Learning Theory

Which of the following is an example of negative reinforcement?

A graduate student smokes cigarettes in order to alleviate anxiety he feels about his ability to receive good grades in his classes. In this situation the student's smoking continues because smoking removes (alleviates) anxiety. Negative reinforcement occurs when the removal of a stimulus following a behavior increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated.

GSR (galvanic skin response)

an increase in the electrical conductivity of the skin that occurs when sweat glands increase their activity biofeedback has been found useful for treating stress, anxiety, ADHD, and stuttering.

When using operant extinction to decrease or eliminate a previously reinforced behavior, the first thing you will likely observe is:

an initial increase in the behavior. Operant extinction involves removing reinforcement from a previously reinforced behavior in order to reduce or eliminate that behavior. When using extinction, the withdrawal of reinforcement does not usually result in an immediate cessation of the behavior. Instead, the behavior often becomes more forceful and frequent before it begins to decline in severity or frequency. This phenomenon is referred to as a response (or extinction) burst.

From a behavioral perspective, phobic reactions to benign objects or events are acquired when those objects or events become associated with a stimulus that naturally produces a fear response. In other words, phobic reactions are due to:

classical conditioning. According to the Pavlovian (classical conditioning) explanation for phobias, a fear response to a previously neutral object or event is a classically conditioned response in which fear is attached to the neutral stimulus (the CS) through its pairing with a stimulus that naturally elicits fear (the US).

Positive reinforcement

does increase a behavior but involves the application of a stimulus following the behavior.

From the perspective of learning theory, phobic anxiety is:

elicited by unconditioned (aversive) stimuli or stimuli that have been associated with them. The classical conditioning explanation for anxiety is that it is produced by exposure to an unconditioned stimulus that naturally elicits anxiety or, perhaps more often, by exposure to a conditioned stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally elicits anxiety. Knowing that learning theorists consider anxiety to be the result of classical conditioning would have helped you identify the correct response to this question.

Prior to taking an important test, Delwood D. feels very anxious and, on the basis of this anxiety, concludes that he's not prepared for the test and will fail it. Delwood is exhibiting which of the following?

emotional reasoning Delwood is exhibiting a cognitive distortion that involves making a judgment on the basis of his emotions. Emotional reasoning is what it sounds like - i.e., concluding that what you feel must be the truth.

The various intermittent schedules of reinforcement are associated with different response patterns.

fixed interval schedule, reinforcement is provided after a fixed interval of time as long as the response occurred at least once during that interval. It produces a "scalloped" (not smooth) response pattern characterized by brief pauses in responding following reinforcement and low resistance to extinction. fixed ratio schedule entails consistently providing reinforcement after a fixed number of correct responses. It produces a steady rate of responding with a brief pause following delivery of the reinforcer and moderately high resistance to extinction. variable interval schedule involves providing reinforcement after random or variable time intervals. It produces stable rates of responding and low to moderate resistance to extinction. variable ratio schedule, reinforcement is provided after a variable number of responses. This schedule produces stable rates of responding and responses that are highly resistant to extinction.

Although he was unable to carry out his plans, John Watson outlined several methods for removing Little Albert's classically-conditioned fear reaction to white rats. One plan involved repeatedly confronting Albert with a white rat without the loud noise in order to produce extinction of his fear response. This technique now underlies the behavioral treatment known as:

flooding. Flooding (which is now more commonly referred to as in vivo exposure with response prevention) involves the extinction of a conditioned response through prolonged exposure to the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus.

distinction between Beck and Ellis

former views each mental disorder as being characterized by a unique set of faulty cognitions, while the latter assumes that all disorders derive from the same set of basic irrational beliefs.

Charging telephone customers for using directory assistance to obtain phone numbers in order to decrease their use of directory assistance is an application of which of the following?

negative punishment Negative punishment occurs when the removal of a stimulus following a behavior decreases the behavior. In this situation, money is being taken away following a behavior (use of directory assistance) in order to decrease that behavior.

A person consistently avoids an object that produces a classically conditioned anxiety response because avoidance is:

negatively reinforced. In this situation, the person's avoidance behaviors allow him/her to reduce or alleviate anxiety. In other words, avoidance behaviors occur because they are being negatively reinforced. According to the two-factor theory of learning, the development of a phobic response is the result of a combination of classical and operant conditioning. This question is asking about the avoidance behavior, which is the aspect of a phobic response that is the result of operant conditioning.

stimulus generalization

is occurring when stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus also elicit the conditioned response. It explains why behaviors occur in situations outside the context in which they were originally learned.

working memory

is part of short-term memory and is responsible for the temporary storage and manipulation of information (e.g., remembering a phone number until you have dialed it).

