Lit Cards

10. Assertion

Definition: a statement of opinion/belief that is debatable Effect: An assertion can state an opinion/view and/or allow for debate. Example: "The theme in this passage is that love is magical." Analysis: The author asserts his view which is open to debate or objection.

74. Voice

1. Definition- A distinctive quality in the style and tone of writing. 2. Effect- To compel the audience to read or listen to what the writer or speaker has to say and to continue engaging them throughout the essay or speech. 3. Example: We can't standby and take this anymore! We need to do stand up and fight for our right. That's right students of America, fight for your right to suffer in AP English. 4. Analysis: The sentences have a great voice which compels the reader to read what the author has to say and even allows the author to easily persuade the reader to do what he says without even knowing what the author wants the reader to do. The reader feels engaged in fighting for their right until they realize that they would be fighting for something they don't want to fight for or care about as they probably would not want to suffer.

71. Thesis Statement

1. Definition- It is comprised of three parts, the author's purpose, literary device, and effect. Usually two sentences for AP English Language class, a thesis is a statement put forward to be proved. 2. Effect- The thesis statement introduces the main idea of the essay, and what and how the author is going to prove the author's purpose. 3. Example- The minds of two anonymous black children juxtapose historical precedents of black patriotism and contribution to the nation against the poverty and discriminating restrictions so prevalent in the 1960s that must be changed. This culmination of past and present disparities elicit sympathy with the civil rights movements and justifies its immediate action. 4. Analysis- The literary device is the juxtaposition (imagery). The effect is to elicit sympathy for and justify the civil rights movements, while the author's purpose is to persuade that Africans Americans should protest for their rights.

72. Topic Sentence

1. Definition- The sentence in the body paragraphs that summarize the main idea of the body paragraph. Like the thesis statement, the topic sentence is made up of a literary device and effect, while connecting to the author's purpose. 2. Effect- The topic statement introduces the main idea of the author's purpose, while including only one device. It reveals which part of the author's purpose the body paragraph is going to prove. 3. Example- The imagery in the passage shows how the poor living conditions of African Americans elicit feelings of sympathy, 4. Analysis- The device is imagery, while the effect is to elicit sympathy. The author's purpose is to persuade that Africans Americans should act to preserve their rights.

69. Syllogism

1. Definition- a rhetorical device that starts an argument with a reference to something general and from this it draws conclusion about something more specific 2. Effect- Syllogism can create the effect of a statement that is logically valid but not true. Likewise, a statement can be true yet not logically valid. 3. Example- All humans are selfish. Confucius is selfish. Confucius is a human. 4. Analysis- We might not agree that the premises are true, but if we accept these premises, the conclusion does logically follow.

49. Polemic

1. Definition- a strong or verbal attack against someone or their beliefs, opinions and practices (mostly seen in controversial topics). 2. Effect- The purpose is to undermine the opponent's arguments, sometimes questioning the morality of the opponent's argument. 3. Example- The study that revealed that troops of mixed gender perform worse than male only squads is inaccurate since the male only squad contains experienced soldiers, whereas the mixed genders squads were mostly inexperienced rookies. 4. Analysis- This is an attack on the study's beliefs that women are worse soldiers than men. The author of the polemic debunks the study by providing evidence.

25. Counterargument

1. Definition- an argument opposed to your thesis, or part of your thesis. It expresses the view of a person who disagrees with your position. 2. Effect- If a counterargument is done well, it makes the argument stronger. This is because it gives you the chance to respond to your reader's objections before they have finished reading. It also shows that you are a reasonable person who has considered both sides of the debate. Both of these make an essay more persuasive. 3. Example- Though it is true that psychotherapy might help the terminally ill patient confirm his decision, and that it is not a medical doctor's job to help patients end their lives, it is, however, ultimately the patient's decision and his life to end. No person or law should prevent or punish loved ones who assist in that choice. 4. Analysis- The author acknowledges that psychotherapy can help to confirm the decision of a terminally ill patient to end his life. However, he then states that although psychotherapy can confirm the decision, the decision is still the patient's to make, and that no loved one that aids the patient in that decision should be punished.

29. Deduction

1. Definition- the act or process of using logic or reason to form a conclusion or opinion about something; the act or process of deducing something 2. Effect- A large general rule is used to determine the truth about specific examples. 3. Example- Objects made of iron rust. Therefore, an iron shovel will rust. 4. Analysis- The author applies the fact that iron rusts to an iron shovel by using deductive reasoning. Because the shovel is made of iron, and iron is known to rust, thus an iron shovel will rust.

