macroeconomics ch 5
The major source of government revenue in most countries that are experiencing hyperinflation is: A) customs duties. B) income taxes. C) seigniorage. D) borrowing.
C) seigniorage
If the demand for money depends positively on real income and depends inversely on the nominal interest rate, what will happen to the price level today, if the central bank announces (and people believe) that it will decrease the money growth rate in the future, but it does not change the money supply today?
people will expect lower inflation in the future. the nominal interest rate will fall. money demand will increase, since the central bank does not immediately decrease the money supply, prices must fall to keep the newly increased money demand equal to the constant money supply. thus, current prices fall as a result of expected future decreases in money growth rates
The quantity equation of money can be re-written as the quantity theory of money when we assume velocity of money (V) to be constant. Assume there are three possible developments: a. There is a rise in the number of shopping malls. b. There is a rise in the number of banks operating. c. There is a rise in the number of ATMs. Which of the above can alter the money velocity, and how?
A rise in ATMs can lead to people reducing their average money holding and thereby reducing k of the money demand function. As V=1/k, this can alter velocity V.
If the money supply increases 12 percent, velocity decreases 4 percent, and the price level increases 5 percent, then the change in real GDP must be ______ percent. A) 3 B) 4 C) 9 D) 11
A) 3
If the price level depends on both the current money supply and future expected money supplies, in order to stop a hyperinflation, a central bank may try to establish credibility by: A) achieving increased political independence from the government. B) increasing revenue from seigniorage. C) encouraging increased government spending and tax cuts. D) undertaking larger open-market purchases.
A) achieving increased political independence from the government
If nominal wages cannot be cut, then the only way to reduce real wages is by: A) adjustments via inflation. B) unions. C) legislation. D) productivity increases.
A) adjustments via inflation
In recent U.S. experience, inflation has: A) been persistent from year to year, whereas in the nineteenth century inflation had little persistence. B) been persistent from year to year, and this was also true in the nineteenth century. C) not been persistent from year to year, although it was persistent in the nineteenth century. D) not been persistent from year to year, and the same was true in the nineteenth century.
A) been persistent from year to year, whereas in the nineteenth century inflation had little persistence
Which of the following is NOT an effect of expected inflation? A) causes lower real wages. B) leads to shoeleather costs. C) increases menu costs. D) leads to taxing of nominal capital gains that are not real.
A) causes lower real wages
In the case of an unanticipated inflation: A) creditors with an unindexed contract are hurt because they get less than they expected in real terms. B) creditors with an indexed contract gain because they get more than they contracted for in nominal terms. C) debtors with an unindexed contract do not gain because they pay exactly what they contracted for in nominal terms. D) debtors with an indexed contract are hurt because they pay more than they contracted for in nominal terms.
A) creditors with an unindexed contract are hurt because they get less than they expected in real terms
In instances of hyperinflation, the delays involved in collecting taxes often result in: A) decreased real government tax revenue. B) large capital gains for creditors. C) higher shoeleather costs of inflation. D) higher ex ante real interest rates.
A) decreased real government tax revenue
During hyperinflation real tax revenue of the government often drops substantially because of the: A) delay between when a tax is levied and when it is collected. B) significantly greater menu costs of printing tax forms. C) additional deductions taken for increased shoeleather costs. D) greater uncertainty associated with extreme rates of inflation.
A) delay between when a tax is levied and when it is collected
Equilibrium in the market for goods and services determines the ______ interest rate and the expected rate of inflation determines the ______ interest rate. A) ex ante real; ex ante nominal B) ex post real; ex post nominal C) ex ante nominal; ex post real D) ex post nominal; ex post real
A) ex ante real; ex ante nominal
When a person purchases a 90-day Treasury bill, he or she cannot know the: A) ex post real interest rate. B) ex ante real interest rate. C) nominal interest rate. D) expected rate of inflation.
