Man 320F Midterm

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What are trends with human behavior in organizations? (9)

1. *Importance of connections and networks*: Work is increasingly being done through personal connections and networks. In this environment, building effective rela- tionships face to face and online is a must-have career skill. 2. *Commitment to ethical behavior*: .Highlypublicizedscandalsinvolvingunethicaland illegal practices prompt concerns for ethical behavior in the workplace; growing intolerance for breaches of public faith by organizations and those who run them are drawing new attention to business ethics. 3. *Broader views of leadership*: New pressures and demands mean organizations can no longer rely on just managers for leadership. Leadership is valued from all members, found at all levels, and flows in all directions—not just top-down. 4. *Emphasis on human capital and teamwork*: Success is earned through knowledge, experience, and commitments to people as valuable human assets; work is increasingly team based with a focus on peer contributions. 5. *Demise of command-and-control*. Influence of information technology: Traditional hierarchical structures and practices are being replaced by shared leadership, flexible structures, and participatory work settings that engage human and social capital. 6. *Influence of information technology*: As new technologies—including social media— penetrate the workplace, implications for work arrangements, organizational systems and processes, and individual behavior are continuously evolving. 7. *Respect for new workforce expectations*: The new generation is less tolerant of hierarchy, more high tech, and less concerned about status. Balance of work and nonwork responsibilities is a top-priority value. 8. *Changing concept of careers*: New economy jobs require special skill sets and a continuous development. More people now work as independent contractors and freelancers who shift among employers rather than hold full-time jobs. 9. *Concern for sustainability*: Issues of sustainability are top priorities.Decision making and goal setting increasingly give attention to the environment, climate justice, and preservation of resources for future generations.

How an organization's culture and climate affect members depends on something called...?

"Fit" —the match of internal environment and individual characteristics. -- People who find a good fit tend to experience confidence and satisfaction. -- Those with a bad fit may be prone to withdraw, experience stress, and even become angry and aggressive due to dissatisfaction.

Performance Management:

"Why" -- What's the purpose?: 1. evaluation purpose: when it lets people know where their actual performance stands relative to objectives and standards. 2. developmental purpose: when it provides insights into individual strengths and weaknesses. "What"-- What is being measured?:

The foundation for a healthy and positive employee value proposition is...

"fit" a poor fit will increases likelihood that imbalance will creep into the EVP

Organization: -- Schemas

- Organize information efficiently. -- are cognitive frameworks that represent organized knowledge developed through experience about people, objects, or events. -- The schemas most commonly used are script schemas, person schemas, and person-in-situation schemas.

Inclusion

- The degree to which an organization's culture respects and values diversity. - The degree to which the culture embraces diversity and is open to anyone who can perform a job, regardless of their diversity attributes.

The leadership process

-- Involves leaders and followers jointly producing leadership outcomes -- Effective following is an essential—perhaps the most important part -- Leadership is not only downward influence, it also involves influencing upward and side to side.

Gender: Women

-- Research shows that companies with a higher percentage of female board directors and corporate officers, on average, financially outperform companies with the lowest percentages by significant margins.

Effective Followers

-- Those who work with leaders to produce positive outcomes. They support leaders by being willing to collaborate and defer when needed, rather than work- ing against leaders or trying to undermine their power. -- avoid engaging in upward delegation

Stakeholders

-- are people and groups with an interest or stake in the performance of the organization.

The Emotional Drive or Needs Model...

-- ties each of the four drives with specific things that organizations and managers can do to satisfy them as ways to gain a positive impact on motivation. - explained 60% of the motivation workers experienced - "Employees in our study attributed as much importance to their boss's meeting their four drives as to the organization's policies."

Decision makers can choose among the individual, consultative, team decision options by considering these factors:

(1) required quality of the decision, (2) commitment needed from team members to implement the decision, (3) amount of information available to the team leader, (4) problem structure, (5) chances team members will be committed if the leader makes the decision, (6) degree to which the team leader and members agree on goals, (7) conflict among team members, and (8) information available to team members.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

(Acquired needs theory) TAT = projective technique that asks people to view pictures and write stories about what they see, and its use proved historic in motivation theory

Basic Equity comparison can be summarized as:

(Individual outcomes/ individual efforts) = (others outcomes/others efforts)

Emotions and moods as personal affects are known to influence _______. (a) attitudes (b) ability (c) aptitude (d) intelligence

(a) attitudes

The underlying premise of reinforcement theory is that ______. (a) behavior is a function of environment (b) motivation comes from positive expectancy (c) higher-order needs stimulate hard work (d) rewards considered unfair are de-motivators

(a) behavior is a function of environment

The ______ decision model views individuals as making optimizing decisions, whereas the ______ decision model views them as making satisficing decisions. (a) behavioral/judgmental heuristics (b) classical/behavioral (c) judgmental heuristics/ethical (d) crisis/routine

(a) behavioral/judgmental heuristics

When someone has a high and positive expectancy in expectancy theory of motivation, this means that the person ______. (a) believes he or she can meet performance expectations (b) highly values the rewards being offered (c) sees a relationship between high performance and the available rewards (d) believes that rewards are equitable

(a) believes he or she can meet performance expectations

Which goals tend to be more motivating? (a) challenging goals (b) easy goals (c) general goals (d) no goals

(a) challenging goals

The ______ component of an attitude indicates a person's belief about something, whereas the _______ component indicates positive or negative feeling about it. (a) cognitive, affective (b) emotional, affective (c) cognitive, mood (d) behavioral, mood

(a) cognitive, affective

The 4/40 is a type of ______ work arrangement. (a) compressed workweek (b) "allow workers to change machine configurations to make different products" (c) job-sharing (d) permanent part-time

(a) compressed workweek

Eustress is ____________ stress, while distress is ____________ stress. (a) constructive, destructive (b) destructive, constructive (c) negative, positive (d) the most common, the most relevant

(a) constructive, destructive

Motivation is defined as the level and persistence of ______. (a) effort (b) performance (c) need satisfaction (d) instrumentalities

(a) effort

When an airline flight attendant displays organizationally desired emotions when interacting with passengers, this is an example of ____. (a) emotional labor (b) emotional contagion (c) job commitment (d) negative affect

(a) emotional labor

Which form of performance assessment is an example of the comparative approach? (a) forced distribution (b) graphic rating scale (c) BARS (d) critical incident diary

(a) forced distribution

If a manager allows one characteristic of a person, say a pleasant personality, to bias performance ratings of that individual overall, the manager is falling prey to a perceptual distortion known as _______. (a) halo effect (b) stereotype (c) selective perception (d) projection

(a) halo effect

Both Barry and Marissa are highly motivated college students. Knowing this I can expect them to be ______ in my class. (a) hard working (b) high performing (c) highly satisfied (d) highly dissatisfied

(a) hard working

Companies that ____________ experience the greatest benefits of workforce diversity. (a) have learned to employ people because of their differences (b) have learned to employ people in spite of their differences (c) have not worried about people's differences (d) have implemented diversity programs based only on affirmative action

(a) have learned to employ people because of their differences

Which word best describes an organizational culture that embraces multiculturalism and in which workforce diversity is highly valued? (a) inclusion (c) dynamism (b) effectiveness (d) predictability

(a) inclusion

Class discussions, "debriefs," and individual papers based on case studies, team projects, and in-class activities are all ways an instructor tries to engage students in which part of the experiential learning cycle? (a) initial experience (b) reflection (c) theory building (d) experimentation

(a) initial experience

Among Mintzberg's ten managerial roles, acting as a figurehead and liaison are examples of ______ roles. (a) interpersonal (c) decisional (b) informational (d) conceptual

(a) interpersonal

Affective events theory shows how one's emotional reactions to work events, environment, and personal predispositions can influence _______. (a) job satisfaction and performance (b) emotional labor (c) emotional intelligence (d) emotional contagion

(a) job satisfaction and performance

Punishment ______. (a) may be offset by positive reinforcement from another source (b) generally is the most effective kind of reinforcement (c) is best given anonymously (d) should never be directly linked with its cause.