64. Source

1. Definition: A book, article, or person, or other resources consulted for information. 2. Effect: To gain information or expand your knowledge on a topic so that you can write more about it. It can also be used to gather evidence for your essays so that you can strengthen your argument as the reader will know you have proof to back up your points. 3. Example: Essay on why AP English Language is fun: "You get to write essays in Advanced Placement English Language." (Awesome APs) 4. Analysis: The source gave the writer some information about what students do in APENG so that he has more knowledge to write about the topic. He was also able to use the quote above as evidence to prove that AP English Language is fun.

27. Cumulative Sentence

1. Definition: A cumulative sentence is also called a loose sentence. It is a type of sentence in which an independent clause is followed by modifying clauses or phrases. 2. Effect: A cumulative sentence makes the writing more informal and conversational. The addition of modifying clauses or phrases also contributes information to the independent clause. 3. Example: "The late students walked in, stomping their feet on the carpet, startling the teacher, and causing some students to get distracted from their tests." 4. Analysis: The independent clause is "The late students walked in", and it is followed by three modifying clauses describing what the late students did and how their entrance affected the teacher and students taking the tests. Using a cumulative sentence makes the clauses sound more conversational and adds details.

28. Declarative Sentence

1. Definition: A declarative sentence is the opposite of a question, and it makes a statement. 2. Effect: A declarative sentence can relay information. 3. Example: "She ate cake on her birthday." 4. Analysis: This is a declarative sentence because it "declares" something. It makes the statement that a person did in fact eat cake on her birthday.

51. Premise; major, minor

1. Definition: A proposition upon which an argument is based or from which a conclusion is drawn; either the major or the minor proposition in a deductive argument. 2. Effect: Premises expresses relation between objects, categories, or situations. In analysis, premises are the pieces of evidence broken down step by step, making it easier for the reader to follow the analysis and the reasons behind an argument. 3. Examples: "Identical twins sometimes have different IQ test scores. Identical twins inherit exactly the same genes. Therefore, environment must play some part in determining a person's IQ." 4. Analysis: By listing the facts supporting the statement "environment must play some part in determining a person's IQ," the author aids the reader by making it making it easier to understand his argument and the analysis behind the argument.

21. Complex Sentences

1. Definition: A sentence made up of an independent clause, or a simple sentence that makes sense by itself, and at least one dependent clause, or a sentence fragment that begins with a subordinating conjunction and does not make sense by itself. 2. Effect: Complex sentences can demonstrate cause and effect or emphasize specific actions or ideas. 3. Example: Because his students were late, the teacher did not finish his lesson. 4. Analysis: This sentence draws attention to the students' actions through the use of a subordinating conjunction, then emphasizes and the effect these actions had on the teacher using an independent clause.

63. Simple Sentence

1. Definition: A simple sentence is a group of words that forms a complete thought, made up of a subject and a predicate. It contains only one independent clause. The subject is the person or thing that performs the action and the predicate contains the verb, object, and other parts of the sentence. 2. Effect: Simple sentences can be used to place emphasis on certain ideas or summarize a larger idea. They can also be used to create tension and evoke strong emotions in the reader. 3. Example: I love you. 4. Analysis: The words "I love you" is a simple but jarring statement to the reader. While simple, on its own, the sentence leaves room for interpretation. The subject is "I", and the verb is "love". The word "love" evokes strong emotions in the reader due to the different connotations of the word.

68. Subordinate Clause

1. Definition: A subordinate clause is an incomplete thought that needs an independent clause in order to make sense. A clause is a group of words consisting of a subject and a verb. Subordinate clauses are also known as dependent clauses. 2. Effect: Subordinate clauses can enhance the sentence through appealing towards the reader's emotions, clarify or emphasize an idea, or providing more detail to a sentence. 3. Example: The woman who looked happy danced. 4. Analysis: By adding the subordinate clause "who looked happy", the reader is able to better imagine the scene. The use of the subordinate clause here is to provide more detail and enhance the sentence.

44. Nominalization

1. Definition: A type of word formation in which a verb or an adjective (or other part of speech) is used as (or transformed into) a noun; it is also known as nouning. 2. Effect: Nominalization essentially turns actions into things. It focuses on the end result of the action. 3. Example: "govern" to "government" 4. By adding "-ment" to the verb "govern", nominalization creates an entirely new word based on the concept of governing. In this case, the action is to "govern" and the result, "government", is much more focused compared to "the institution that governs".