Wolpe, Joseph

is probably most associated with systematic desensitization, which is based on the principles of classical conditioning.

primary reinforcer

is rewarding because of its inherent value. Food is a primary reinforcer for a hungry organism.

Episodic (autobiographical) memory

is the aspect of long-term memory that is responsible for the storage of personally experienced events

working memory

is the aspect of short-term memory that is used to perform certain mental tasks (e.g., to solve a simple arithmetic problem "in your head").

To maximize the effectiveness of overcorrection, its restitution and positive practice phases are often combined with:

physical guidance It may be necessary to physically guide the person through the behaviors required during restitution and/or positive practice when the person is resistant to perform them on his/her own. Because physical guidance may be necessary, overcorrection is contraindicated for children who have experienced abuse or who are more physically powerful than the person administering the treatment. To ensure that the person actually performs the behaviors required during the restitution and positive practice phases of overcorrection, "extra help" is sometimes needed.

The use of shaping to establish a complex behavior depends on which of the following?

positive reinforcement When using shaping to establish a new behavior, responses that come closer and closer to the desired behavior are successively reinforced. Shaping is based on operant conditioning and involves reinforcing successive approximations to the target (desired) behavior.

When conducting a study to investigate the phenomenon known as "blocking," you will:

present the CS prior to the US; then, once the CR is established, present the original CS simultaneously with a second CS prior to the US. Blocking occurs when two different conditioned stimuli are paired with the unconditioned stimulus. This is the procedure that is used to investigate blocking. Apparently, when this procedure is used, the second CS never becomes associated with the US and does not elicit a CR. One explanation for blocking is that it occurs because the second CS does not provide information beyond what is already provided by the original CS.

meta-memory

refers to awareness and understanding of one's own memory processes. It includes the ability to know what memory strategies to use for specific tasks.

Stimulus fading

refers to the gradual elimination of a discriminative stimulus. In this situation, the discriminative stimulus (type of TV show) is not being gradually eliminated.

Which of the following is responsible for your ability to remember to call your friend next week in order to wish her a "happy birthday"?

prospective memory refers to the ability to "remember to remember" - i.e., to remember to do something in the future.

Respiration biofeedback

provides information on breathing rate and is used to treat anxiety, asthma, and hyperventilation.

Blocking

s a classical conditioning term and occurs when two different conditioned stimuli are paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

A key factor in distinguishing between implicit and explicit memory is:

the degree to which recall of the information involves conscious awareness. Recalling information from explicit memory requires conscious awareness and intentional or deliberate effort, while recall from implicit memory is automatic (done without conscious awareness or intentional or deliberate effort). Researchers interested in long-term memory often distinguish between implicit and explicit memory.

sensory memory

stores sensory information for very brief periods (up to several seconds).

When using classical extinction to eliminate a learned (conditioned) response:

the CS is presented without the US. In classical conditioning, a CS (conditioned stimulus) elicits a CR (conditioned response) as a result of its pairing with a US (unconditioned stimulus). To extinguish the CR, the CS is repeatedly presented without the US.

episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place remembering what you did on your last birthday

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

- a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior - based on consequences of actions

Overcorrection

A behavior change tactic based on positive punishment in which, contingent on the problem behavior, the learner is required to engage in effortful behavior directly or logically related to fixing the damage caused by the behavior involves having the individual engage in alternative behaviors after performing the undesirable behavior (i.e., returning the environment to its previous condition and/or practicing correct behaviors).

secondary reinforcer

A secondary reinforcer acquires its reinforcing value through its pairing with a primary reinforcer. Money is an example of a secondary reinforcer: It is valuable only because it can be exchanged for primary reinforcers.

systematic desensitization

A type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias. involves pairing an anxiety-arousing stimulus with a stimulus that naturally produces relaxation (or other response that is incompatible with anxiety) so that the anxiety-arousing stimulus no longer produces anxiety.

Pavlovian conditioning

A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus. associated with classical conditioning, which involves pairing a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the conditioned stimulus alone produces a response similar to the response produced by the unconditioned stimulus. This type of conditioning is not relevant to this situation.