A) ex post real interest rate
The ex ante real interest rate is based on _____ inflation, while the ex post real interest rate is based on _____ inflation. A) expected; actual B) core; actual C) actual; expected D) expected; core
A) expected; actual
Using decade-long data across countries from 2000-2010, countries with high money growth tend to have _____ inflation. A) high B) low C) constant D) decreasing
A) high
According to the quantity theory of money, if money is growing at a 10 percent rate and real output is growing at a 3 percent rate, but velocity is growing at increasingly faster rates over time as a result of financial innovation, the rate of inflation must be: A) increasing. B) decreasing. C) 7 percent. D) constant.
A) increasing
The income velocity of money: A) is defined in the identity MV = PY. B) is defined in the identity MV = PT. C) is the same thing as the transactions velocity of money. D) is the same as the number of times a dollar bill changes hands.
A) is defined in the identity MV=PY
A small country might want to use the money of a large country rather than print its own money if the small country: A) is likely to be unstable, whereas the large country is likely to be stable. B) is likely to be stable, whereas the large country is likely to be unstable. C) needs the revenue for seigniorage. D) wants to control its own inflation rate.
A) is likely to be unstable, whereas the large country is likely to be stable
The quantity equation for money, by itself: A) may be thought of as a definition for velocity of money. B) implies that the velocity of money is constant. C) implies that the price level is proportional to the money supply. D) implies that real gross domestic product (GDP) is proportional to the money supply.
A) may be thought of as a definition for the velocity of money
The costs of reprinting catalogs and price lists because of inflation are called: A) menu costs. B) shoeleather costs. C) variable yardstick costs. D) fixed costs.
A) menu costs
An example of a nominal variable is the: A) money supply. B) quantity of goods produced in a year. C) relative price of bread. D) real wage.
A) money supply
The opportunity cost of holding money is the: A) nominal interest rate. B) real interest rate. C) federal funds rate. D) prevailing Treasury bill rate.
A) nominal interest rate
Evidence from the past 40 years in the United States supports the Fisher effect and shows that when the inflation rate is high, the ______ interest rate tends to be ______. A) nominal; high B) nominal; low C) real; high D) real; low
A) nominal; high
Which of the following would most likely be called a hyperinflation? A) Price increases averaged 300 percent per year. B) The inflation rate was 10 percent per year. C) Real GDP grew at a rate of 12 percent over a year. D) A stock market index rose by 1,000 points over a year.
A) price increases averaged 300 percent per year
Variables expressed in terms of physical units or quantities are called ______ variables. A) real B) nominal C) endogenous D) exogenous
A) real
The theoretical separation of real and monetary variables is called: A) the classical dichotomy. B) monetary neutrality. C) the Fisher effect. D) the quantity theory of money.
A) the classical dichotomy
If velocity is constant and, in addition, the factors of production and the production function determine real GDP, then: A) the price level is proportional to the money supply. B) real GDP is proportional to the money supply. C) the price level is fixed. D) nominal GDP is fixed.
A) the price level is proportional to the money supply
In the long run, according to the quantity theory of money and the classical macroeconomic theory, if velocity is constant, then ______ determines real GDP and ______ determines nominal GDP. A) the productive capability of the economy; the money supply B) the money supply; the productive capability of the economy C) velocity; the money supply D) the money supply; velocity
A) the productive capability of the economy; the money supply
Which of the following is an example of a relative price? A) the real interest rate B) the capital stock C) the dollar wage per hour D) the price level
A) the real interest rate
In classical macroeconomic theory, the concept of monetary neutrality means that changes in the money supply do not influence real variables. Explain why changes in money growth affect the nominal interest rate, but not the real interest rate.
According to the Fisher equation, the nominal interest rate equals the real interest rate plus the expected rate of inflation. The expected rate of inflation depends on the rate of money growth, so the nominal interest rate depends on the rate of money growth. According to classical macroeconomic theory, the real interest rate adjusts to bring the level of saving and investment into equilibrium without reference to the rate of money growth
A classical economist wears a T-shirt printed with the slogan "Fast Money Raises My Interest!" Use the quantity theory of money and the Fisher equation to explain the slogan.