13. Attitude

1. Definition: A writer's disposition toward his subject matter revealed through diction, figurative language, and organization. 2. Effects: Depending on the attitude of the writer, the tone of the piece can be humorous, serious, informative, etc. The attitude directs the feeling of the piece and can elicit specific, desired emotions from the reader. 3. Example: All morons hate it when you call them a moron. 4. Analysis: J.D. Salinger gives Holden Caulfield a satirical attitude to direct the purpose of the novel. The satirical statements about the nature of life that Caulfield points out direct the novel into a coming of age narrative about a boy navigating through life alone and observing and criticizing the world around him.

38. Imperative Sentence

1. Definition: An imperative sentence is an order or directive, which is an authoritative instruction. 2. Effect: An imperative sentence tells one what to do. 3. Example: "Stop playing on the computer." 4. Analysis: The sentence is imperative because it is a direct command, and the person speaking is ordering another person to stop playing on the computer.

66. Straw Man

1. Definition: It is a logical fallacy that ignores a person's argument or statement by substituting it with an exaggerated version of that argument that the opponent does not support. 2. Effect: The use of the straw man fallacy has the effect of luring the opponent into focusing on defending his or her position by claiming what it is not instead of defending it by claiming what it is. The exaggerated argument makes it easier for one to knock down compared to the one that the opponent first presented. 3. Example: Bill and Jill are arguing about cleaning out their closets: Jill: "We should clean out the closets. They are getting a bit messy." Bill: "Why, we just went through those closets last year. Do we have to clean them out everyday?" Jill: "I never said anything about cleaning them out every day. You just want to keep all your junk forever, which is just ridiculous." 4. Analysis: The straw man fallacy successfully diverges Jill's attention from cleaning out the closets to Bill's statement of having to clean the closets everyday. Jill is now attempting to prove what she did not claim instead of defending her original proposition.

42. Metonymy

1. Definition: Metonymy is a form of metaphor in which the name of a specific thing is replaced with a closely associated term. 2. Effect: Metonymy can be used to create imagery or give more context in a sentence in order to draw attention to a particular subject or item. 3. Example: The peasants are revolting against the crown. 4. Analysis: Instead of referring to the King by name, the author uses the word "crown" to mean the King. This removes the humanity from the ruler and makes him seem uncaring and unemotional, emphasizing the need to revolt.

58. Satire

1. Definition: Satire is the use of humor, irony, ridicule and sarcasm to mock, expose, or criticize someone's foolishness or weakness. It's intention is to improve/correct the person being ridiculed and make them change for the better. 2. Effect: Often entertaining and humorous, it creates a laugh while simultaneously pointing out the flaws and shortcomings of someone to the audience. 3. Example: "I believe that the government that governs best is a government that governs least, and by these standards we have set up a fabulous government in Iraq." - Stephen Colbert 4. Analysis: Colbert uses satire when he mockingly states that the best governments are the least working, and compliments the government of Iraq for doing just that so well. The sarcasm is intended to criticize the Iraqi government for being ineffective and incapable.

67. Subject

1. Definition: The subject of a sentence or clause is the who or what the sentence is about or performing an action. 2. Effect: The subject provides clarity to the reader as to what the sentence is about and can be used to place emphasis. 3. Example: What he had already forgotten about computer repair could fill whole volumes, 4. Analysis: The subject of this sentence is a whole clause because the what of this sentence is the thing that "could fill whole volumes". The use of the subject in this sentence brings the reader's attention to the whole idea that the person has forgotten a lot about computer repair.

50. Polysyndeton

1. Definition: Using conjunctions(and, or, but, for, nor, so, yet) frequently in a sentence that are placed very close to one another. 2. Effect: The use of polysyndeton adds dramatic effect and calls attention to the effect of persistence, intensity, emphasis to the effect of multiplicity. It also adds the pace and controls the rhythm of the text, either faster or slower. 3. Example: "In years gone by, there were in every community men and women who spoke the language of duty and morality and loyalty and obligation." (William F. Buckley) 4. Effect: The repetitive use of the word "and" creates a feeling that the ideas are being built up. It adds a rhythm while places emphasis and importance on duty, morality, loyalty and obligation. This effectively allows one to examine each and everything listed.

5. Antithesis

1. Definition: When two ideas are put together to create a contrasting effect, or a juxtaposition. Often used along with parallel structure. 2. Effect: It grabs the attention of the audience and emphasizes a contrast. They highlight small differences that are usually looked over, or the complexity between two truths/ideas. 3. Example: If we try, we might succeed; if we do not try, we cannot succeed. 4. Analysis: The parallel structure of whether "we try" or not contrasts the separate ideas that if we do, we will succeed, while if we don't, we won't. Even though the two actions of "try" and "not try" only differ in one word, the results are polar opposites. So by putting them so close together, it draws the attention of the audience to highlight the vast difference.