Which of the following is an example of self-monitoring?

A young man who is overweight is asked to keep a daily record of all the food that he eats. Asking an overeater to keep a record of the food he eats to obtain information about his eating behavior is an example of self-monitoring. Self-monitoring is a self-control technique that involves recording information about the target behavior.

EEG (electroencephalogram)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

Socratic dialogue and collaborative empiricism are most associated with which of the following therapeutic approaches?

Beck's cognitive-behavioral therapy Beck's cognitive-behavioral therapy is referred to as collaborative empiricism because it is founded on a collaborative therapist-client relationship that involves testing hypotheses about the client's beliefs and assumptions. Socratic dialogue is an important aspect of cognitive-behavioral therapy and is used to help the client question and challenge his/her underlying beliefs, obtain disconfirming evidence for those beliefs, and identify alternative beliefs.

Watson

Behaviorism; "Little Albert Study"; aversion therapy used classical conditioning to establish a phobia in a young child.

A person who argues that "all psychopathology has a similar set of underlying dysfunctional beliefs" is most likely sympathetic with the views of:

Ellis. Ellis's assumption that all disorders can be attributed to the same set of irrational beliefs is considered by some to be a shortcoming of his approach.

Pavlov concluded that spontaneous recovery provided support for which of the following assumptions?

Extinction trials suppress (rather than eliminate) a conditioned response. According to Pavlov, the spontaneous re-emergence of a conditioned response after it has been extinguished suggests that extinction trials suppress the conditioned response rather than eliminate it. Spontaneous recovery refers to the re-emergence of a conditioned response following extinction trials without additional conditioning trials.

punishment

In operant conditioning, punishment is any change in a human or animal's surroundings which, occurring after a given behavior or response, reduces the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future. As with reinforcement, it is the behavior, not the human/animal, that is punished.

positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

Which of the following best describes "backward conditioning"?

It involves presentation of the unconditioned stimulus prior to presentation of the conditioned stimulus and is rarely effective. To establish a CR (conditioned response), the CS must be presented before or at the same time as the US. Backward conditioning - in which the US is presented prior to the CS - is not an effective strategy. The term backward conditioning is associated with classical conditioning and involves presenting the US (unconditioned stimulus) prior to the CS (conditioned stimulus).

_________ research with chimpanzees led to his conclusion that the performance of a new behavior may be the result of insight learning.

Kohler's Kohler's research led him to conclude that learning is not just the result of trial-and-error or reinforcement but involves cognitive restructuring, which he referred to as insight learning.

Tolman

Latent learning; cognitive maps (rats and mazes)

To make sure that the housekeeper you hired does a good job, you decide to pay him for each chore he does well rather than giving him an hourly or weekly salary. You have apparently been influenced by which of the following individuals?

Skinner believed that behavior is determined by the consequences that follow it and that, when a behavior is reinforced, it increases. According to the principles of Skinner's operant conditioning, clearly linking reinforcement to performance of the behavior (e.g., by providing reinforcement immediately after the behavior) is one way to maximize the effectiveness of reinforcement.

The mother of a teen-age girl complains that all her daughter wants to do is talk on the telephone and that, as a result, the girl is not studying and her grades have been declining. The psychologist suggests that the daughter adhere to a schedule that allows her to talk on the telephone only after she has studied for a specified amount of time. The psychologist is recommending that the mother use which of the following strategies?

The Premack Principle is a type of positive reinforcement in which a high frequency behavior is used to reinforce, and thus increase, a low frequency behavior. The psychologist is suggesting that the mother use a high probability behavior (talking on the telephone) to reinforce a low probability behavior (studying). Note that the goal of the intervention is to increase studying and not to decrease talking on the telephone.

Premack Principle

The concept, developed by David Premack, that a more-preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity. Parents use the Premack principle when they ask children to eat their dinner (low probability behavior) before eating dessert (high probability behavior). Over time, the child learns to eat dinner in order to gain access to the preferred behavior of eating dessert.

"If a child's whining and crying secures his parents' attention, the child is likely to whine and cry again." Which of the following individuals is most likely to agree with this statement?

Thorndike Thorndike was a predecessor of Skinner and proposed the law of effect, which predicts that behaviors that are followed by satisfying consequences will tend to occur again. question asserts that a behavior followed by a positive (satisfying) consequence will increase. This is a premise of operant conditioning and is referred to as positive reinforcement.