According to the quantity theory, if velocity and real output are constant, then increases in the rate of money growth increase the rate of inflation. Fast money increases inflation. Based on the Fisher equation, the nominal interest rate equals the real interest rate plus the rate of inflation. If the real interest rate is constant, the higher inflation raises the nominal interest rate.
If the quantity of real money balances is kY, where k is a constant, then velocity is: A) k. B) 1/k. C) kP. D) P/k.
B) 1/k
If the average price of goods and services in the economy equals $10 and the quantity of money in the economy equals $200,000, then real balances in the economy equal: A) 10. B) 20,000. C) 200,000. D) 2,000,000.
B) 20,000
Consider the money demand function that takes the form (M/P)d = Y/4i, where M is the quantity of money, P is the price level, Y is real output, and i is the nominal interest rate. What is the average velocity of money in this economy? A) i B) 4i C) 1/4i D) 0.25
B) 4i
If the nominal interest rate is 1 percent and the inflation rate is 5 percent, the real interest rate is: A) 1 percent. B) 6 percent. C) -4 percent. D) -5 percent.
B) 6 percent
Consider the money demand function that takes the form (M/P)d = kY, where M is the quantity of money, P is the price level, k is a constant, and Y is real output. If the money supply is growing at a 10 percent rate, real output is growing at a 3 percent rate, and k is constant, what is the average inflation rate in this economy? A) 3 percent B) 7 percent C) 10 percent D) 13 percent
B) 7 percent
If consumption depends positively on the level of real balances, and real balances depend negatively on the nominal interest rate in a neoclassical model, then: A) the classical dichotomy still holds. B) a rise in money growth leads to a fall in consumption and a rise in investment. C) a rise in money growth leads to a rise in consumption and a fall in investment. D) a rise in money growth leads to a rise in both consumption and investment.
B) a rise in money growth leads to a fall in consumption and a rise in investment
Real money balances equal the: A) sum of coin, currency, and balances in checking accounts. B) amount of money expressed in terms of the quantity of goods and services it can purchase. C) number of dollars used as a medium of exchange. D) quantity of money created by the Federal Reserve.
B) amount of money expressed in terms of the quantity of goods and services it can purchase
"Inflation tax" means that: A) as the price level rises, taxpayers are pushed into higher tax brackets. B) as the price level rises, the real value of money held by the public decreases. C) as taxes increase, the rate of inflation also increases. D) in a hyperinflation, the chief source of tax revenue is often the printing of money.
B) as the price level rises, the real value of money held by the public decreases
The inflation tax is paid: A) only by the central bank. B) by all holders of money. C) only by government bond holders. D) equally by every household.
B) by all holders of money
According to the Fisher effect, the nominal interest rate moves one-for-one with changes in the: A) inflation rate. B) expected inflation rate. C) ex ante real interest rate. D) ex post real interest rate.
B) expected inflation rate
Using average rates of money growth and inflation in the United States over many decades, Friedman and Schwartz found that decades of high money growth tended to have ______ rates of inflation and decades of low money growth tended to have ______ rates of inflation. A) high; high B) high; low C) low; low D) low; high
B) high; low
A rate of inflation that exceeds 50 percent per month is typically referred to as a(n): A) conflagration. B) hyperinflation. C) deflation. D) disinflation.
B) hyperinflation
If the real interest rate declines by 1 percent and the inflation rate increases by 2 percent, the nominal interest rate must: A) increase by 2 percent. B) increase by 1 percent. C) remain constant. D) decrease by 1 percent.
B) increase by 1 percent
Inflation ______ the variability of relative prices and ______ allocative efficiency. A) increases; increases B) increases; decreases C) decreases; decreases D) decreases; increases
B) increases; decreases
If the real interest rate and real national income are constant, according to the quantity theory and the Fisher effect, a 1 percent increase in money growth will lead to rises in: A) inflation of 1 percent and the nominal interest rate of less than 1 percent. B) inflation of 1 percent and the nominal interest rate of 1 percent. C) inflation of 1 percent and the nominal interest rate of more than 1 percent. D) both inflation and the nominal interest rate of less than 1 percent.