62. Simile

1. Definition: a figure of speech in which two unlike things are explicitly compared 2. Effect: Comparing two unlike things appeals to the readers senses and allows them to relate more to the passage. 3. Example: "I wandered lonely as a cloud" 4. Analysis: Although a cloud and Wordsworth (the author) are two very different beings, this comparison allows the reader to visualize Wordsworth's loneliness as an isolated cloud with nothing to do.

12. Asyndeton

1. Definition: a grammatical or literary device that eliminates the conjunctions typically used between phrases in a sentence. 2. Effects: The use of asyndeton gives text a unique emphasis or emotion. Without conjunctions, phrases maintain a faster, tighter rhythm. It can also be used to draw the reader's attention to a particular idea, or to indicate that a list of items is infinite or incomplete. Writers often use asyndeton to great effect when ending a novel, or to create a dramatic or a poignant moment. 3. Example: "...of the people, by the people, for the people." 4. Analysis: Lincoln says this in his Gettysburg Address to emphasize that the American government is based on the people. Without conjunctions, this famous phrase catches listeners and readers attention while infusing a certain patriotic emotion into this line.

18. Claim

1. Definition: a statement essentially arguable but used as a primary point to support or prove an argument 2. Effect: supports or proves an argument 3. Example: The great thing about "Animal Farm" by George Orwell is that it has presented all animals equal in the eyes of the laws framed by them. They framed Ten Commandments when they expelled Mr. Jones from Manor Farm and this rule "All animals are equal" became a shibboleth for them. 4. Analysis: This interpretive claim presents an argument about the exploration of the meanings, and the evidence that is given within quotation marks has been interpreted as well.

30. Dialectal Journal

1. Definition: also known as "double-entry notebook"; a journal that records a dialogue, or conversation between the ideas in the text and the ideas of the reader 2. Effect: breaking text into small sections helps draw attention to small details 3. Example: "On nights like that," Raymond Chandler once wrote about the Santa Ana, "every booze party ends in a fight. Meek little wives feel the edge of the carving knife and study their husbands' necks. Anything can happen." Chandler, who wrote crime fiction, was known for his hard-boiled style and cynicism. His quotation offers another image that supports Didion's view of the Santa Ana winds' effect on human behavior. 4. Analysis: Textual evidence goes on one column, and the reader responds to that specific part of the passage or novel in the other column. Responses could include analysis of rhetorical devices and/or providing outside information to better understand the text. In this specific example, the left column has direct lines from the passage, while the right provides background information on the author to give an idea of how that could affect the writing style.

41. Juxtaposition

1. Definition: an act or instance of placing close together or side by side, especially for comparison or contrast 2. Effect: Placing two opposing terms together may emphasize their differences to prove an author's point. Placing two similar terms together may highlight their similarities to establish a point. 3. Example: "O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright! It seems she hangs upon the cheek of night; Like a rich jewel in an Ethiope's ear" 4. Analysis: Juliet's radiant face is juxtaposed with the dark skin of an African. Romeo admires her beauty, stating that she glows like a bright jewel against the African's dark skin. The juxtaposition connects the concepts of different skin tones and highlights Juliet's paleness.

34. Explication of Text

1. Definition: an approach to literary criticism involving close examination, analysis, and exposition of the text of a work, and concentrating on language, style, content, and the interrelationships of the parts to the whole in regard to meaning and symbolism. 2. Effect: Explication of text helps unearth various meanings found in a work and provides a clearer understanding of the structure of writing. As a whole, explication of text allows for more analytical insight and textual interrelationships in a work. 3. Example: "Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth..." explication of text analysis dissects this language further than just the literally meaning of "Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth" being eighty-seven years ago. 4. Analysis: "Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth" is an example of Lincoln's use of biblical language, highlighting the importance of the occasion by setting it apart as solemn and holy, much like the way the bible is regarded.

19. Close Reading

1. Definition: passage analysis; interpretation based on details of a text 2. Effect: Close reading gives analysis/interpretation of specific text by examining the finer points of the writing, such as the use of diction, imagery, and syntax. 3. Example: "The apparent simplicity of the word quickly gives way to a sense of its capacity upset all the conventional, "philosophical" categorizations of linguistics." (Jacques Derrida - Ulysses Gramophone) 4. Analysis: The author takes an individual word and analyzes it to identify its significance and role in the reading.

17. Cite

1. Definition: quote (a passage, book, or author) as evidence for or justification of an argument or statement, especially in a scholarly work 2. Effect: provides valid evidence to be used in an argument 3. Example: "Thomas Paine characterizes the king of Britain as 'a common murderer, a highwayman, or a house-breaker' to..." 4. Analysis: The information in the quotes come directly from the passage and are used as evidence to justify the author's purpose.