(a) may be offset by positive reinforcement from another source

In Vroom's decision-making model, the choice among individual and team decision approaches is based on criteria that include quality requirements, availability of information, and ______. (a) need for implementation commitments (b) size of the organization (c) number of people involved (d) position power of the leader

(a) need for implementation commitments

A defining characteristic of social learning theory is that it ______. (a) recognizes the existence of vicarious learning (b) is not concerned with extrinsic rewards (c) relies only on use of negative reinforcement (d) avoids any interest in self-efficacy

(a) recognizes the existence of vicarious learning

The _____ bases a decision on similarities between the situation at hand and stereotypes of similar occurrences. (a) representativeness heuristic (b) anchoring and adjustment heuristic (c) confirmation trap (d) hindsight trap

(a) representativeness heuristic

In equity theory, the ______ is a key issue. (a) social comparison of rewards (b) equality of rewards (c) equality of efforts (d) absolute value of rewards

(a) social comparison of rewards

If a team approaches problems in a rational and analytical way, with members trying to solve them in step-by-step fashion, it is well described as a team using _______. (a) systematic thinking (b) intuitive thinking (c) escalating thinking (d) associative thinking

(a) systematic thinking

When a job allows a person to do a complete unit of work—for example, process an insurance claim from point of receipt from the customer to the point of final resolution—it would be considered high on which core characteristic? (a) task identity (b) task significance (c) task autonomy (d) feedback

(a) task identity

Personality encompasses ___________. (a) the overall combination of characteristics that capture the unique nature of a person (b) only the nurture components of self (c) only the nature components of self (d) how self-aware someone is

(a) the overall combination of characteristics that capture the unique nature of a person

The criteria questions for assessing ethics in decision making include the issue of ______, making sure that the decision satisfies the interests of all stakeholders. (a) utility (b) justice (c) rights (d) caring

(a) utility

Which of the following issues would be most central to the field of organizational behavior (OB)? (a) How to improve advertising for a new product. (b) How to increase job satisfaction and performance among members of a team. (c) Making plans for a new strategy for organizational growth. (d) Designing a new management information system

(b) How to increase job satisfaction and performance among members of a team

What is a possible disadvantage of choosing to make a decision by the team rather than by the individual method? (a) People are better informed about the reason for the decision. (b) It takes too long to reach a decision. (c) More information is used to make the decision. (d) It won't ever result in a high-quality decision.

(b) It takes too long to reach a decision.

Managers who are hard-driving, detail-oriented, have high performance standards, and thrive on routine could be characterized as ____________. (a) Type B (b) Type A (c) high self-monitors (d) low Machs

(b) Type A

The ______ bases a decision on incremental adjustments to an initial value determined by historical precedent or some reference point. (a) representativeness heuristic (b) anchoring and adjustment heuristic (c) confirmation trap (d) hindsight trap

(b) anchoring and adjustment heuristic

A team leader who makes a decision not to launch a new product because the last new product launch failed is falling prey to the ______ heuristic. (a) anchoring (b) availability (c) adjustment (d) representativeness

(b) availability

Self-serving bias is a form of attribution error that involves ______. (a) blaming yourself for problems caused by others (b) blaming the environment for problems you caused (c) poor emotional intelligence (d) low self-efficacy

(b) blaming the environment for problems you caused

Performance measurement serves both evaluation and ______ purposes. (a) reward allocation (b) counseling (c) discipline (d) benefits calculations

(b) counseling

A written record that describes in detail various examples of a person's positive and negative work behaviors is most likely part of which performance appraisal method? (a) forced distribution (b) critical incident diary (c) paired comparison (d) graphic rating scale

(b) critical incident diary

When someone is feeling anger about something a co-worker did, she is experiencing a/an _______, but when just having a bad day overall she is experiencing a/an _______. (a) mood, emotion (b) emotion, mood (c) affect, effect (d) dissonance, consonance

(b) emotion, mood

A process theory of motivation is most likely to focus attention on ______. (a) frustration-regression (b) expectancies regarding work outcomes (c) lower-order needs (d) hygiene factors

(b) expectancies regarding work outcomes

If someone improves productivity by developing a new work process and receives a portion of the productivity savings as a monetary reward, this is an example of a/an ____________ pay plan. (a) cost-sharing (b) gain-sharing (c) ESOP (d) stock option

(b) gain-sharing

When a team member shows strong ego needs in Maslow's hierarchy, the team leader should find ways to link this person's work on the team task with _____. (a) compensation tied to group performance (b) individual praise and recognition for work well done (c) lots of social interaction with other team members (d) challenging individual performance goals

(b) individual praise and recognition for work well done

Q15 The MBO process emphasizes ______ as a way of building worker commitment to goal accomplishment. (a) authority (b) joint goal setting (c) infrequent feedback (d) rewards

(b) joint goal setting

If the organization culture represents the character of an organization in terms of shared values, the _____ represents the shared perceptions of members about day-to-day management practices. (a) value chain (b) organization climate (c) transformation process (d) organization strategy

(b) organization climate

Perception is the process by which people ______ and interpret information. (a) generate (b) retrieve (c) transmit (d) verify

(b) retrieve

In which environment does the decision maker deal with probabilities regarding possible courses of action and their consequences? (a) certain (b) risk (c) organized anarchy (d) uncertain

(b) risk

When it comes to values, ____________. (a) instrumental values are more important than terminal values (b) value congruence is what seems to be most important for satisfaction (c) it is rare that people hold similar values (d) most cultures share the same values

(b) value congruence is what seems to be most important for satisfaction

Which statement about the job satisfaction-job performance relationship is most consistent with research? (a) A happy worker will be productive. (b) A productive worker will be happy. (c) A well-rewarded productive worker will be happy. (d) A poorly rewarded productive worker will be happy.

Which statement about OB is most correct? (a) OB seeks "one-best-way" solutions to management problems (b) OB is a unique science that has little relationship to other scientific disciplines (c) OB is focused on using social science knowledge for practical applications (d) OB is so modern that it has no historical roots

______ is a positive reinforcement strategy that rewards successive approximations to a desirable behavior. (a) Extinction (b) Negative reinforcement (c) Shaping (d) Merit pay

The term workforce diversity typically refers to differences in race, age, gender, ethnicity, and ________ among people at work. (a) social status (b) personal wealth (c) able-bodiedness (d) political preference

An individual or team that must deal with limited information and substantial risk is most likely to make decisions based on ______. (a) optimizing (b) classical decision theory (c) behavioral decision theory (d) escalation

If a manager redesigns a job through vertical loading, she would most likely ______. (a) bring tasks from earlier in the workflow into the job (b) bring tasks from later in the workflow into the job (c) bring higher-level or managerial responsibilities into the job (d) raise the standards for high performance

The ______ is the tendency to focus on what is already thought to be true and not to search for disconfirming information. (a) representativeness heuristic (b) anchoring and adjustment heuristic (c) confirmation trap (d) hindsight trap

A manager's failure to enforce a late-to-work policy the same way for all employees is a violation of _____ justice. (a) interactional (b) moral (c) distributive (d) procedural

The purpose of negative reinforcement as an operant conditioning technique is to _____. (a) punish bad behavior (b) discourage bad behavior (c) encourage desirable behavior (d) offset the effects of shaping

The saying "If at first you don't succeed, try, try again" is most associated with a decision-making tendency called ______. (a) groupthink (b) the confirmation trap (c) escalating commitment (d) associative choice

After a preferred course of action has been implemented, the next step in the decision-making process is to ______. (a) recycle the process (b) look for additional problems or opportunities (c) evaluate results (d) document the reasons for the decision

Pay is generally considered a/an ______ reward, where as a sense of personal growth experienced from working at a task is an example of a/an ____________ reward. (a) extrinsic, skill-based (b) skill-based, intrinsic (c) extrinsic, intrinsic (d) absolute, comparative

Which of the following is not a good match of organizational stakeholder and the interests they often hold important? (a) customers—high-quality products (b) owners—returns on investments (c) future generations—value pricing (d) regulators—compliance with laws

The demographic makeup of the work force____________. (a) has been relatively stable (b) is not related to managerial practices (c) has experienced dramatic changes in recent decades (d) is becoming less of an issue for management.

Q8 In Herzberg's two-factor theory _____ factors are found in job context. (a) motivator (b) satisfier (c) hygiene (d) enrichment

B.F.Skinner would argue that "getting a pay check on Friday" reinforces a person for coming to work on Friday but would not reinforce the person for doing an extra- ordinary job on Tuesday. This is because the Friday paycheck fails the law of ______ reinforcement. (a) negative (b) continuous (c) immediate (d) intermittent

Use of special dress, manners, gestures, and vocabulary words when meeting a prospective employer in a job interview are all examples of how people use _____. (a) projection (b) selective perception (c) impression management (d) self-serving bias

In the open-systems view of organizations, such things as technology, information, and money are considered _______. (a) transformation elements (b) feedback (c) inputs (d) outputs

A common mistake by managers facing crisis situations is _______. (a) trying to get too much information before responding (b) relying too much on team decision making (c) isolating themselves to make the decision alone (d) forgetting to use their crisis management plan.