B) inflation of 1 percent and the nominal interest rate of 1 percent
The classical dichotomy: A) cannot hold if money is "neutral." B) is said to hold when the values of real variables can be determined without any reference to nominal variables or the existence of money. C) fully describes the world in which we live, especially in the short run. D) arises because money depends on the nominal interest rate.
B) is said to hold when the values of real variables can be determined without any reference to nominal variables or the existence of money
Survey evidence indicates that economists worry ______ the general public does about prices increasing more rapidly than their incomes. A) more than B) less than C) about the same as D) more intensely than
B) less than
The percentage of government revenue raised by printing money has usually accounted for: A) more than 10 percent of government revenue in the United States. B) less than 3 percent of government revenue in the United States. C) less than 3 percent of government revenue in Italy. D) less than 3 percent of government revenue in Greece.
B) less than 3 percent of government revenue in the United States
Hyperinflations ultimately are the result of excessive growth rates of the money supply; the underlying motive for the excessive money growth rates is frequently a government's: A) desire to increase prices throughout the economy. B) need to generate revenue to pay for spending. C) responsibility to increase nominal interest rates by increasing expected inflation. D) inability to conduct open-market operations.
B) need to generate revenue to pay for spending
Variables expressed in terms of money are called ______ variables. A) real B) nominal C) endogenous D) exogenous
B) nominal
The general demand function for real balances depends on the level of income and the: A) real interest rate. B) nominal interest rate. C) rate of inflation. D) price level.
B) nominal interest rate
An example of a real variable is the: A) dollar wage a person earns. B) quantity of goods produced in a year. C) price level. D) nominal interest rate.
B) quantity of goods produced in a year
To end a hyperinflation, a government trying to reduce its reliance on seigniorage would: A) print more money. B) raise taxes and cut spending. C) lower taxes and increase spending. D) lower interest rates.
B) raise taxes and cut spending
In practice, in order to stop a hyperinflation, in addition to stopping monetary growth, the government must: A) lower taxes and raise government spending. B) raise taxes and reduce government spending. C) change from one kind of currency to another. D) call for a new election.
B) raise taxes and reduce government spending
A positive relationship between nominal interest rates and inflation in the United States is obvious in: A) both recent data and nineteenth-century data. B) recent data but not nineteenth-century data. C) nineteenth-century data but not recent data. D) neither nineteenth-century data nor recent data.
B) recent data but not nineteenth-century data
The inconvenience associated with reducing money holdings to avoid the inflation tax is called: A) menu costs. B) shoeleather costs. C) variable yardstick costs. D) fixed costs.
B) shoeleather costs
The costs of unexpected inflation, but not of expected inflation, are: A) menu costs. B) the arbitrary redistribution of wealth between debtors and creditors. C) unintended distortions of individual tax liabilities D) the costs of relative price variability.
B) the arbitrary redistribution of wealth between debtors and creditors
The quantity theory of money assumes that: A) income is constant. B) velocity is constant. C) prices are constant. D) the money supply is constant.
B) velocity is constant
If there are 100 transactions in a year and the average value of each transaction is $10, then if there is $200 of money in the economy, transactions velocity is ______ times per year. A) 0.2 B) 2 C) 5 D) 10
C) 5
According to the quantity theory and the Fisher equation, if the money growth increases by 3 percent and the real interest rate equals 2 percent, then the nominal interest rate will increase: A) 2 percent. B) 3 percent. C) 5 percent. D 6 percent.
C) 5 percent
Percentage change in P is approximately equal to the percentage change in: A) M. B) M minus percentage change in Y. C) M minus percentage change in Y plus percentage change in velocity. D) M minus percentage change in Y minus percentage change in velocity.
C) M minus percentage change in Y plus percentage change in velocity
One possible benefit of moderate inflation is: A) a reduction in boredom attributable to the changing prices. B) the elimination of menu costs. C) better functioning labor markets. D) increased certainty about the future.