39. Induction

1. Definition: reasoning by which a general statement or conclusion is reached on the basis of particular examples. 2. Effect: Allows the writer to come to a conclusion based on the evidence or example he has given even if it's a general statement. 3. Example: "People who wear blue shirts are awesome. I have a blue shirt. Therefore, I am awesome." 4. Analysis: The sentences are an induction because it starts off with a general statement and ends with a conclusion specific to an individual.

35. Facts

1. Definition: something that actually exists; reality; truth 2. Effect: Facts cannot be debated thus giving a passage credibility. Facts can also be used to prove the author's point. 3. Example: "George Washington was America's first president" 4. Analysis: This statement cannot be argued and is true.

14. Audience

1. Definition: the intended listeners or readers of the work 2. Effects: The audience determines the tone, vocabulary, and grammatical structure of the entire piece. It may cause the author to change his view on the subject or his use of larger, extended words. It narrows down the specific allusions and scenarios that can be used in order to better relate to the audience. 3. Example: 1. From there to here, and here to there, funny things are everywhere. 2. Love her, love her, love her! If she favours you, love her. If she wounds you, love her. If she tears your heart to pieces - and as it gets older and stronger, it will tear deeper - love her, love her, love her! 4. Analysis: In the first example, Dr. Seuss directs his books towards young children just beginning to read. Thus, he uses rhyming words to create stories that are easier to read orally, since there are repeated vowel and consonant pronunciations to help children learn these pronunciations. In the second example, Charles Dickens is not worried about the pronunciation and understanding of his works because the audience that reads his works is more educated and must be in order to understand his writing. He instead focuses on the correct vocabulary to better describe what he is trying to portray to the audience.

54. Purpose

1. Definition: the reason for which something is done or created 2. Effect: The purpose influences which audience the writer or speaker chooses to address, and it also sets the basis of the entire work. 3. "I call not upon a few, but upon all: not on this state or that state, but on every state." (Thomas Paine, The Crisis) 4. This statement is one of many in Paine's pamphlet that supports his purpose: to rally the colonists to fight for freedom from Britain. His call "upon all" reveals his desire to convince all the colonists to join the fight for independence, emphasizing the overarching purpose in The Crisis.

47. Pacing

1. Definition: the speed or tempo of an author's writing 2. Effect: Pacing builds suspense and keeps the reader intrigued and engaged. 3. Example: In The Scarlet Letter, Hawthorne starts the book with a slow pace, but picks it up after several chapters. 4. Analysis: Hawthorne sets the setting and mood of the story in his first few chapters; hence, the beginning goes at a slow pace because it is building the foundation of the book. This slow pacing builds suspense to Hester's later actions, and the pacing speeds up as she encounters Chillingsworth and gives birth to Pearl. By speeding up the pace during these moments, Hawthorne emphasizes the importance of these scenes and keeps the reader intrigued.

36. Fragment

Definition - A phrase or clause that is missing a sentence element, such as a verb or subject, that prevents it from acting as an independent clause. Effects - Fragments are used to clearly and concisely inform the audience. They also serve to creates an urgent tone or speed up the pace of the writing Example - He spoke to us. Quietly, hurriedly. Analysis - The short, choppiness of the fragment creates a tone or urgency and a rushed feeling. By conveying detail quickly without much else, the phrase is read quickly, creating a sped up pace as people read through, creating tension and evoking a nervousness towards what's to come soon.

43. Modifier

Definition - A sentence phrase that acts as an adjective or adverb to change meaning or add detail to a subject; also known as a participial phrase Effects - The effects of a modifier are providing greater context and detail about a subject or an object. Example - After running a mile, John hurt his foot. Analysis - Without the modifier, the only information that the reader would have is that John hurt his foot. The reader would have no context as to why or how he hurt his foot. By adding in the modifier, the audience then gains information as to what had happened. John hurt his foot because he was running a mile, or that he hurt his foot after running a mile. Either way, the sentence now gains more context and provides a clearer picture of the situation to the reader.

52. Pronoun

Definition - A word that takes the place of a noun Effects - Pronouns help shorten a sentence by replacing a noun. It also serves to make a sentence seem less repetitive by replacing a word that will be commonly used. Example - John took a step forward. He then tripped and hurt his knee. Analysis - By using "He" instead of repeating the name John, the sentence becomes less repetitive and more diverse.