The tendency of people at work to display feelings consistent with the moods of their co-workers and bosses is known as ______. (a) emotional dissonance (b) emotional labor (c) mood contagion (d) mood stability

In fundamental attribution error, the influence of _______ as causes of a problem are ______. (a) situational factors, overestimated (b) personal factors, underestimated (c) personal factors, overestimated (d) situational factors, underestimated

Job simplification is closely associated with ______ as originally developed by Frederick Taylor. (a) vertical loading (b) horizontal loading (c) scientific management (d) self-efficacy

The perceptual tendency known as a/an ______ is associated with the "Pygmalion effect" and refers to finding or creating in a situation that which was originally expected. (a) self-efficacy (b) projection (c) self-fulfilling prophecy (d) halo effect

A person with high emotional intelligence would be strong in ____, the ability to think before acting and to control disruptive impulses. (a) motivation (b) perseverance (c) self-regulation (d) empathy

When a person's human skills are so good that he or she has relationships with other people who can be confidently asked for help and assistance at work, these skills have created ________________ for the individual. (a) analytical capacity (b) ethics mindfulness (c) social capital (d) multiculturalism

When a manager moves upward in responsibility, Katz suggests ______ skills decrease in importance and _________ skills increase in importance. (a) human, conceptual (b) conceptual, emotional (c) technical, conceptual (d) emotional, human

If a performance assessment method fails to accurately measure a person's performance on actual job content, it lacks ______. (a) performance contingency (b) leniency (c) validity (d) strictness

Coping involves both ____________ and ____________ elements. (a) cognitive, intellectual (b) promotion, prevention (c)problem-focused, emotion-focused (d)cultural, psychological

(c)problem-focused, emotion-focused

What is the best description of the context for organizational behavior today? (a) Command-and-control is in (b) The new generation is similar to the old (c) Empowerment is out (d) Work-life balance concerns are in

(d) Work-life balance concerns are in

In the job characteristics model, _______ indicates the degree to which an individual is able to make decisions affecting his or her work. (a) task variety (b) task identity (c) task significance (d) autonomy

(d) autonomy

When a team leader evaluates the performance of all team members as "average," the possibility for _____ error in the performance appraisal is quite high. (a) personal bias (b) recency (c) halo (d) central tendency

(d) central tendency

According to McClelland, a person high in need achievement will be motivated by ______. (a) status of being an executive (b) control and influence over other people (c) teamwork and collective responsibility (d) challenging but achievable goals

(d) challenging but achievable goals

In the management process, ____ is concerned with measuring performance results and taking action to improve future performance. (a) transforming (b) organizing (c) leading (d) controlling

(d) controlling

The law of ______ states that behavior followed by a positive consequence is likely to be repeated, whereas behavior followed by an undesirable consequence is not likely to be repeated. (a) reinforcement (b) contingency (c) goal setting (d) effect

(d) effect

A/an ____________ is a rather intense but short-lived feeling about a person or a situation, whereas a/an ____________ is a more generalized positive or negative state of mind. (a) stressor, satisfier (b) affect, attitude (c) spillover, moderator (d) emotion, mood

(d) emotion, mood

Job ______ increases job ______ by combining into one job several tasks of similar difficulty. (a) rotation, depth (b) enlargement, depth (c) rotation, breadth (d) enlargement, breadth

(d) enlargement, breadth

Team creativity drivers include creative members, decision techniques, and _____. (a) task motivation (b) task expertise (c) long-term goals (d) external support

(d) external support

In Alderfer's ERG theory, the ______ needs best correspond with Maslow's higher-order needs of esteem and self-actualization. (a) existence (b) relatedness (c) recognition (d) growth

(d) growth

In the job characteristics model, a person will be most likely to find an enriched job motivating if he or she ______. (a) receives stock options (b) has ability and support (c) is unhappy with job context (d) has strong growth needs

(d) has strong growth needs

A content theory of motivation is most likely to focus on ______. (a) organizational justice b) expectancy (c) equity (d) individual needs

(d) individual needs

The management function of _______ is concerned with creating enthusiasm for hard work among organizational members. (a) planning (b) motivating (c) controlling (d) leading

(d) leading

In the integrated model of motivation, what predicts effort? (a) rewards (b) organizational support (c) ability (d) motivation

(d) motivation

Improvements in job satisfaction are most likely under Herzberg's two-factor theory when ______ are improved. (a) working conditions (b) base salaries (c) co-worker relationships (d) opportunities for responsibility

(d) opportunities for responsibility

If a new team leader changes tasks for persons on his or her work team mainly "because I would prefer to work the new way rather than the old," she may be committing a perceptual error known as ____________. (a) halo effect (b) stereotype (c) selective perception (d) projection

(d) projection

When an individual attends to only a small portion of the vast information available in the environment, this tendency in the perception process is called _____. (a) interpretation (b) self scripting (c) attribution (d) selective screening

(d) selective screening

If a person shows empathy and understanding of the emotions of others and uses this to better relate to them, she is displaying the emotional intelligence competency of ____________. (a) self-awareness (b) emotional contagion (c) relationship management (d) social awareness

(d) social awareness

The experience in which simply having various diversity groups makes that group category salient in people's minds is an example of ____________. (a) stigma (b) leaking pipeline (c) inclusion (d) social identity theory

(d) social identity theory

Culture is ____________. (a) a person's major beliefs and personal orientation concerning a range of issues (b) the way a person gathers and evaluates information (c) the way someone appears to others when interacting in social settings (d) the learned, shared way of doing things in a particular society

(d) the learned, shared way of doing things in a particular society

The best conclusion about job satisfaction in today's workforce is probably that ____. (a) it isn't an important issue (b) the only real concern is pay (c) most people are not satisfied with their jobs most of the time (d) trends show declining job satisfaction

(d) trends show declining job satisfaction

In expectancy theory, ______ is the perceived value of a reward. (a) expectancy (b) instrumentality (c) motivation (d) valence

(d) valence

Flexible working hours

(or flextime) give individuals some amount of choice in scheduling their daily work hours -- requires certain hours of "core" time but leaves employees free to choose their remaining hours from flexible time blocks. EX: One person may start early and leave early, whereas another may start later and leave later.

Hygiene factors

(organizational factors, quality of supervision, working conditions, relationships with co workers, status and security, base wage or salary) Sources of job dissatisfaction, and they are found in the job context or work setting -- job dissatisfaction occurs when hygiene = poor. -- improving the hygiene factors will NOT increase job satisfaction; it will only decrease job dissatisfaction.

Knowing who to involve: Three scenarios for successful decision making =

1) individual decisions (authority decisions) 2) consultative decisions 3) team decisions

Three mistakes common in first step of the Decision Making Process: (1. Recognize and define the problem or opportunity)

1) we may define problem too broadly or too narrowly, 2) may focus on problem symptoms instead of causes, 3) may choose the wrong problem to deal with

4 Ways to build Self-Efficacy:

1. *Enactive mastery*—gaining confidence through positive experience. The more you work at a task, so to speak, the more your experience builds and the more confident you become at doing it. 2. *Vicarious modeling*—gaining confidence by observing others. When someone else is good at a task and we are able to observe how they do it, we gain confidence in being able to do it ourselves. 3. *Verbal persuasion*—gaining confidence from someone telling us or encouraging us that we can perform the task. Hearing others praise our efforts and link those efforts with performance successes is often very motivational. 4. *Emotional arousal*—gaining confidence when we are highly stimulated or energized to perform well in a situation. A good analogy for arousal is how athletes get "psyched up" and highly motivated to perform in key competitions.

Framework (Vroom, Yetton, Jago) for helping managers choose the right decision-making methods for various problem situations =

* AI (first variant on the authority decision): The manager solves the problem or makes the decision alone, using information available at that time. * AII (second variant on the authority decision): The manager obtains the necessary information from team members and then decides on the problem's solution. The team members provide the necessary information but do not generate or evaluate alternative * CI (first variant on the consultative decision): The manager shares the problem with team members individually, getting their ideas and suggestions without bringing them all together. The manager then makes a decision * CII (second variant on the consultative decision): The manager shares the problem with team members, collectively obtaining their ideas and suggestions. The manager then makes a decision. * G (the team or consensus decision): The manager shares the problem with team members as a total group and engages them in consensus seeking to arrive at a final decision.