C) better functioning labor markets
If the demand for money depends on the nominal interest rate, then via the quantity theory and the Fisher equation, the price level depends on: A) only the current money supply. B) only the expected future money supply. C) both the current and expected future money supply. D) neither the current nor the expected future money supply.
C) both the current and expected future money supply
If the money supply is held constant, then an increase in the nominal interest rate will ______ the demand for money and ______ the price level. A) increase; increase B) increase; decrease C) decrease; increase D) decrease; decrease
C) decrease; increase
If inflation is 6 percent and a worker receives a 4 percent nominal wage increase, then the worker's real wage: A) increased 4 percent. B) increased 2 percent. C) decreased 2 percent. D) decreased 6 percent.
C) decreased 2 percent
Devoting resources to avoiding the costs of expected inflation leads to: A) eliminating the costs of expected inflation. B) fewer relative price changes. C) economic inefficiency. D) a decrease in the transaction velocity of money.
C) economic inefficiency
Most hyperinflations end with _____ reforms that eliminate the need for _____. A) monetary; taxes B) monetary; currency C) fiscal; seigniorage D) fiscal; currency
C) fiscal; seigniorage
Between 1880 and 1896, the price level in the United States fell 23 percent. This movement was ______ for bankers of the Northeast and ______ for farmers of the South and West. A) bad; bad B) good; good C) good; bad D) bad; good
C) good; bad
According to the classical theory of money, inflation does not make workers poorer because wages increase: A) faster than the overall price level. B) more slowly than the overall price level. C) in proportion to the increase in the overall price level. D) in real terms during periods of inflation.
C) in proportion to the increase in the overall price level
The demand for real money balances is generally assumed to: A) be exogenous. B) be constant. C) increase as real income increases. D) decrease as real income increases.
C) increase as real income increases
The ex ante real interest rate is equal to the nominal interest rate: A) minus the inflation rate. B) plus the inflation rate. C) minus the expected inflation rate. D) plus the expected inflation rate.
C) minus the expected inflation rate
Variable inflation hurts both debtors and creditors because: A) inflation makes the money-fixed assets of creditors worth less. B) inflation makes the money-fixed liabilities of debtors worth less. C) most debtors and creditors are risk averse. D) most debtors and creditors are risk neutral.
C) most debtors and creditors are risk averse
The real interest rate is equal to the: A) amount of interest that a lender actually receives when making a loan. B) nominal interest rate plus the inflation rate. C) nominal interest rate minus the inflation rate. D) nominal interest rate.
C) nominal interest rate minus the inflation rate
The concept of monetary neutrality in the classical model means that an increase in the money supply will increase: A) real GDP. B) real interest rates. C) nominal interest rates. D) both saving and investment by the same amount.
C) nominal interest rates
The transactions velocity of money indicates the _____ in a given period, while the income velocity of money indicates the _____ in a given period. A) number of transactions; amount of income earned B) quantity of money used for transactions; quantity of money paid as income C) number of times a dollar bill changes hands; number of times a dollar bill enters someone's income D) volume of transactions; flow of income
C) number of times a dollar bill changes hands; number of times a dollar bill enters someone's income
In Zimbabwe in the 1990s the government resorted to printing money to pay the salaries of government employees because: A) it was a means to avoid price controls. B) of high rates of inflation. C) of declining tax revenues. D) of a need to stimulate the economy.
C) of declining tax revenues
The rate of inflation is the: A) median level of prices. B) average level of prices. C) percentage change in the level of prices. D) measure of the overall level of prices.
C) percentage change in the level of prices
The hyperinflation experienced by interwar Germany illustrates how fiscal policy can be connected to monetary policy when government expenditures are financed by: A) new taxes. B) borrowing in the open market. C) printing large quantities of money. D) selling gold.
C) printing large quantities of money
Compared to periods of lower rates of inflation, during a hyperinflation all of the following occur except: A) shoeleather costs increase. B) menu costs become larger. C) relative prices do a better job of reflecting true scarcity. D) tax distortions increase.