3. Annotation

Definition: A concise statement of the key idea(s) in a text Effect: Annotation is used to gain a fuller, more detailed understanding of what the text is discussing. The passage being read may be long and complicated, so annotations is a way to keep track of the main points needed to prove the author's purpose. It can not only keep track of main ideas but it can also emphasize confusing, unique phrases, evidence, and other literary devices. Example: Underlining "The use of knowledge in our sex; besides the amusement of solitude, is to moderate the passions, and learn to be contented with a small expense..." and note how this is the summarizing statement of the passage. (Lady Mary Wortley Montagu) Analysis: Annotations are used in this way to keep track of a key piece of evidence along with dissecting its meaning. By noting this key statement, it isolates the evidence to use in essay writing and helps make finding the author's purpose easier. This way the writer can make a solid list of the evidence he or she is going to use and back up that evidence with analysis in their own words.

6. Appostitive

Definition: A noun, a noun phrase, or a noun phrase that is next to a noun to describe it or rename it Effect: The use of appositive can delay and emphasize the actual subject. It also limits or clarifies the subject. Example: My mother, a lovely woman, baked cupcakes for my birthday. Analysis: The use of an appositive, "a lovely woman", in this sentence reveals the personality of the mother. This demonstrates that the actions of the mother is not unusual since she is a lovely woman to begin with.

56. Rhetorical Question

Definition: A question of which the answer is obvious or otherwise implied in the text already. Effect: Devices that are used to persuade or subtly imply the obvious; Rhetorical Questions get the reader to respond in the way the author wants them to, enhancing the author's argument. Example: Conformity restricts choices and individuality in life: If you were to choose between and lollipop you wanted, and a lollipop that everyone else got, which lollipop would you choose? Analysis: The answer is given with the question, which enhances the author's perspective on conformity. The author intends the reader to choose the obvious answer which coincides with the author's reasoning.

40. Inversion

Definition: A reversal or normal word order, most commonly so of the placement of subject and verb (also called a subject-verb inversion). Effect: Places an emphasis on the subject or a particular point in the sentence, helps add stylistic effects and embellishments. Example: "Her mother is the lady of the house, And a good lady, and wise and virtuous. I nursed her daughter that you talked withal. I tell you, he that can lay hold of her, Shall have the chinks." Romeo and Juliet Act 1, Scene 5 Analysis: Instead of directly stating, "The lady of the house is her mother...etc" the author decides to add stylistic flare to the sentence. He adds an inversion so the reader focuses more on the subject of the sentence rather than the action. The subject is the mother and what she is like.

11. Assumption

Definition: A statement that is believed to be true without any proof. Effect: Characters and the audience may often assume, and fall for a plot twist. When pointed out, assumptions are usually wrong, as correct ones are often unnoticed. Example: If you're studying these cards, you probably can read English. Analysis: Although there is no proof that the readers can read English, it's reasonable to assume this because the text is in English. However, this assumption can be wrong, as someone who only speaks Chinese may pick these up and look at them.

73. Trope

Definition: A trope is a figure of speech when the intention for the word or words is different from the literal meaning. There is a shift from the literal meaning of the word or words to a non-literal meaning. Types of tropes include: hyperbole, irony, litotes, metaphor, metonymy, oxymoron, personification, pun, rhetorical question, simile, synecdoche, and zeugma. Effect: Tropes describe things in bigger details and creates images that produce artistic effects. Writers can convey their feelings and character through the tropes used. Example: That test was a piece of cake. Analysis: This trope conveys the meaning that the test was easy. It does not mean that the test was a slice of dessert. The writer expresses his/her personality by creatively using another way of saying "the test was easy".

1. Anaphora

Definition: An anaphora is a repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of successive clauses, sentences, or lines. Effects: The effect of an anaphora is that it adds emphasis on key ideas and also implies pathos. An anaphora is basically a repetition of words in the beginning and that helps the reader remember and think about why it was repeated. It creates a driving rhythm by the recurrence of the same sound. It also intensifies the emotion of the poem. Example: "I remember a piece of old wood with termites running around all over it the termite men found under our front porch. I remember when one year in Tulsa by some freak of nature we were invaded by millions of grasshoppers for about three or four days. I remember, downtown, whole sidewalk areas of solid grasshoppers. I remember a shoe store with a big brown x-ray machine that showed up the bones in your feet bright green." Analysis: The anaphora helps implement the nostalgia the reader is experiencing to the reader. It basically accentuates on what the sentence is trying to explain because of the repetition, which adds importance.

8. Argument

Definition: An argument is the main statement of a poem, an essay, a short story, or a novel that usually appears as an introduction or a point on which the writer will develop his work in order to convince his readers. Effect: An argument does not intend to serve only as an introduction but it attracts the reader's focus to an issue that will be made clear. Example: "The cell phone is a great invention," backed by, "it allows people who live far away from each other to stay in touch" and "serves as entertainment and a pastime."