Useful decision making techniques teams can use to unleash their creativity:

* Associative play - making up and telling stories, engaging in art projects, and building toy models that come to mind when dealing with a problem * Cross-Pollination - switching members among teams to gain insights from diverse interests, backgrounds, and experiences when working on problems * Analogies and metaphors - using analogies and metaphors to describe a problem and open pathways to creative thinking

Ethical reasoning and decision making process:

* Define problem * Analyze alternatives * Make choice * double check * Take action * double check * Evaluate results * double check

Key findings of Goal-Setting research:

* Difficult goals are more likely to lead to higher performance than are less difficult ones * Specific goals are more likely to lead to higher performance than are no goals or vague or very general ones * Task feedback or knowledge of results, is likely to motivate people toward higher performance by encouraging the setting of higher performance goals * Goals are most likely to lead to higher performance when people have the abilities and the feelings of self-efficacy required to accomplish them * Goals are most likely to motivate people toward higher performance when they are accepted and there is commitment to them

Aspects of the Integrated model of motivation

* Performance influenced by individual attributes such as ability and experience * Organizational support comes from things such as goals, resources, and technology * Effort is the willingness of people to work hard at what they are doing

Integrated model of motivation ties to theories:

* Reinforcement theory highlights performance contingency and immediacy in determining how rewards affect future performance * Equity theory points to the influence on behavior of the perceived fairness of rewards * Content theories offer insight into individual needs that can give motivational value to the possible rewards * Expectancy theory is central to the effort-performance-rewards linkage.

The decision to decide: Questions to ask -->

* What really matters? * Might the problem resolve itself? * Is this my, or our, problem? * Will time spent make a difference?

Consultative and team decisions are recommended by this model when the leader:

* lacks sufficient expertise and information to solve this problem alone; * the problem is unclear and help is needed to clarify the situation; * acceptance of the decision and commitment by others are necessary for implementation; * and adequate time is available to allow for true participation.

Job Characteristics Model

* reluctant to recommend job enrichment as a universal approach to job design (too many individual differences) * Present thinking focuses more on diagnostic and contingency approach to job design

Crisis preparedness tips:

* take time to understand whats happening and the conditions * attack the crisis asap * know when to back off and wait for better opportunity for progress * understand danger of all new territory * value the skeptic * may have to start a crisis to get people's attention ... etc.

Authority (individual) decisions work best when:

* team leaders have the expertise needed to solve the problem; * they are confident and capable of acting alone; * others are likely to accept and implement the decision they make; * and little or no time is available for discussion. * When problems must be resolved immediately, the authority decision made by the team leader may be the only option.

Authoritarianism / Dogmatism

*Authoritarianism* - tendency to adhere rigidly to conventional values and to obey recognized authority *Dogmatism* - leads person to see world as threatening place and to regard authority as absolute

Individual Moderator Variables (3) ("Fit") based on these -

*Growth-need strength* - the degree to which a person desires the opportunity for self direction, learning, and personal accomplishment (high = positive to enriched jobs) *Knowledge and skill* - people whose capabilities fit the demands of enriched jobs feel good about them and perform better *Context satisfaction* - the extent to which an employee satisfied with aspects of work including salary, quality of supervision, relationship with workers, and working conditions - those satisfied better with enriched jobs

What does experiential learning in an OB course contain? (4)

1. *Initial experience:* • Personal experiences • Classroom as an organization • In-class exercises, simulations • Group project assignments • Cases 2. *Reflection:* • Personal thought • Class discussion • Informal discussion • Readings • Lectures • Written assignments 3. *Theory building:* • Theories in readings • Theories from lectures • Personal theories • Theories from other sources 4. *Experimentation: Theory is then tested in behavior.* Trying new behaviors in work experiences class experiences everyday experiences. -- The learning sequence begins with initial experience and subsequent reflection. It grows as theory building takes place to try to explain what has happened. Theory is then tested in behavior. Presented concepts and discussing research and practical implications.

Assumptions of the Prescriptive Model:

1. All relevant info present 2. Clear, constant preferences 3. No time constraints and unlimited info processing

Type A behaviors:

1. Always moving, walking, and eating rapidly 2. Acting impatient,hurrying others, put off by waiting 3. Doing, or trying to do, several things at once 4. Feeling guilty when relaxing 5. Hurrying or interrupting the speech of others

Performance Assessment Methods: (4)

1. Comparative Methods (relative to others) -- Ranking -- Paired Comparison -- Forced Distribution 2. Rating Scales (specific performance dimensions) -- Graphic rating scales -- behaviorally anchored rating scale (BARS) 3. Critical Incident Diary (actual examples of behaviors/results) -- Critical incident diaries 4. 360 degree review (combo of feedback from everyone + self-ratings)

Scheduling positive reinforcement: (2)

1. Continuous reinforcement 2. Intermittent reinforcement

Characteristics of Decisions in Organizations:

1. Decisions are unable to be completely rational * we display bonded rationality which means we are generally rational but have some limitations (good enough) 2. Decision contains elements of chance and "chaos" 3. Decision makers are sensitive to political, "face-saving" pressure

Taylor's principles of scientific management: (4)

1. Develop a "science" for each job that covers rules of motion, standard work tools, and supportive work conditions. 2. Hire workers with the right abilities for the job. 3. Train and motivate workers to do their jobs according to the science. 4. Support workers by planning and assisting their work using the job science.

Three factors influence this internal or external determination of causality:

1. Distinctiveness: considers how consistent a person's behavior is across different situations. 2. Consensus: takes into account how likely all those facing a similar situation are to respond in the same way. 3. Consistency: concerns whether an individual responds the same way across time.

Manager's Decisional roles: (4)

1. Entrepreneur: involve making deci- sions that affect other people, seeking problems to solve and opportunities to explore 2. Disturbance Handler: helping to resolve conflicts 3. Resource allocator: allocating resources to various uses 4. Negotiator: negotiating with other parties

Having Cross-Cultural Awareness can help with what?Cultural differences can affect such things as: (5)

1. Ethical behavior 2. motivation 3. job satisfaction 4. leadership style 5. negotiating tendencies.

Two types of stress:

1. Eustress 2. Distress

Common scientific research methods in organizational behavior are..? (5)

1. Field studies: in real-life organizational settings 2. Meta analyses: using stats to pool results from different studies 3. Laboratory studies: in simulated and controlled settings 4. Survey studies: using questionnaires and interviews in sample populations 5. Case studies: looking in depth at single sitauations

Manager's Interpersonal roles: (3)

1. Figurehead: involve working directly with other people, hosting and attending official ceremonies. 2. Leader: creating enthusiasm and serving people's needs 3. Liaison: maintaining contacts with important people and groups. (communication or cooperation that facilitates a close working relationship between people or organizations.)

Schedules of Intermittent reinforcement:

1. Fixed- interval schedules: rewards at the first appearance of a behavior after a given time has elapsed. 2. Fixed-ratio schedules: result in a reward each time a certain number of the behaviors have occurred. 3. Variable-interval schedule rewards behavior at random times 4. Variable-ratio schedule rewards behavior after a random number of occurrences.

Attribution Errors: (2)

1. Fundamental attribution error 2. Self-serving bias the managerial implications of attribution errors trace back to the fact that perceptions influence behavior

Three manager types dealing with ethics:

1. Immoral 2. Amoral 3. Moral

More and more organizations are embracing policies and practices to value diversity in their workforces as a way to ...

1. Increase competitiveness 2. build talent 3. expand organizational capabilities 4. enhance access to diverse customers.

Manager's Informational roles: (3)

1. Monitor: involve managers exchanging information with other people, seeking relevant information 2. Disseminator: sharing it with insiders 3. Spokesperson: sharing it with outsiders

An integrated model of individual motivation to work starts with:

1. Motivation 2. performance 3. satisfaction -- Repeat.

Qualities of Organizations: (2)

1. Open systems 2. Complex adaptive systems

Contextual factors that influence Organizational Behaviors: (2)

1. Org. culture 2. Org. Climate

Key stakeholders from an OB perspective include: (8)

1. Organization's customers: want value pricing and high- quality products. 2. owners: want profits and returns on investments. 3. employees: want secure jobs with good pay and benefits 4. suppliers: want reliable contracts and on-time payments. 5. regulators: want compliance with laws 6. local communities: want good organi- zational citizenship and community support. 7. Present generations: want the benefits of available natural resources 8. future generations: want preserved and protected for long- term sustainability.