C) relative pries do a better job of reflecting true scarcity
According to the quantity theory of money, ultimate control over the rate of inflation in the United States is exercised by: A) the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). B) the U.S. Treasury. C) the Federal Reserve. D) private citizens.
C) the Federal Reserve
In the classical model, according to the quantity theory and the Fisher equation, an increase in money growth increases: A) output. B) velocity C) the nominal interest rate. D) the real interest rate.
C) the nominal interest rate
According to the classical dichotomy, when the money supply decreases, _____ will decrease. A) real GDP B) consumption spending C) the price level D) investment spending
C) the price level
During the American Revolution, the price of gold measured in continental dollars increased to more than ______ times its previous level. A) 2 B) 10 C) 50 D) 100
D) 100
According to the quantity theory a 5 percent increase in money growth increases inflation by ___ percent. According to the Fisher equation a 5 percent increase in the rate of inflation increases the nominal interest rate by _____. A) 1; 5 B) 5; 1 C) 1; 1 D) 5; 5
D) 5; 5
If the real return on government bonds is 3 percent and the expected rate of inflation is 4 percent, then the cost of holding money is ______ percent. A) 1 B) 3 C) 4 D) 7
D) 7
The ex post real interest rate will be greater than the ex ante real interest rate when the: A) rate of inflation is increasing. B) rate of inflation is decreasing. C) actual rate of inflation is greater than the expected rate of inflation. D) actual rate of inflation is less than the expected rate of inflation.
D) actual rate of inflation is less than the expected rate of inflation
If the Fed announces that it will raise the money supply in the future but does not change the money supply today, A) both the nominal interest rate and the current price level will decrease. B) the nominal interest rate will increase and the current price level will decrease. C) the nominal interest rate will decrease and the current price level will increase. D) both the nominal interest rate and the current price level will increase.
D) both the nominal interest rate and the current price level will increase
The income velocity of money increases and the money demand parameter k ______ when people want to hold ______ money. A) increases; more B) increases; less C) decreases; more D) decreases; less
D) decreases; less
According to the classical theory of money, reducing inflation will not make workers richer because firms will increase product prices ______ each year and give workers ______ raises. A) more; larger B) more; smaller C) less; larger D) less; smaller
D) less; smaller
The real return on holding money is: A) the real interest rate. B) minus the real interest rate. C) the inflation rate. D) minus the inflation rate.
D) minus the inflation rate
The characteristic of the classical model that the money supply does not affect real variables is called: A) the monetary basis. B) monetary policy. C) the quantity theory of money. D) monetary neutrality
D) monetary neutrality
If income velocity is assumed to be constant, but no other assumptions are made, the level of ______ is determined by M. A) prices B) income C) transactions D) nominal GDP
D) nominal GDP
If the transactions velocity of money remains constant while the quantity of money doubles, the: A) price of the average transaction must double. B) number of transactions must remain constant. C) price of the average transaction multiplied by the number of transactions must remain constant. D) price of the average transaction multiplied by the number of transactions must double.
D) price of the average transaction multiplied by the number of transactions must double
The definition of the transactions velocity of money is: A) money multiplied by prices divided by transactions. B) transactions divided by prices multiplied by money. C) money divided by prices multiplied by transactions. D) prices multiplied by transactions divided by money.
D) prices multiplied by transactions divided by money
The right of seigniorage is the right to: A) levy taxes on the public. B) borrow money from the public. C) draft citizens into the armed forces. D) print money.
D) print money
The one-to-one relation between the inflation rate and the nominal interest rate, the Fisher effect, assumes that the: A) money supply is constant. B) velocity is constant. C) inflation rate is constant. D) real interest rate is constant.
D) real interest rate is constant
If the demand for real money balances is proportional to real income, velocity will: A) increase as income increases. B) increase as income decreases. C) vary directly with the interest rate. D) remain constant.