59. Scheme

Definition: Any system of correlated things, parts, ect., or the manner of its arrangement. Effect: A scheme can create an association between two or more subjects by having a similar arrangement, such as a stanza of poetry or the rhyme scheme which associates words because of where they are placed and how they rhyme. Example: O mistress mine! where are you roaming? O! stay and hear; your true love's coming, That can sing both high and low. Trip no further, pretty sweeting; Journeys end in lovers meeting, Every wise man's son doth know. -An example of rhyme scheme

37. Hortatory

Definition: Speech or writing that urges or commands an audience to follow or not follow a particular course of action Effect: Using hortatory adds direction to a persuasive essay. The goal of a persuasive essay is to make the audience believe or do something that will go along with the author's cause. Example: "So, I want you to get up now. I want all of you to get up out of your chairs. I want you to get up right now and go to the window, open it, and stick your head out and yell, 'I'm as mad as hell, and I'm not going to take this anymore!" (Peter Finch as Howard Beale in Network, 1976) Analysis: The author is saying directly that the audience should follow this course of action. As he is using hortatory, he is speaking directly to the audience enabling himself to influence them to do what he wants them to do. As he is telling the audience what action they should take, he or she is also stating what he or she believes in as a command to someone else.

46. Omniscient Narrator

Definition: Story is told from an all seeing God-like, omnipotent viewpoint and the narrator knows the exact thoughts and feelings of the various characters. Effect: Having an omniscient narrator allows the readers to infer the traits within the characters, it also establishes authorial voice and it is very traditional. "She had wandered, without rule or guidance, in a moral wilderness; as vast, as intricate and shadowy, as the untamed forest, amid the gloom of which they were now holding a colloquy that was to decide their fate." (Hester's willingness to run away with Dimmesdale, Scarlet Letter) Through an omniscient point of view, readers can assume the characteristics of the characters because the author provides them with the characters' thoughts and feelings. It also lets the author move freely through time and space and considerably increase tension.

20. Common Ground

Definition: The common endpoints in an argument or in an attempt at persuasion in which both parties agree. Effect: By establishing common ground in an argument, the arguer is able to persuade his opponent, instead of attacking, by revealing the similarities in their objectives. This similarity convinces the opponent that perhaps, despite their ideological differences, the both of them are trying to achieve the same goal and so the opponent will be less likely to object to the arguer. Example: A student is arguing with the teacher about why his late homework should still be accepted. The student argues, with common ground, by stating "But we both want to boost the school's grades, don't we? I just felt that taking a little extra time on my homework would accomplish this." Analysis: The student takes advantage in this argument by knowing that the teacher's ultimate object is to improve his or her classes' grades. The common ground being established is that the student's extra time was being used in effort to achieve the same goals as the teacher. This will appeal to the teacher because he or she will be convinced that the student was taking the extra time in order to support a greater and more important cause and so the teacher will be more likely to excuse the student for his late work.

22. Concession

Definition: When one acknowledges a point made by one's opponent in argumentative writing. Effect: Usage of concession demonstrates how the writer considers all perspectives on a certain issue, and it allows for the audience to see different views and be able to take one side. It can also help find common ground between both the author and the opponent and the author and his or her audience. Example: Agreed that most of the students act and lie about being sick, so that they can avoid school for whatever reason, but mostly students who do not come to school are actually sick due to various reasons. Being sick, they should be focusing on how to get better not about school and grades just because of some students who take advantage of the absentee policy. Analysis: This concession makes the author, most likely a student, seem wiser to an older audience. Argumentation is based upon initial credibility, so, if the student begins his or her audience acknowledging how credible the other side is, indirectly they are making themselves seem wiser and that they know what they are talking about.

16. Bias

Definition: a particular tendency or inclination, especially one that prevents unprejudiced consideration of a question; prejudice. Someone who has a bias in favor of a particular point of view may have difficulty evaluating a situation fairly. If you have a bias (noun), then you are biased (adjective). Effect: Bias may affect the accuracy of information given and spread false information in non-fictional writing. Example: "Tom Brady would never knowingly play with deflated footballs." - A Patriot Fan Analysis: Because this Patriot fan loves his team and 1) would not want to see their starting quarterback suspended and 2) thoroughly believes in the morality of the Patriots, he would be biased towards the Patriots in an argument over the alleged "deflategate" of Tom Brady.

