moral disagreement and ambiguity Integrate managerial competence with moral competence Moral obligation

self-Leadership in Self-Managed Teams

Business experts Christopher Neck and Charles Manz believe that self-leadership is key to living up to our duties as followers. Three components of self-leadership: 1. We need to lead ourselves to do unattractive but necessary tasks. 2. The second component is taking advantage of naturally rewarding activities. 3. We need to shape our psychological worlds or thought self-leadership.

Elements of Character

Character strengths for leaders include the following: Courage Temperance Wisdom Justice Optimism Integrity Humility Compassion (Kindness, Generosity, Love)

codes of ethics

Codes of ethics are among the most common ethics tools. Skeptics offer criticism of ethics statements. Defenders of ethical codes point to their potential benefits. These benefits include: A code describes an organization's ethical stance both to members and to the outside world. A formal ethics statement can improve the group's image while protecting it from lawsuits and further regulation. Referring to a code can encourage followers and leaders to resist unethical group and organizational pressures. A written document can have a direct, positive influence on ethical behavior.

What are the 5 power bases?

Coercive, Reward Legitimate, Expert Referent

Colluders

Colluders: Opportunists: Opportunists carry out the destructive directives of their leaders because they believe that they will be rewarded for doing so; they are ambitious, greedy, and manipulative, lacking in self-control. Colluders: Acolytes: Acolytes are "true believers"; they actively partner with the leader because they share the leader's goals and values.

Evil leader

Commit atrocities, using their power to inflict severe physical or psychological harm Example: Head of ISIS Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi

Aggressive tactics include:

Competence attacks Character attacks Insults Teasing Ridicule Maledictions Profanity Physical appearance attacks Threats Nonverbal indicators that express hostility

Component 1

Component 1. Moral Sensitivity (Recognition) Moral sensitivity (recognizing the presence of an ethical issue) is the first step in ethical decision making because we can't solve a moral problem unless we first know that one exists. Empathy and perspective skills are essential to this component of moral action. We may even deceive ourselves into thinking that we are acting morally when we are clearly not, a process called ethical fading. We can take steps to enhance our ethical sensitivity.

Component 1 continued

Component 1. Moral Sensitivity (Recognition) cont'd. Paying attention to our emotions can be an important clue that we are faced with an ethical dilemma. Anger, disgust, and contempt are other-condemning emotions. Shame, embarrassment, and guilt are self-conscious emotions that encourage us to obey the rules and uphold the social order. Sympathy and compassion are other-suffering emotions. Gratitude, awe, and elevation are other-praising (positive) emotions that open us up to new opportunities and relationships.

Component 2

Component 2. Moral Judgment Moral judgment has generated more research than the other components of Rest's model. Harvard psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg argued that individuals progress through a series of moral stages just as they do physical ones. Kohlberg identified three levels of moral development, each divided into two stages.

trust

Ethical organizations are marked by a high degree of trust. Organizational trust describes the collective set of positive expectations members hold about the intentions and behaviors of other stakeholders (coworkers, superiors, followers, other departments), which are based on their experiences and interactions as organizational members. Over the past several decades, trust has moved from the periphery to the center of organizational studies, primarily because it has been linked to so many positive outcomes.

A dual process approach

Ethical thinking activates both cognitive and emotional areas of the brain. The dual process perspective is based on the premise that both logic and emotion are essential to making good ethical choices. As neuroscientists have discovered, we can't make good ethical choices without employing our feelings.

decision making formats continued

Ethicist Rushworth Kidder's nine steps that can help bring order to confusing ethical issues: 1. Recognize that there is a problem 2. Determine the actor 3. Gather the relevant facts 4. Test for right-versus-wrong issues 5. Test for right-versus-right values 6. Apply the ethical standards and perspectives 7. Look for a third way 8. Make the decision 9. Revisit and reflect on the decision

Nash's 12 questions

Ethics consultant Laura Nash offers 12 questions that can help businesses and other groups identify the responsibilities involved in making moral choices. Question 1: Have you defined the problem accurately? Question 2: How would you define the problem if you stood on the other side of the fence? Question 3: How did this situation occur in the first place? Question 4: To whom and to what do you give your loyalties as a person or group and as a member of the organization? Question 5: What is your intention in making this decision? Question 6: How does this intention compare with the likely results? Question 7: Whom could your decision or action injure? Question 8: Can you engage the affected parties in a discussion of the problem before you make your decision? Question 9: Are you confident that your position will be as valid over a long period of time as it seems now? Question 10: Could you disclose without qualm your decision or action to your boss, your CEO, the board of directors, your family, or society as a whole? Question 11: What is the symbolic potential of your action if understood? Misunderstood? Question 12: Under what conditions would you allow exceptions to your stand?