When using higher-order conditioning to establish a conditioned response:

a CS serves as a US. In higher-order conditioning, a conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with a neutral stimulus so that the neutral stimulus also elicits the conditioned response. In this situation, the CS is acting as a US (unconditioned stimulus) when it is paired with the neutral stimulus.

Tommy Tyrant, a bright four-year-old, has learned that if he starts crying as soon as his mother begins to yell at him for misbehaving, his mother will stop yelling and will play with him instead, which is what Tommy wanted in the first place. In this situation, the mother's yelling is acting as:

a discriminative stimulus. A discriminative stimulus is a cue (antecedent) that signals that a particular response will be followed by a reinforcer.

Lewinsohn's behavioral model proposes a causal link between ______________ and depression.

a lack of reinforcement from the environment Lewinsohn attributes depression primarily to a low rate of response-contingent reinforcement and proposes that, when a person's behaviors are not reinforced, those behaviors are extinguished and the person is at increased risk for pessimism, low self-esteem, and other symptoms associated with depression. Lewinsohn's (1974) behavioral model is based on operant conditioning and focuses on the consequences of behavior.

conditioned response

a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus is a response that occurs in the presence of a stimulus (the conditioned stimulus) as the result of pairing of that stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.

In 1989, Abramson, Metalsky, and Alloy revised the 1978 learned helplessness theory of depression. In their revision, _________ is conceptualized as a proximal and sufficient cause of depressive symptoms.

a sense of hopelessness Abramson, Metalsky, and Alloy identify a sense of hopelessness as a proximal cause because, in the chain of events leading to depression, it is at the end of the chain; and as a sufficient cause because the presence of hopelessness is sufficient to cause depressive symptoms. Alloy's revised learned helplessness model proposes that a sense of hopelessness is a proximal and sufficient cause of depression

Operant extinction would NOT be the treatment-of-choice when:

a temporary increase in the behavior cannot be tolerated. Extinction often produces an initial "extinction burst" (temporary increase in the target behavior). Consequently, it would be contraindicated when a temporary increase in the behavior cannot be tolerated. Extinction is accomplished by withholding all reinforcement from a previously reinforced behavior.

Shaping

a type of positive reinforcement in which successive approximations to the desired behavior are reinforced

A psychologist who views learning as the result of operant conditioning would likely attribute the acquisition of complex behaviors to which of the following?

behavioral chaining When using chaining (also known as behavioral chaining), each response in the chain of responses required to learn and perform a complex behavior serves as reinforcement for the previous response in the chain. From the perspective of operant conditioning, new behaviors are acquired as the result of reinforcement.

In Albert Ellis's A-B-C model, B refers to:

beliefs about an event. Ellis depicts the relationship between antecedent events, beliefs about those events, and reactions to those events in terms of an A-B-C model, where A represents the antecedent event, B represents beliefs about the event, C represents the behavioral or emotional consequence of the beliefs.

Tolman

best known for his research on rats in mazes, which led to his idea of cognitive maps and his cognitive theory of learning.

When using aversive counterconditioning as a treatment for cocaine use, cocaine would be the:

conditioned stimulus. In the example given in this question, cocaine would be the CS while the US would be electric shock or other aversive stimulus. Aversive counterconditioning involves pairing a stimulus (US) that produces an aversive response (UR) with the undesirable stimulus (CS) so that the undesirable stimulus alone elicits an aversive response (CR).

When using covert sensitization to treat a sexual fetish, the fetish object acts as a(n):

conditioned stimulus. The goal of covert sensitization is to eliminate a response by replacing it with an incompatible response. When using covert sensitization, the target stimulus (in this case the fetish object) is paired in imagination with an aversive stimulus. Eventually, the target stimulus elicits the same unpleasant response as the aversive stimulus and, as a consequence, will be avoided. In this situation, the CS is the target stimulus, while the US is the aversive stimulus.

backward conditioning

conditioning procedure in which the onset of the NS follows the onset of the US the aversive stimulus (electric shock) should be applied: right before the client takes a drink

A functional behavioral assessment (FBA) is conducted to identify _______ variables.

controlling FBA is used to identify the factors (antecedents and consequences) that are controlling the target behavior so that those factors can be altered. A functional behavioral assessment is conducted to identify the factors that are maintaining or controlling an undesirable behavior.