Justice in the workplace: (5)

1. Organizational justice 2. Procedural justice 3. Distributive justice 4. Interactional justice 5. Commutative justice

Cross-cultural psychologist Hofstede's 5 dimensions of national culture:

1. Power distance (respect of hierarchy & rank) 2. uncertainty avoidance (structured vs. un) 3. individualism- collectivism (US highly individualistic) 4. masculinity - (competition vs. sensitivity) 5. long-term/short-term orientation -- They are interrelated, not independent.

Two types of Coping Mechanisms:

1. Problem- focused coping 2. Emotion-focused coping

Steps of Decision Making-- Rational decision model: (5)

1. Recognize and define the problem or opportunity—gather information and deliberate in order to specify exactly why a decision is needed and what it should accomplish. 2. Identify and analyze alternative courses of action— identify key stakeholders 3. Choose a preferred course of action— criteria used involved costs/benefits, timeliness, impact, ethical, etc. 4. Implement the preferred course of action—lack of participation error common (important people excluded from process) 5. Evaluate results and follow up as necessary— measured against initial goals and both anticipated and unanticipated outcomes are examined.

Performance assessment should satisfy 2 criteria:

1. Reliability 2. Validity

Common Perceptual Distortions: (8)

1. Stereotypes 2. Halo Effect 3. Selective perception 4. Projections 5. Contrast effect 6. Self- fulfilling prophecy 7. First impression/Primacy 8. Recency Effect

Effective managers focuses attention on two key outcomes, or dependent variables, that are important in OB: (2)

1. Task Performance 2. Job Satisfaction

Managers and team leaders need these skills to develop, maintain, and work well with a wide variety of people, both inside and outside the organization (human skills). These include: (3)

1. Task networks: of specific job-related contacts 2. Career networks: of career guidance and opportunity resources. 3. Social networks: of trustworthy friends and peers.

Two broad categories of values:

1. Terminal values 2. Instrumental values

Demographic trends in the workforce

1. There are more women working than ever before. -- They earn 60 percent of college degrees and fill a bit more than half of managerial jobs. 2. The proportion of African Americans, Hispanics, and Asians in the population is now above 43 percent and increasing. -- By the year 2060, six out of every 10 Americans will be a person of color, and close to 30 percent of the population overall will be Hispanic.

Characteristics of an Org.'s degree of multiculturalism: (3)

1. Workforce diversity 2. Multiculturalism 3. inclusion

The 4 stages of the information processing are (4)

1. attention and selection 2. organization 3. interpretation 4. retrieval

Ethics Double-checks: two sets of questions =

1. criteria questions 2. spotlight questions.

Alderfer's ERG theory identifies (3): (Content/Needs Theory)

1. existence 2. relatedness 3. growth needs -- ERG theory also abandons Maslow's strict hierarchy and contends that more than one of these needs need may be active at the same time - collapses Maslow's 5 into 3.

Life stressors

1. family events (e.g., the birth of a new child) 2. economic difficulties (e.g., loss of income by a spouse) 3. personal affairs (e.g., a separation or divorce) Can all be extremely stressful.

the most common stereotypes, at work and in life in general, relate to such factors as: (4)

1. gender: that place women at a disadvantage compared to men for these types of opportunities. The tendency is to assume women lack the ability and/or willingness to work abroad. 2. age: A talented older worker may not be pro- moted because a manager assumes older workers are cautious and tend to avoid risk. 3. race: Why are so few top executives in industry African Americans or Hispanics? Legitimate questions can be asked about racial and ethnic stereotypes and about the slow progress of minority managers into America's corporate mainstream. 4.physical ability: Physically or mentally challenged candidates may be overlooked by a recruiter even though they possess skills that are perfect for the job.

Management process involves fulfilling the four responsibilities: (4)

1. planning 2. organizing 3. leading 4. controlling

The four basic reinforcement strategies:

1. positive reinforcement 2. negative reinforcement (or avoidance) 3. punishment 4. extinction.

Unintentional ethical lapses that we all must guard against include: (3)

1. prejudice from unconscious stereotypes and attitudes 2. showing bias based on in-group favoritism 3. claiming too much personal credit for performance accomplishments.

Discrimination includes what type of things: (5)

1. race and ethnicity 2. gender 3. sexual orientation 4. age 5. ability

The three categories of essential managerial skills:

1. technical 2. human 3. conceptual.

The research methods in OB are based on scientific thinking - this means that:

1. the process of data collection is controlled and systematic 2. proposed explanations are carefully tested 3. only explanations that can be rigorously verified are accepted

Stress Prevention

= the best first-line strategy in preventing stress. It involves taking action to prevent stress from reaching destructive levels.

What is a "Quest for evidence"?

An essential responsibility of any science is to create and test models that offer evidence-based foundations for decision making and action.

Dependent variables

Are outcomes of practical value and interest that are influenced by independent variables.

Independent variables

Are presumed causes that influence dependent variables

What factors influence perception? (3): Characteristics of...

Characteristics of 1. the perceiver: A person's past experiences, needs or motives, personality, values, and attitudes may all influence the perceptual process 2. the setting: the physical, social, and organizational context can influence the perception process. 3. the perceived: Physical appearance, and communication. We talk about them in terms of contrast, intensity, figure-ground separation, size, motion, and repetition or novelty.

Immoral manager

Chooses to behave unethically. She or he doesn't subscribe to any ethical principles, making decisions and acting to gain best personal advantage.

Two alternatives in Decision-Making Models:

Classical and Behavioral The classical decision model views rational people acting in a world of complete certainty, whereas the behavioral decision model accepts the notion of bounded rationality and suggests that people act only in terms of what they perceive about a given situation

Three components of an attitude:

Cognitive, Affective, Behavioral

Human skills

Comprise the ability to work well with other people. -- They show up as a spirit of trust, enthusiasm, and genuine involvement in interpersonal relationships. -- A person with good human skills will have a high degree of self-awareness and a capacity for understanding or empathizing with the feelings of others. - strong emotional intelligence - consistently important across all managerial levels - social capital

Decision biases: (3)

Confirmation error, the hindsight trap, framing error

Reinforcement Pros and Cons

Cons: 1.using reinforcement to influence human behavior is demeaning and dehumanizing. 2. too easy for managers to abuse the power of their positions when they exert this type of external control over individual behavior Pros: 1. They agree that behavior modification involves the control of behavior, but they also argue that such control is an irrevocable part of every manager's job. 2. The real question, they say, is how to ensure that the reinforcement strategies are done in positive and constructive ways.

Example of Contingency thinking

Contingency thinking recognizes that cookie-cutter solutions cannot be universally applied to solve organizational problems. Responses must be craftier to best fit the circumstances and people involved.

Leading

Creates enthusiasm to work hard to accomplish tasks successfully through communicating with others, motivating them to work hard, and maintaining good interpersonal relation.

Workforce diversity

Describes how people differ on attributes such as age, race, ethnicity, gender, physical ability, and sexual orientation

Organizing

Divides up tasks and arranges resources to accomplish them.

Key question from emotional intelligence perspective is:

Do we recognize these emotions in ourselves and others, and can we manage them well?

Retrieval

Each stage of the perception process becomes part of memory. This information stored in our memory must be retrieved if it is to be used. But all of us at times have trouble retrieving stored information.

Controlling

Ensuring that things go well by monitoring performance and taking any needed corrective action.

For Expectancy Theory Predictions, what does Motivation equal to?

Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence (Vroom posits that motivation, expectancy, instrumentality, and valence are related to one another in multiplicative fashion) In order for a reward to have a high and positive motivational impact as a work outcome, the expectancy, instrumentality, and valence associated with it must each be high and positive

Amoral manager

Fails to consider the ethics of a decision or behavior. Acts unethically at times but does so unintentionally.

______________ is a basic element of equity theory

Fairness (justice)

Effective manager

Helps others achieve high levels of both performance and satisfaction.

Job enrichment

Herzberg believes job content must be enriched by adding more motivator factors. This technique tries to build more motivator factors into job content (part of two-factor theory)

self-actualization

Highest need level; need to fulfill oneself; to grow and use abilities to fullest and most creative extent

What is the ultimate goal of organizational behavior?

Improve the performance of people, groups, and organizations, and to improve the quality of work life overall.