D) remain constant
If consumption depends positively on the level of real balances and real balances depend negatively on the nominal interest rate in a neoclassical model, then the nominal interest rate: A) declines when the money growth rate rises. B) is unchanged when the money growth rate rises. C) rises 1 percent for each 1 percent rise in the money growth rate. D) rises less than 1 percent for each 1 percent rise in the money growth rate.
D) rises less than 1 percent for each 1 percent rise in the money growth rate
When the demand for money parameter, k, is large, the velocity of money is ______ and money is changing hands ______ A) large; frequently B) large; infrequently C) small; frequently D) small; infrequently
D) small; frequently
If the nominal interest increases, then: A) the money supply increases. B) the money supply decreases. C) the demand for money increases. D) the demand for money decreases.
D) the demand for money decreases
The phrase "inflation is repudiation" applies only if: A) inflation is expected. B) the government has no debt. C) the government is a creditor. D) the government is a debtor.
D) the government is a debtor
The quantity equation, viewed as an identity, is a definition of the: A) quantity of money. B) quantity of transactions. C) price level. D) transactions velocity of money.
D) transactions velocity of money
A variable rate of inflation is undesirable because: A) debtors and creditors cannot protect themselves by indexing contracts. B) shoeleather costs are greater under variable inflation than under constant inflation. C) menu costs are greater under variable inflation than under constant inflation. D) variable inflation leads to greater uncertainty and risk as compared to constant inflation.
D) variable inflation leads to greater uncertainty and risk as compared to constant inflation
If one were to own government bonds or other forms of financial assets, they would earn a real interest rate. Yet, the opportunity cost of holding money is equal to the nominal interest rate. Explain why and how.
Holding financial assets would give us returns r. The money we hold earns (- πr) as it loses value due to inflation. The sum total opportunity cost is r - (- πr) = r + πr = i, the nominal interest rate, as per the Fisher equation.
Suppose a government has a tax revenue shortfall. Will hyperinflation inevitably follow unless the government cuts in its fiscal expenditures?
No. A government has the option of borrowing money just like any other economic entity. It is only when a government is deemed as a poor borrower and lenders refuse to lend to it that the government is forced to print money to cover its expenses, which might trigger hyperinflation.
During inflation, does a rise in shoe leather cost signify change in velocity of money?
No. V = Y / (M/P). Only when Y and V are fixed does an increase in M lead to a subsequent rise in P to balance the equation. Conversely, any rise in P is compensated by an equivalent rise in M such that the velocity of money does not actually change.
You are presented with the following equation: (1 + r )= (1 + i )/(1 +π). Expand the expression to solve for i. What assumption is required for this expression to be equal to the Fischer equation?
On expansion, the equation reads i = r + π +r π. If both r and π are substantially lowered, their product is much lower, such that i= r + π is a good enough approximation.
For a country A, the GDP growth rate is 8 percent and inflation is 4 percent. If the velocity of money remains constant, what is the change in real money balances?
Percent change in M + percent change in V = percent Change in P + percent change in Y . Here, percent change in V=0. Percent change in M - percent change in P = percent change in Y. Given that the GDP growth rate is 8 percent, the change in real money balances is 8 percent as well.
Consider two countries, Hitech and Lotech. In Hitech new arrangements for making payments, such as credit cards and ATMs, have been enthusiastically adopted by the population, thereby reducing the proportion of income that is held as real money balances. Over this period no such changes occurred in Lotech. If the rate of money growth and the growth rate of real GDP were the same in Hitech and Lotech over this period, then how would the rate of inflation differ between the two countries? Carefully explain your answer.
The rate of inflation would be higher in Hitech. According to the quantity theory, if the rates of money growth and real GDP growth rates are the same, differences in rates of inflation are related to differences in velocity. An increase in velocity leads to a higher rate of inflation, holding other factors constant. In Hitech the reduction in the proportion of income held as real balances (smaller k) is the equivalent of an increase in velocity and, consequently, a higher rate of inflation in Hitech than in Lotech.
The money demand function can be written as L (i, Y). Given the Fisher equation, this means that the money demand function of the population already takes into account inflation (i = r + π). Why do you think people have a problem with inflation?