Meichenbaum and Jaremko's (1982) stress inoculation is best described as a type of:

coping skills training During the course of stress inoculation, the client learns to distinguish between ineffective and effective thoughts, actions, etc. and is taught alternative cognitive and behavioral skills that lead to effective coping in stressful situations.

Sensate focus was developed by Masters and Johnson (1970) as a technique for reducing performance anxiety related to sexual intercourse. If viewed as a behavioral technique, sensate focus is best described as a form of:

counterconditioning Counterconditioning is based on the principles of classical conditioning and involves pairing two incompatible responses in order to eliminate one of the responses. Sensate focus involves pairing pleasurable sensations with performance anxiety in order to reduce the latter.

Which of the following interventions does NOT use classical extinction to eliminate an undesirable anxiety response?

covert sensitization Covert sensitization uses counterconditioning to eliminate undesirable self-reinforcing behaviors (e.g., drug use, paraphilias). Of the interventions listed in the answers, only covert sensitization is not based on classical extinction and is not used to eliminate an anxiety response. When using classical extinction to eliminate an anxiety response, the individual is exposed to the anxiety-arousing stimulus (which is assumed to be a conditioned stimulus) in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus.

Thorndike

developed the law of effect after observing that cats were more likely to repeat a behavior if they were reinforced for engaging in that behavior.

Research has confirmed that behavioral techniques that reduce or eliminate a behavior are more effective when they are combined with techniques that increase alternative behaviors. This probably explains why __________ is often an effective intervention.

differential reinforcement Differential reinforcement not only uses extinction to eliminate an undesirable behavior but also reinforces the individual for engaging in alternative behaviors. Of the interventions listed in the responses, only one involves eliminating an undesirable behavior while establishing more desirable behaviors

Within the Pavlovian paradigm, experimental neurosis is the result of:

difficult discriminations. When required to make difficult discriminations between the CS and stimuli very similar to it, the normally docile animals in Pavlov's studies became very agitated. Pavlov referred to this as experimental neurosis. Experimental neurosis was exhibited by dogs in Pavlov"s research when they were presented with stimuli very similar to the original CS.

You witness a four-car collision on your way to work and find yourself thinking about the incident frequently during the next several weeks. Which aspect of your long-term memory is responsible for your memory of the accident?

episodic memory Episodic memory is memory for episodes (events) that have been personally experienced In this situation, you are recalling a personally experienced event.

Research using the "dismantling strategy" to identify the key component of systematic desensitization has generally found that its effectiveness for alleviating anxiety is due primarily to:

exposure to anxiety-evoking situation Although Wolpe developed systematic desensitization as an application of reciprocal inhibition (counterconditioning), research using the dismantling strategy has found that it is actually exposure to the CS without the US that accounts for the effectiveness of this technique.

A behavioral psychologist warns that "a single exception can reinstate the target response and may even maintain it for an extended period of time." Apparently, the psychologist is referring to the use of which of the following operant techniques to eliminate an undesirable response?

extinction Intermittent reinforcement produces behaviors that are very resistant to extinction. Therefore, when using extinction to eliminate a behavior, all reinforcement for that behavior must be consistently withheld. If the behavior is reinforced even once, the behavior may be reinstated and the extinction process will have to begin again. The wording of this question implies that the correct answer must be a technique that is used to eliminate a response.

The assumption underlying the use of implosive therapy for treating a phobia is that:

extinction of a conditioned response occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US. Implosive therapy involves having the client repeatedly imagine a feared stimulus (CS) in the absence of the stimulus (US) that initially evoked the fear in order to eliminate the conditioned fear response. Implosive therapy uses classical extinction to eliminate an undesirable anxiety response.

As an initial intervention with a client who has received a diagnosis of Major Depressive Disorder, a practitioner of Beck's cognitive-behavioral therapy is most likely to do which of the following?

have the client maintain a record of his/her automatic thoughts during the following week Beck's cognitive-behavioral approach attributes depression to irrational thoughts about oneself, the future, and the world.

In a research study, Variable B is paired with Variable A so that, eventually, the response automatically produced by Variable A is also produced by Variable B. Then, Variable C is paired with Variable B so that it produces the same response. Based on this information, you can conclude that this study was designed to investigate which of the following?

higher-order conditioning higher-order conditioning, the initial conditioned stimulus (CS) is treated as an unconditioned stimulus (US) and paired with a neutral stimulus so that the neutral stimulus also produces a conditioned response. This question describes the procedure used in higher-order conditioning. The term "paired with" suggests that this study is investigating some form of classical conditioning - i.e., in classical conditioning, presentation of a conditioned stimulus is paired with presentation of an unconditioned stimulus so that the conditioned stimulus produces a response that is similar to the one produced by the unconditioned stimulus.