Self-efficacy

Individual's beliefs about the likelihood of successfully completing specific tasks *effectance motive = a more specific version of self esteem

Complex adaptive systems

Interact and adapt with their environments to survive

Social capital

Is a capacity to get things done due to the form of relationships and networks that can be called upon as needed to get work done through other people.

Power distance

Is a culture's acceptance of the status and power differences among its members. - It reflects the degree to which people are likely to respect hierarchy and rank in organizations. Indonesia is considered a high-power-distance culture, whereas Sweden is considered a relatively low-power-distance culture.

What is a script schema?

Is a knowledge framework that describes the appropriate sequence of events in a given situation EX: to think about the appropriate steps involved in running a meeting.

Manager

Is a person who supports the work efforts of other people. -- this is accomplished more through "helping" and "supporting" than through traditional notions of "directing" and "controlling." ("coordinator, coach, or team leader.")

Job satisfaction

Is a positive feeling about one's work and work setting

Organizational culture

Is a shared set of beliefs and values within an organization - one of strongest contextual influences on behavior - the "character" - becomes the moral center

Technical skill

Is an ability to perform specialized tasks using knowledge or expertise gained from education or experience EX: think college major skills Considered more important at entry levels

Skill

Is an ability to translate knowledge into action that results in a desired performance

Learning

Is an enduring change in behavior that results from experience

Lifelong learning

Is continuous learning from everyday experiences

Emotional intelligence

Is the ability to manage oneself and one's relationships effectively

Uncertainty avoidance

Is the cultural tendency to be uncomfortable with uncertainty and risk in everyday life. - It reflects the degree to which people are likely to prefer structured versus unstructured organizational situations. France is considered a high-uncertainty- avoidance culture, whereas Hong Kong is considered a low-uncertainty-avoidance culture.

Task performance

Is the quantity and quality of work produced

Organizational behavior

Is the study of human behavior in organizations. With strong ties to Psychology, social psychology, anthropology, economics, Political science, and sociology.

What is a self schema?

It contains information about a person's own appearance, behavior, and personality. EX: people with decisiveness schemas tend to perceive themselves in terms of that aspect, especially in circumstances calling for leadership.

Concerns & Questions about Job Characteristics Model

Job characteristics model = useful but not perfect guide to job design 1. Should everyone be job enriched? NO - individual differences (also costs, tech, workgroup/unions can make it difficult to enrich) 2. With so much attention on teams in organizations today, can job enrichment apply to groups? - Yes (result = self managing team) 3. For those who don't want an enriched job, what can be done to make their work more motivating? work schedules, redesign of the context or setting

Job enlargement = Job enrichment =

Job enlargement = horizontal loading Job enrichment = vertical loading

Moral manager

Makes ethical behavior a personal goal. -- sets ethical examples, communicates values, champions ethics mindfulness - contributes to the "virtuous shift"

Conceptual skills

Managers should be able to view the organization or situation as a whole so that complex problems are always analyzed and solved.

Acquired Needs theory (3) (Content/Needs Theory)

McClelland - Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) as a way of measuring human needs 1. Need for achievement 2. Need for affiliation 3. Need for power

Upward delegation

Means passing problems or responsibilities upward in the hierarchy in ways that burden managers with more work. --Effective Followers help the manager by avoiding engaging in this.

Framing

Means tailoring communication in ways to encourage certain interpretations and discourage others (organizational vs. self interest)

Smart workforce

Members of this workforce work in shifting communities of action in which knowledge and skills are shared to solve real and complex problems

Under the Scientific Foundations of Organizational Behavior, what is the purpose of models?

Models link independent variables with dependent variables are used to test generalizations about behavior in organizations

physiological

Most basic of all human needs; need for biological maintenance; need for food, water, and sustenance

esteem

Need for esteem of others; respect, prestige, recognition, need for self-esteem, personal sense of competence, mastery

social (Love/belonging)

Need for love, affection, sense of belongingness in one's relationships with other persons

safety

Need for security, protection, and stability in the physical and inter- personal events of day-to-day life

Interpretation:

Once your attention has been drawn to certain stimuli and you have grouped or organized this information, the next step is to uncover the reasons behind the actions. -- Interpretation always varies among people. Even if you are paying attention to the same info, and organize the same, how one interprets things can be completely different.

Under the Scientific Foundations of Organizational Behavior, what is Interdisciplinary Body of Knowledge?

Organizational behavior has strong ties to behavioral sciences - [psychology, sociology, and anthropology] - as well as to allied social sciences such as economics and political science.

What are organizations in detail?

Organizations are open systems that create value while interacting with their environments

Present view of Leadership

Organizations today require leadership at all levels, not just from those holding the formal titles.

Sources of values

Our values develop as a product of the learning and experience we encounter in the cultural setting in which we live, as learning and experiences differ from one person to another.

The formal procedure that evaluates a person's work performance is called:

Performance review, performance appraisal, performance assessment

High Motivation =

Person + Good Job Fit =

A move from compliance to inclusion, because...

Recruit diverse members but had trouble keeping them

Multiculturalism

Refers to pluralism (coexisting) and respect for diversity in the workplace .

Organizational climate

Represents shared perceptions or members regarding what the organization is like in terms of management policies and practices

Spillover effect

Result when forces in their personal lives spill over to affect them at work or when forces at work spill over to affect their personal lives.

Two factors that increase awareness of individual differences =

Self-awareness - being aware of one's own behaviors, preferences, styles, biases, personalities, etc. Awareness of others - aware of behaviors, preferences, etc. of others

What are the 4 essential emotional intelligence competencies?

Self-awareness, social awareness, self-management, and relationship management

Planning

Sets objectives and identifies the actions needed to achieve them

Use of the Scientific method: Models

Simplified views of reality that attempt to explain real-world phenomena

Organization should ideally operate in ways that best serve all _______________ , the realities are that conflicting interests add to the ____________ faced by decision makers.

Stakeholders, complexity

Law of reciprocity

States that if someone does something for someone else it will invoke a sense of obligation to return the favor

Openness to experience

The degree to which someone is curious, open to new ideas, and imaginative An open person is broad-minded, receptive to new things, and comfortable with change; a person who lacks openness is narrow-minded, has few interests, and is resistant to change.

Agreeableness

The degree to which someone is good-natured, cooperative, and trusting. An agreeable person gets along well with others; a disagreeable person is a source of conflict and discomfort for others. high this = higher performance in team interactions.

Emotional stability

The degree to which someone is relaxed, secure, and unworried. A person who is emotionally stable is calm and confident; a person lacking in emotional stability is anxious, nervous, and tense.

Conscientiousness

The degree to which someone is responsible, dependable, and careful. A conscientious person focuses on what can be accomplished and meets commitments; a person who lacks conscientiousness is careless, often trying to do too much and failing, or doing little. -- Plan ahead

Extraversion

The degree to which someone it outgoing, sociable, and assertive An extravert is comfortable and confident in interpersonal relationships; an introvert is more withdrawn and reserved. -- prefer to work with others

Experiential learning cycle

The learning sequence begins with initial experience and subsequent reflection. It grows as theory building takes place to try to explain what has happened. Theory is then tested in behavior.

Expectancy Theory Implications

The logic of expectancy theory suggests that work situations should be adjusted or created to maximize expectancies, instrumentalities, and valences for people in their jobs

Example of value vs. attitude

The notion that shareholders should have a voice in setting CEO pay is a value. Your positive or negative feeling about a specific company due to the presence or absence of shareholder inputs on CEO pay is an attitude

What does it mean to "Focus on Application?"

The science of organizational behavior focuses on applications that can make a real difference in how organizations and people in them perform.

Psychological Contract

The value offered by the individual: -- effort, loyalty, commitment, creativity, and skills. The value offered by the employer: -- pay, benefits, meaningful work, flexible schedules, and personal develop- ment opportunities.

Common difficulties with MBO in practice:

These include overemphasizing paperwork to document goals and accomplishments, and focusing on top-down goals, goals that are easily stated and achieved, and individual instead of team goals. When these issues are resolved, however, an MBO-type approach can help bring the many benefits and insights of goal-setting theory to life.

Integrated Model of Motivation

Ties together the basic effort-performance-rewards relationship - shows job performance and satisfaction as separate but interdependent work results the individual experiences satisfaction when the rewards received for work accomplishments are perceived as both performance continent and equitable

Open systems

Transform human and material resource inputs into finished goods and services. -- If everything works right, suppliers value the organization and continue to provide needed resources, employees infuse work activities with their energies and intellects, and customers and clients value the organization's outputs enough to create a continuing demand for them.