There is a difference between expected inflation and actual inflation rate. In the money demand function, i = r + E π, E π is the expected inflation rate. The real problem is when actual inflation rates do not match expected inflation rates. Thus, variable inflation is the main concern rather than inflation per se.
Assume a simple economy where only burgers are traded. In a year, 100 burgers are traded at the rate of $5 per burger. Assume two scenarios: a. The economy has $100 in the form of 20 pieces of $5 bills. b. The economy has $100 in the form of 100 pieces of $1 bills. Calculate the velocity of money for both situations.
Velocity of money does not depend on the currency denominations. It is a measure for each unit of money and not the unit of the currency. In this example, the velocity of money V = (PT) / M = (5(100)) / 100 = 5 in both cases.
If there are no unexpected changes in money supply in an economy, can there still be unexpected inflation in the economy?
Yes. If there are shocks in the real economy affecting the factors of production and production function such that total output Y is affected (say, falls), for a given money supply M and fixed velocity of money V, P will rise leading to unexpected inflation levels.
Under high historical inflation rates, can non-indexation of contracts be non-damaging for either party?
Yes. The real damage in a case of non-indexed contracts is high variable inflation. Thus, even if expected inflation is high, as long as there is no high variable inflation, non-indexed contracts may be party neutral.
Assume that a series of inflation rates is 1 percent, 2 percent, and 4 percent, while nominal interest rates in the same three periods are 5 percent, 5 percent, and 6 percent, respectively. a. What are the ex post real interest rates in the same three periods? b. If the expected inflation rate in each period is the realized inflation rate in the previous period, what are the ex ante real interest rates in periods two and three? c. If someone lends in period two, based on the ex ante inflation expectation in part b, will he or she be pleasantly or unpleasantly surprised in period 3 when the loan is repaid?
a. 4 percent; 3 percent; 2 percent b. 4 percent; 4 percent c. he or she will be unpleasantly surprised
Econoland finances government expenditures with an inflation tax. a. Explain who pays the tax and how it is paid. b. What are costs of the tax, assuming the tax rate is expected?
a. Holders of money pay the inflation tax, since the purchasing power of money holdings declines as a result of inflation generated when the government prints more money b. the inflation tax rate is the rate of inflation. If the inflation rate is expected, then the costs of expected inflation include shoeleather costs, menu costs, the costs of relative price variability, tax distortions, and the inconvenience of making inflation corrections
The costs of expected inflation cause productive resources of an economy to be directed away from their efficient allocation. Explain how each of the following costs of expected inflation distort the allocation of productive resources: a. shoeleather costs b. menu costs c. the inconvenience of a changing price level
a. Resources are used to go to the bank and in other activities to reduce cash holding, rather than in producing goods and services. b. Resources are used to update prices on menus, in catalogs, and on other price lists, rather than in producing goods and service. c. Resources are used to specify and compare the value of dollars at different t
Although "inflation is always and everywhere a monetary phenomenon," explain why: a. the start of a hyperinflation is typically related to the fiscal policy situation, and b. the end of a hyperinflation is usually related to changes in fiscal policy.
a. hyperinflations frequently begin when governments require additional revenue from seigniorage because tax revenue and/or government borrowing is insufficient to cover government spending. the additional seigniorage is obtained by printing money, which leads to hyperinflation b. hyperinflations usually end when fiscal policy changes, including tax increases and government spending cuts are made to eliminate the need for seigniorage and stops the excessive increase in money
Assume that the demand for real money balance (M/P) is M/P = 0.6Y - 100i, where Y is national income and i is the nominal interest rate (in percent). The real interest rate r is fixed at 3 percent by the investment and saving functions. The expected inflation rate equals the rate of nominal money growth. a. If Y is 1,000, M is 100, and the growth rate of nominal money is 1 percent, what must i and P be? b. If Y is 1,000, M is 100, and the growth rate of nominal money is 2 percent, what must i and P be?
a. i=4 percent, P=1/2 b. i=5 percent, P=1