Using a tachistoscope, a researcher flashes a rectangle containing 12 letters of the alphabet to a participant for 50 milliseconds and then asks the participant to say what he or she has just seen. Apparently, the researcher is investigating which of the following?

iconic memory in the study described in this question, participants are asked to recall a visual image. Iconic memory is an aspect of sensory memory and refers to memory for visual images (icons).

Meta-analyses of research on EMDR (eye movement desensitization and reprocessing) suggest that its effectiveness for alleviating the symptoms of PTSD is attributable to which of the following?

imaginal exposure Studies using a dismantling strategy or comparing EMDR to exposure-based treatments have generally confirmed that the essential component of EMDR is exposure to the feared stimulus in imagination rather than lateral eye movements. EMDR was originally developed as a treatment for PTSD and combines rapid lateral eye movements (which purportedly trigger adaptive neurophysiological information-processing mechanisms) with exposure and other techniques.

Meichenbaum and Goodman (1971) originally developed self-instructional training as an intervention for:

impulsivity Although self-instructional training has subsequently been used to treat a variety of disorders, it was originally described by D. H. Meichenbaum and J. Goodman as a method for helping children control their impulsive behaviors.

unconditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

The "tip-of-the-tongue" phenomenon is believed to be due to which of the following?

inadequate retrieval cues One theory of the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is that it is due to a lack of cues that would facilitate retrieving information that is stored in long-term memory. The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon refers to the sense that you know something (e.g., a song or movie title) but aren't able to recall it.

Positive punishment

involves applying a stimulus following a behavior in order to decrease the occurrence of that behavior.

Overcorrection

involves having the individual engage in alternative behaviors (e.g., "fixing" the consequences of the undesirable behavior and/or practicing appropriate behaviors) whenever he/she performs the undesirable behavior.

higher-order conditioning

is a form of classical conditioning involving the pairing of a neutral stimulus with a conditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus also elicits the conditioned response.

Semantic memory

is memory for the meaning of words and concepts.

You are using in vivo aversive counterconditioning to reduce a client's consumption of alcohol. To maximize the effectiveness of the treatment, the aversive stimulus (electric shock) should be applied:

just as the client begins drinking. Delay conditioning involves applying the CS before the start of the US so that presentation of the two stimuli overlaps and both are terminated together. Of the various types of forward conditioning, delay conditioning is usually most effective.

Edward Tolman is best known for his research on ________ learning.

latent Tolman's research with rats in mazes indicated that the rats had learned the maze (i.e., had formed "cognitive maps") without exhibiting that learning until they were reinforced for doing so. He referred to this as latent learning. Tolman believed that learning could occur without being manifested in performance - i.e., that learning could be latent.

Images and sounds are maintained in sensory memory for:

less than 5 seconds. Sensory memory includes a separate store for each sense, and the duration of sensory memory varies somewhat, depending on the sense. For iconic (visual) memories, the duration is about .5 to 1.0 seconds; for echoic (auditory) memories, the duration is up to 4 or 5 seconds.

Stimulus control is used in the treatment of obesity to:

limit the client's exposure to events and objects that prompt overeating. As its name implies, stimulus control involves bringing a behavior under the control of specific stimuli or cues. Stimulus control is a key component of the behavioral treatment of obesity. In the behavioral treatment of obesity, stimulus control involves strengthening appropriate cues for eating while weakening inappropriate cues by, for example, having the individual eat only in certain locations and at specific times of the day.

As described in the multi-store model, __________ memory is the aspect of memory that is involved in the recall of information acquired within the past few hours to days.

long-term Information acquired in the past few hours to days is stored in recent long-term memory. The multi-store model of memory divides it into three components: sensory, short-term, and long-term memory.

Episodic memory

memory for episodes (events) that have been personally experienced.

implicit memory

memory that occurs automatically (without conscious effort).