Evidence-based management

Uses hard facts and empirical evidence to make decisions (One of best ways evidence-based thinking manifests itself in OB is through a contingency approach in which researchers identify how diff situations can best be understood and handled)

The implications of social identity theory

When organizations have strong identities formed around in-group and out-group categorizations based on diversity, this will work against a feeling of inclusion.

Consequences of decisions:

When organizations rely on unprogrammed decisions in certain and risk environments, there is a potential loss of efficiency. Conversely, use of programmed decisions in an uncertain environment often fails because choices made don't solve the problem or match the opportunity.

The typical reward system of an organization offers...

a mix of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards

Attitude

a predisposition to respond positively or negatively to someone or something * hypothetical construct - inferred * Influenced by values and acquired by same sources * but attitudes focus on specific people/objects

When the core characteristics are enriched in these ways, the job creates what is often called psychological empowerment—

a sense of personal fulfillment and purpose that arouses one's feelings of competency and commitment to the work.

Motivation

accounts for the level and persistence of a person's effort expended at work -- way to unlock this motivational potential is to provide opportunities to earn rewards that match well with individual needs and goals.

Discrimination

actively denies minority members (women and minority) the full benefits organizational membership. -- occurs when minority members are unfairly treated EX: is when a manager fabricates reasons not to interview a minority job candidate, or refuses to promote a working mother on the belief that "she has too many parenting responsibilities to do a good job at this level."

Continuous reinforcement

administers a reward each time a desired behavior occurs. -- gets the behavior completed more quickly but more likely to extinction

A compressed workweek

allows a full-time job to be completed in fewer than the standard five days -- In return, the organization hopes for less absenteeism, greater work motivation, and improved recruiting of new employees.

Attention and Selection: -- Selective screening

allows only a portion of available information to enter our perceptions. Can be consciously aware of things or without it. - works well most of time, can be bad for non-routine

Ethics mindfulness

an enriched awareness that causes one to consistently behave with ethical consciousness

Six major types of emotions:

anger, fear, joy, love, sadness, surprise

Intuitive thinking

approaches problems in a flexible and spontaneous fashion -- Decision makers in this intuitive mode tend to deal with many aspects of a problem at once, search for the big picture, jump quickly from one issue to another, and act on hunches from experience or on spontaneous ideas. - common under conditions of risk/uncertainty

Systematic thinking

approaches problems in a rational and analytical fashion. Step-by-step process. Slow -- Teams engaged in systematic thinking will try to make a plan before taking action, and to search for information and proceed with problem solving in a fact-based and logical fashion. (an analytical approach + recommended for superior decision making)

Values

are broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of action or outcomes -- They reflect a person's sense of right and wrong or what "ought" to be.

Growth needs

are desires for continued personal growth and development

Existence needs

are desires for physiological and material well-being

Relatedness needs

are desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships

Personality traits

are enduring characteristics describing an individual's behavior

Bonuses

are extra pay awards for special performance accomplishments (common in senior exec. ranks)

Moods

are generalized positive and negative feelings or states of mind persist for some time

Team decisions

are made by all members of the team

Consultative decisions

are made by one individual after seeking input from or consulting with members of a group

Individual decisions, or authority decisions,

are made by one person on behalf of the team

Emotion-focused coping

are mechanisms that regulate emotions or distress -- Indicators of this type of coping include comments like "I'll look for the silver lining, try to look on the bright side of things," "I'll accept the sympathy and under- standing offered by others," and "I'll just try to forget the whole thing." EX: attempts to reframe the problem as an opportunity or telling oneself to do the best one can.

Extrinsic rewards

are positively valued work outcomes that are given to the individual by some other person. - contrived rewards: like pay increases and cash bonuses. These rewards have direct costs and budgetary implications. - natural rewards: verbal praise and recognition. These have no real cost other than the time and effort expended to deliver them.

Judgmental Heuristics

are simplifying strategies or "rules of thumb" used to make decisions -- easier to deal with uncertainty and the limited information common to problem situations. (availability, representativeness, anchoring/adjustment)

Nonprogrammed decisions

are specifically crafted or tailored to fit a unique situation. They address novel or unexpected problems that demand a special response— one not available from a decision inventory. ex: respond to intro of new product by foreign competitor

Emotions

are strong positive or negative feelings directed toward someone or something usually intense and not long lasting always associated with a source

Emotional adjustment traits

are traits related to how much an individual experiences emotional distress or displays unacceptable acts, such as impatience, irritability, or aggression.

Intrinsic rewards

are valued outcomes received as internal enjoyment of task performance -- Think of them as the reasons we do things just to enjoy them—play a sport, listen to certain music, and even do certain jobs -- We give them to ourselves.

Extrinsic rewards

are valued outcomes received from an external source or person -- Someone else gives them to us. EX: symbolic gestures, such as praise for a job well done, or material perks, such as pay raises or bonuses and so on.

Vroom's Expectancy Theory (3) (Process theory)

argues that work motivation is determined by individual beliefs regarding effort-performance relationships and work outcomes. In expectancy theory, a person is motivated to the degree that he or she believes 1) effort will yield acceptable performance (expectancy), 2) performance will be rewarded (instrumentality), 3) the value of the rewards is highly positive (valence)

Self-conscious emotions

arise from internal sources

Herzberg's Two-factor theory (Motivator-hygiene theory): (2) (Content/Needs Theory)

asking times they felt exceptionally good vs bad about their jobs 1. Motivator factors: (content) primary causes of job satisfaction 2. hygiene factors: (context) primary causes of job dissatisfaction. -- A controversial point in the two-factor theory is Herzberg's belief that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are separate dimensions.

Criteria questions: (4)

assess a decision in terms of utility, rights, justice & caring --> ■ Utility—Does the decision satisfy all constituents or stakeholders? ■ Rights—Does the decision respect the rights and duties of everyone? ■ Justice—Is the decision consistent with the canons of justice? ■ Caring—Is the decision consistent with my responsibilities to care?

A stereotype

assigns attributes commonly associated with a group to an individual (one of most common simplifying devices in perception)

Projection

assigns personal attributes to other individuals. -- occurs during the interpretation stage - A classic error = projecting your needs, values, and views onto others. This causes their individual differences to get lost. Such projection errors can be controlled through a high degree of self-awareness and empathy—the ability to view a situation as others see it.

Deep-level diversity

attributes such as personality/values

Performance measurements should be...

based on clear criteria, be accurate, and defensible in differentiating between high/low performance, and be useful as feedback that can help improve in the future

The anchoring and adjustment heuristic

bases a decision on incremental adjustments to an initial value determined by historical precedent or some reference point EX: is the executive who makes salary increase recommendations for key personnel by simply adjusting their current base salaries by a percentage.

The availability heuristic

bases a decision on recent events relating to the situation at hand EX: is the product development specialist who decides not to launch a new product because of a recent failure launching another one.

The representativeness heuristic

bases a decision on similarities between the situation at hand and stereotypes of similar occurrences EX: is the team leader who selects a new member, not because of any special qualities of the person but because the individual comes from a department known to have produced high performers in the past.

Self-esteem

belief about one's own worth based on self evaluation (self concept shows here)

Job enrichment

builds high-content jobs that involve planning and evaluating duties normally done by supervisors -- create opportunities to experiene responsibility, achievement, recognition, and personal growth. -- done through vertical loading

A job's motivating potential can be raised by....

by combining tasks to create larger jobs, opening feedback channels to enable workers to know how well they are doing, establishing client relationships to experience such feedback directly from customers, and employing vertical loading to create more planning and controlling responsibilities.

Organizations can help address these stereotypes...

by creating workplaces that are more meaningful and satisfying to successful women, such as cultures that are less command-and-control and status-based.

Machiavellianism

causes someone to view and manipulate others purely for personal gain

Satisficing decisions

choose the first alternative that appears to give an acceptable or satisfactory resolution of the problem. This is a result of using the behavioral decision model.

ERG Theory might explain why...

complaints about wages, benefits, working conditions are often heard

Organizational justice

concerns how fair and equitable people view workplace practices and outcomes.

Effective leaders use: (2)

contribute to the leadership process by using their influence to advance positive outcomes. 1. Framing 2. Social Exchange

Social emotions

derive from external sources

Social learning theory

describes how learning occurs through interactions among people, behavior, and environment

The Leadership Double Bind

describes how women are seen as weak in leadership if they conform to the feminine stereotype and also weak if they go against it. -- female leaders are "damned if they do, doomed if they don't."