Lonergan/Baird Method

Ethics expert Catharyn Baird used philosopher Bernard Lonergan's model to develop a framework for making ethical choices Step 1: Be attentive—Consider what works and what doesn't. Step 2: Be intelligent—Sort through the data. Step 3: Be reasonable—Evaluate the options. Step 4: Be responsible—Act with courage.

responsible leadership

European researchers Nicola Pless and Thomas Maak believe that leaders can help their corporations become a force for global good through exercising responsible leadership. Maak and Pless define responsible leadership "as a values-based and principle driven relationship between leaders and stakeholders who are connected through a shared sense of meaning and purpose through which they raise to higher ethical levels of motivation and commitment for achieving sustainable value creation and responsible change."

Six pairs of behaviors that promote either a defensive or a supportive group atmosphere.

Evaluation Versus Description Control Versus Problem Orientation Strategy Versus Spontaneity Neutrality Versus Empathy Superiority Versus Equality Certainty Versus Provisionalism

Cautions of Kant's Categorical Imperative

Exceptions exist to nearly every "universal" law Moral obligations may conflict with one another Ethical guidelines are often demonstrated through unrealistic examples This framework is hard to apply, particularly under stress

Moral character

Executing the plan of action takes character. The positive character traits described in Chapter 3 contribute to ethical follow-through. Courage, prudence, integrity, humility, reverence, optimism, compassion In addition to virtues, other personal characteristics contribute to moral action. Those with a strong will or internal locus of control Successful implementation also requires competence.

Faulty Decision Making

Executives have faulty theories about how the world operates, about other people, and about themselves. Theories About How the World Operates: These assumptions have to do with determining the consequences of choices, judging risks, and identifying causes. Theories About Other People: Ethnocentrism and stereotyping are particularly damaging. Ethnocentrism: the tendency to think that we are better than "they" are, that our way of doing things is superior to "theirs" Stereotypes: our beliefs about other groups of people

4 components of authenticity

Four Components of Authenticity 1. Self-awareness means being conscious of, and trusting in, our motives, desires, feelings, and self-concept. 2. Balanced processing describes remaining objective when receiving information. 3. Internalized moral perspective refers to regulating our behavior according to our internal standards and values, not according to what others say. 4. Relational transparency is presenting the authentic self to others, openly expressing true thoughts and feelings appropriate for the situation.

Making a Case for Forgiveness

Four strands to explain how warring groups can overcome their mutual hatred and bind together to restore fractured relationships 1. Moral Truth: forgiveness starts with recalling the past and rendering a moral judgment 2. Forbearance: rejecting revenge in favor of restraint 3. Empathy: empathy doesn't excuse wrongs but acknowledges that offender and offended share much in common 4. Commitment: to restore the broken relationship

Spirituality & Leadership Pt.6

Framework that can be used to measure the spiritual climate of a workplace (to determine your organization's spiritual progress): Benevolence: kindness toward others; desire to promote the happiness and prosperity of employees. Generativity: long-term focus; concern about future consequences of actions for this and future generations. Humanism: policies and practices that respect the dignity and worth of every employee; opportunity for personal growth when working toward organizational goals.

False agreement

George Washington University management professor Jerry Harvey offers an alternative to groupthink based on false agreement. Harvey believes that blaming group pressure is just an excuse for our individual shortcomings.

Learning from hardship

Hardship and suffering can play an important role in developing character. Hardship has been identified as one of the factors contributing to leadership development. Hardships, along with novelty, difficult goals, and conflict, challenge people. Leaders can develop the fastest when they encounter situations that stretch or challenge them.

Become an Ethical authority

Have a broader variety of schemas to draw from See the world differently than novices Experts have different skill sets Learn in a well-structured environment More experience means you will get better at solving ethical problems and better able to explain your choices Put in the necessary time and focused effort

Optimisim

Hope is not the conviction that something will turn out well, but the certainty that something makes sense, regardless of how it turns out. —Former Czech Republic president Václav Havel Optimists expect positive outcomes They are more confident than pessimists They acknowledge the reality of situations and take steps for improvement Optimism is an essential quality for leaders

Suggestions for reducing groupthink

If you're appointed as the group's leader, avoid expressing a preference for a particular solution. Divide regularly into subgroups, then bring the whole group back together. Bring in outsiders to challenge the group's ideas. Avoid isolation. Role-play the reactions. Once the decision has been made, give group members one last chance to express any remaining doubts about the decision.

Evil as Exclusion

In moral exclusion, group members draw a mental circle Those inside the circle (called the moral community or scope of justice) are treated with respect Those outside the circle, on the other hand, are seen as undeserving or expendable Mild forms of exclusion are part of daily life In extreme forms of exclusion, evils such as human rights violations, torture, murder, and genocide can occur

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