Pseudoconditioning

occurs when a neutral stimulus elicits a response due to the accidental pairing of the stimulus with another stimulus that evokes that response or when repeated exposure to a US increases the likelihood that the individual will respond to a neutral stimulus with a response similar to the UR.

stimulus substitution

original theory in which Pavlov stated that classical conditioning occurred because the conditioned stimulus became a substitute for the unconditioned stimulus by being paired closely together

Research investigating the usefulness of modeling for treating specific phobias has found that which of the following methods is generally most effective?

participant modeling When using participant modeling, the model first engages in the target behavior (or an aspect of it) and then prompts the individual to engage in the same behavior. The research has found that participant modeling is the most effective form of modeling for treating phobias. Bandura and others have compared the effectiveness of different types of modeling for reducing phobias and other anxiety responses.

EMG frontalis biofeedback is considered by a number of authorities to be the treatment-of-choice for tension (muscle contraction) headaches. However, some research suggests that which of the following interventions is as effective, if not even more effective, than EMG feedback for this type of headache?

relaxation training A number of studies have found relaxation training to be as effective as (or even more effective than) EMG biofeedback for tension headaches. Several techniques have been found to be as effective as or more effective than EMG biofeedback for alleviating tension headaches.

Which of the following is an example of semantic memory?

remembering the definition of semantic memory Semantic memory refers to memory for facts, concepts, and other types of information that are independent of time and context. Definitions are stored in semantic memory.

prospective memory

remembering to do something at some future time refers to the ability to "remember to remember" (e.g., to remember a future appointment).

prospective memory

remembering to do things in the future

The keyword method is most useful for:

remembering word pairs. The keyword method is mnemonic device that involves forming an image that links two words. For example, to remember that ranidae is the scientific term for common frogs, you might create an image of a frog sitting in the rain under an umbrella. The keyword method is useful for learning pairs of words such as the English and Spanish equivalents for words or the capitals of states.

dismantling strategy

repeated exposure to CS without the US is responsible for desensitization

All of the following techniques are based on principles of classical conditioning except:

response cost. Response cost is a type of negative punishment (operant conditioning) that involves removing a reinforcer following a behavior to reduce or eliminate that behavior.

In a study on learning and memory, participants in the experimental group learned two lists of nonsense syllables (first List A, then List B) and were then asked to recall List A. Participants in the control group also learned List A but, instead of learning List B, were asked to count backward from 10 numerous times before being asked to recall List A. Results of the study indicated that participants in the control group recalled more words from List A than did participants in the experimental group. These results are best explained by which of the following?

retroactive interference The purpose of the study described in this question was apparently to investigate how subsequent experience affects prior learning. Retroactive interference occurs when subsequent learning interferes with prior learning and is most likely to occur when the subsequent and prior learning are similar in terms of content. In the study described in this question, participants in the experimental group learned a second list of nonsense syllables after learning the first list and were then asked to recall the first list. In contrast, participants in the control group engaged in an unrelated task after learning the original list to ensure that they did not continue to rehearse the list prior to testing. Because control group participants recalled more words from List A than did participants in the experimental group, the results confirmed that retroactive interference contributes to forgetting.

When treating a client with panic disorder, a practitioner of Beck's cognitive-behavioral therapy would initially help the client:

see how he/she misinterprets the meaning of his/her symptoms. As defined by Aaron Beck, the "goals of cognitive-behavior therapy are to correct faulty information processing and to modify dysfunctional beliefs and assumptions that maintain maladaptive behaviors and emotions" From the perspective of cognitive-behavior therapy, panic disorder stems from "catastrophic misinterpretations" of bodily sensations and mental experiences. Therefore, the first few sessions of therapy focus on clarifying the nature of the client"s symptoms and how he/she misinterprets them.

Rehm's (1977) self-control therapy for depression focuses on which the following?

self-monitoring, self-evaluation, and self-reinforcement Rehm's self-control therapy focuses on three aspects of self-control that contribute to depression. According to Rehm, deficits in self-monitoring, self-evaluation, and self-reinforcement increase a person's vulnerability to depression.

According to the levels of processing model of memory, words and other information may be encoded at different levels, with _______ processing being the deepest level.

semantic Craik and Lockhart's (1972) levels of processing model proposes that the level (depth) of processing of information affects how well that information is retained. Craik and Lockhart distinguished between shallow and deep processing. According to their theory, shallow processing (processing words on the basis of their phonemic or orthographic characteristics) is less effective than deep processing (processing words at the semantic or meaning-based level).