2. Anecdote

Definition: a short account of a particular incident or event Effect: It makes the argument easier for the reader to relate to because it becomes a concrete example or situation rather than being abstract logic. Anecdotes can also make the audience imagine what happened realistically, prove a point later in the speech, be humorous and make the audience relate to the scenario. Example: "...bound in chains and left to die in the basement (there were basements in Meridian) by his new father, who disliked him, and secretly kept alive on raw field peas by a passing farmer who heard his cries for help..." (Dill's runaway story that he tells to Jem and Scout) An anecdote sets the relatable mood between the author and the reader. It allows the readers to use the example and apply it to their own life, and also add a bit of humor to the piece of writing.

33. Epigram

Definition: a witty, concise, ingenious, paradoxical statement Effect: An epigram is most often employed in the form of a couplet at the end of sonnets (most commonly in Shakespeare's) or as separate clever remarks that stand alone. It is used as a witty, memorable ending to leave readers perplexed by the sudden turn of events or to convey a certain emphasized twist of ideas. It also provides readers with an idea to think about after finishing the literary piece. Other times it may be employed as a satirical, humorous element. Example: "I can resist everything but temptation"-Oscar Wilde Analysis: In the first half of this sentence, Wilde states that he can resist "everything" but twists the entire idea by later stating "but temptation," which is the one element he needs to be able to "resist everything". Because the second half contradicts the point made in the first half, this sentence is paradoxical and also leaves the reader contemplating what the main idea of this sentence is.

53. Propaganda

Definition: information, especially of a biased or misleading nature, used to promote or publicize a particular political cause or point of view Effect: Manipulates readers' opinions to go for or against one idea or another In William Golding's Lord of Flies, author introduces concept of beast and use propaganda by his character Jack, who plans to take control of totalitarian government. He uses propaganda by manipulating the cognition of the young boys, frightens them about the existence of beast in that area, accuses Ralph who does not carry out his duty of providing protection to the children, and consequently takes the charge of new tribe where he would follow his tyrannical rules. It makes the reader's opinions go for or against the main idea. However propaganda has little categories to it; appeal to authority, bandwagon, cause/effect, emotional appeal, glittering generality, loaded words, name calling, symbols, testimonials, etc. These are mostly used to provide the "validity" for the false statements.

48. Persona

Definition: the aspect of someone's character that is presented to or perceived by others Effect: In literature, authors use persona to express their ideas, beliefs and voices they are not able to express freely due to some restrictions or that they cannot put into words otherwise. Persona is also sometimes a role a person or a character assumes in public or in the society he lives in. Example: A businessman drives a fancy car, buys a big house, wears expensive clothing and talks down to people that he thinks are below him on the social ladder. Analysis: This businessman wants to put out the persona that he is extremely wealthy and thinks lowly of others who are not comparable to his social standings. This is done so by his outward appearance and attitude.

4. Antimetabole

Definition: the repetition of words in successive clauses, but in transposed order Effect: The use of antimetabole emphasizes the point being made in the sentence. Because antimetabole repeats a phrase in reverse order, the repetition brings attention to the clauses. Since a statement with antimetabole may be initially hard to understand, it forces the reader or listener to think more deeply about the meaning, often times in a different perspective. Example: "No, it is not even the beginning of the end. But it is, perhaps, the end of the beginning." (Winston Churchill, Mansion House, London) Analysis: By using antimetabole, Churchill brings attention to this specific statement in his speech -- that it is perhaps the end of the beginning. He addresses that many view the situation as "the beginning of the end", but proposes that it may actually be "the end of the beginning." His use of antimetabole allows his audience to consider things from a different angle, and it also draws attention to his point.

32. Elegaic

Definition: to be mournful, lamenting, especially for something that has past or someone who is dead. It is also a type of couplet in which the first line is written in dactylic hexameter and the second line is written in dactylic pentameter. Effect: express sorrow, set a melancholy mood Example: O Captain! My Captain! Our fearful trip is done; The ship has weathered every rack, the prize we sought is won; The port is near, the bells I hear, the people all exulting, While follow eyes the steady keel, the vessel grim and daring: But O heart! Heart! Heart! O the bleeding drops of red, Where on the deck my Captain lies, Fallen cold and dead. "Oh Captain, My Captain!" - Walt Whitman Analysis: Whitman's elegy for President Lincoln expresses Whitman's sorrow toward Lincoln's death.

7. Archaic Diction

Definition: words, phrases, or pronunciations that are obsolete and old-fashioned Effect: Archaism can identify time periods, show respect ancestors/predecessors, mock the language, and aid rhyme scheme. Example: "I love thee so, that, maugre all thy pride" (William Shakespeare - Twelfth Night, 3.01.151) Analysis: The use of archaic diction in words such as "thee", "maugre", and "thy" reveals the Shakespearean time period of the work as these terms have become obsolete in the present day.