Betsy B., age 9, is given a quarter by her parents each time she practices her violin and another quarter each time she completes her homework. If Betsy's parents stop paying her for completing her homework, they are most likely to find that Betsy:

spends less time doing homework but more time practicing the violin. Betsy has received reinforcement for two different behaviors, but the reinforcement for one behavior will be terminated. This question is asking about "positive behavioral contrast," which occurs when reinforcement for one behavior is withdrawn while reinforcement for another behavior is continued. In this situation, the behavior that is no longer reinforced will decrease, while the behavior that continues to be reinforced will increase.

Emelina E., age 4, has learned that, when she approaches her father while he is watching a football game on TV, her father ignores her, but when she approaches her father while he is watching any other type of TV show, he is willing to talk to and play with her. As a result, Emelina only approaches her father when he is not watching football. Emelina's behavior illustrates which of the following?

stimulus control Emelina has learned that she will not be reinforced for approaching her father when he is watching a football game but will be reinforced if she approaches him when he is watching other types of TV shows. A behavior is "under stimulus control" when it is more likely to occur in the presence of certain stimuli than in the presence of other stimuli because the stimuli signal whether or not reinforcement for the behavior will be provided.

From the perspective of Beck's cognitive-behavioral therapy, the modification of maladaptive cognitions requires which of the following?

the experience of affective arousal According to Beck, the modification of dysfunctional cognitions "can only occur if the patient is engaged in the problematic situation and experiences affective arousal" As described in the section on cognitive-behavioral interventions in the Learning Theory chapter of the written study materials, Beck's approach is based on the assumption that certain conditions must be met for relevant cognitions to become accessible and modifiable.

procedural memory

the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or "knowing how" to do things Remembering how to ride a bicycle

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system refers to brief impressions formed by input from the senses.

methods useful for reducing habituation

the individual is given brief vacations from punishment. different methods of punishment are alternately applied to the target behavior. the use of punishment is restricted to one or two (versus numerous) behaviors.

When using punishment to modify behavior, habituation is most likely to be a problem when:

the intensity of the punishment is gradually increased over time. In the context of punishment, habituation refers to a reduction in the effectiveness of punishment. Gradually increasing the intensity of punishment over time (i.e., beginning with a weak form of punishment and then gradually increasing its intensity) increases the likelihood that habituation will occur.

Fading

the process of gradually altering the intensity of a stimulus

Which of the following types of biofeedback has been found to be most effective for the treatment of Raynaud's disease?

thermal Thermal (temperature) biofeedback has been found to be an effective treatment for a number of circulatory disorders, including Raynaud's disease.

When using reinforcement to establish a new behavior, the most effective approach is to begin with a continuous schedule of reinforcement and then, when the behavior has reached the desired level, to switch to an intermittent schedule. The process of switching from a continuous to an intermittent schedule is referred to as:

thinning. This question provides an example of the technique known as thinning (or schedule thinning). This question is asking for the term that is used to describe reducing the proportion of reinforcement.

Whenever Bahir B., age 5, has tantrums in his kindergarten class, his teacher removes him from all opportunities for reinforcement by having him sit in a small empty room adjacent to the classroom for ten minutes. The teacher is using which of the following techniques to reduce Bahir's tantrums?

time-out Interventions based on operant conditioning increase behaviors through reinforcement or decrease behaviors through punishment or extinction. Time-out involves removing an individual from all possible sources of positive reinforcement for a brief period of time following the occurrence of a behavior in order to decrease that behavior. Time-out is usually classified as a type of negative punishment.

covert sensitization

to reduce an undesirable behavior, the aversive stimulus is the unconditioned stimulus.

Covert sensitization

type of aversive counterconditioning that involves pairing the CS and US in imagination.

classical versus operant conditioning

type of conditioning refers to where the stimulus occurs just before the expected behavior is to occur. type of conditioning that adds the concept of a reinforcer or a reward.

In his studies on memory and forgetting, Ebbinghaus:

used himself as the research subject. Ebbinghaus was the participant in his own research, which involved memorizing lists of nonsense syllables and subsequently recalling the words to evaluate retention. His research led to the identification of learning and forgetting curves. Ebbinghaus was among the first to conduct empirical studies on human memory.

A behavior that has been reinforced on which of the following schedules is most resistant to extinction?

variable ratio Each of the intermittent schedules of reinforcement is associated with different rates of acquisition and extinction A variable ratio schedule produces behaviors that are most resistant to extinction because, when using this schedule, the relationship between responding and reinforcement is unpredictable.