The leaking pipeline

describes how women drop out of careers before reaching the top levels of organizations.

Cultural quotient (or CQ)

describes someone's ability to work effectively across cultures

Punishment

discourages a behavior by making an unpleasant consequence contingent on its occurrence -- Can be handled well or poorly. - may be offset by positive reinforcement

Extinction

discourages a behavior by making the removal of a desirable consequence contingent on its occurrence - ex: making coworkers stop covering for someone who calls in (withdrawing positive consequences) - weakens behavior but the behavior is not un-learned - simply not exhibited and will reappear if reinforced again

Process theories (3)

examine the thought processes that motivate individual behavior —individual thoughts and decision tendencies. -- The focus is on understanding how and why certain factors influence people's decisions to work hard or not in certain situations. Three process theories: 1. equity theory 2. expectancy theory 3. goal-setting theory.

Uncertain environments:

exist when managers have so little information that they cannot even assign probabilities to various alternatives and their possible outcomes. This is the most difficult decision environment. = non-programmed decisions

3 critical psychological states that have a positive impact on individual motivation, performance, and satisfaction:

experienced meaningfulness of the work, experienced responsibility for the outcomes of the work, and knowledge of actual results of the work

Spotlight questions: (3)

expose a decision to public scrutiny and full transparency ■ "How would I feel if my family found out about this decision?" ■ "How would I feel if this decision were published in the local newspaper or posted on the Internet?" ■ "What would the person you know or know of who has the strongest character and best ethical judgment do in this situation

Most unique aspects of ERG theory is its allowance

for frustration-regression in how needs become activated. -- Alderfer believes an already satisfied lower- level need can become reactivated when a higher-level need cannot be satisfied.

Forced distribution

forces a set percentage of all persons being assessed into predetermined performance categories, such as outstanding, good, average, and poor. (must assign 10% to outstanding, 40% to average, etc.)

Creativity

generates unique and novel responses to problems - often determines how well people, teams, and organizations do in response to complex challenges

Employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs)

give stock to employees or allow them to purchase stock at special prices -- The incentive value is like the stock options: Employee owners are expected to work hard so that the organization will perform well, the stock price will rise, and, as owners, they will benefit from the gains.

Optimizing decisions

give the absolute best solution to a problem (Classical decision model)

Stock options

give the right to purchase shares at a fixed price in the future -- The expectation is that because employees gain finan- cially as the stock price increases, those with stock options will be highly motivated to do their best so that the firm performs well.

Gain sharing

gives workers the opportunity to earn more by receiving shares of any productivity gains that they help to create at the team or work unit levels.

Display rules

govern the degree to which it is appropriate to display emotions (informal cultural standards)

Attribution theory

helps us understand how people perceive the causes of events, assess responsibility for outcomes, and evaluate the personal qualities of the people involved. -- It is concerned with internal causes: individual has control external causes: causes coming from an outside person

Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory offers a pyramid of... (Content/Needs Theory)

high order needs: self-actualization, esteem, low order needs: social, safety, and physiological needs Five levels of individual needs - The concept of a needs "hierarchy" assumes that some needs are more important than others and must be satisfied before the other needs can serve as motivators

Problem-solving traits

how we gather and evaluate info when solving problems

Prescriptive model

ideal framework to make a decsion with 8 steps. assumes unlimited time, information and constant preferences 1. Identify the problem 2. Define objectives 3. Identify and weigh criteria 4. Generate alternatives 5. Evaluate alternatives 6. Make a choice 7. Implement choice 8. Follow up

Emotional Drives or Needs Model (4)

identifies four emotional drives or needs that people seek to satisfy at work and in daily living. 1. The drive to acquire: is the need to obtain physical and psychological gratification. need: reward system 2. The drive to bond: is the need to connect with other people individually and in groups. need: collaborative organizational 3. The drive to comprehend: is the need to understand things and gain a sense of mastery. need: sense of meaning/opportunity to learn 4. The drive to defend: is the need to be protected from threats and obtain justice. need: info transparency and fair practices

Content or needs theories (4)

identify different needs that may motivate individual behavior-- focus primarily on individual needs --> physiological or psychological deficiencies that we feel a compulsion to reduce or eliminate. 1. Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory 2. Alderfer's ERG theory 3. McClelland's acquired needs theory 4. Herzberg's two-factor theory.

Programmed decisions

implement solutions that have already been determined by past experience

Graphic rating scales

in performance appraisal assign scores to specific performance dimensions -- It lists a variety of performance dimensions, such as quality or quality of work, or personal traits, such as punctuality or diligence that an individual is expected to exhibit.

Paired comparison

in performance appraisal compares each person with every other one

Ranking

in performance appraisal orders each person from best to worst (simplest but hard when lots of people)

National cultures may best be understood in terms of..

in terms of cluster maps or collages that combine multiple dimensions. For example, high power distance and collectivism are often found together, as are low power distance and individualism.

Motivator factors

in the job content are sources of job satisfaction-- what people actually do in their work. (achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement, growth) * When motivator factors are minimal, low job satisfaction decreases motivation and performance * When motivator factors are substantial, high job satisfaction raises motivation and performance

Job enlargement

increases task variety by combining into one job two or more tasks that were previously assigned to separate workers -- Sometimes called horizontal loading, this approach increases job breadth by having the worker perform more and different tasks, but all at the same level of responsibility and challenge. (can reduce motivation)

Job rotation

increases task variety by periodically shifting workers among jobs involving different tasks the responsibility level stays same - important benefit of this is training (can reduce motivation)

A feeling of out-group membership exists when...

individuals sense they are not part of a group and experience discomfort and low belongingness

A feeling of in-group membership exists when...

individuals sense they are part of a group and experience favorable status and a sense of belonging

Organizations benefit when the variety of ideas and perspectives of a diverse work- force help them deal with complexity through ______________ and ____________.

innovation and adaptability

Risk management (3)

involves anticipating risks and factoring them into decision making 1. strategic risks—threats to overall business success 2. operational risks— threats inherent in the technologies used to reach business success. 3. reputation risks—threats to a brand or to the firm's reputation.

Moral dilemmas

involves choosing among alternatives that contain both potential benefits and harm

Classical conditioning

involves learning to display a behavior through its association with a stimulus. (Pavlov) -- A stimulus is something that incites action and draws forth a response, such as food for the dogs. The trick is to associate one neutral stimulus—the bell ringing—with another stimulus that already affects behavior—the food. -- The once-neutral stimulus is called a conditioned stimulus when it affects behavior in the same way as the initial stimulus. S

Personal wellness

involves the pursuit of one's job and career goals with the support of a personal health promotion program -- It recognizes individual responsibility to enhance and maintain wellness through a disciplined approach to physical and mental health. -- It requires attention to such factors as smoking, weight management, diet, alcohol use, and physical fitness.

Surface-level diversity

involves visible attributes such as age, race, sex, physical attributes

A prototype is

is a bundle of features expected to be characteristic of people in certain categories or roles. The prototype of a "good teammate" as someone who is intelligent, dependable, and hardworking.

Organization

is a collection or people working together to achieve a common purpose

The Americans with Disabilities Act

is a federal civil rights statute that protects the rights of people with disabilities. -- The focus of the ADA is to eliminate employers' practices that treat people with disabilities unnecessarily different.

Job burnout

is a loss of interest in or satisfaction with a job due to stressful working conditions. -- They feel emotionally and physically exhausted, and is less able to deal positively with work responsibilities and opportunities.

A stigma (mark of disgrace)

is a phenomenon whereby an individual is rejected as a result of an attribute that is deeply discredited by his or her society -- Because of stigmas, many are reluctant to seek coverage under the ADA because they do not want to experience discrimination in the form of stigmas.

Management by objectives or MBO

is a process of joint goal setting between a manager or team leader and those who report to them. Is directly linked to *goal setting theory* EX: An example is the team leader who works with team members to set performance goals consistent with higher-level organizational objectives.

Coping

is a response or reaction to distress that has occurred or is threatened -involves cognitive or behavioral efforts

Emotional labor

is a situation in which a person displays organizationally desired emotions in a job

Stress

is a state of tension in response to extraordinary demands, constraints, or opportunities.

The hindsight trap

is a tendency to overestimate the degree to which an event that has already taken place could have been predicted (risk = may foster feelings of inadequacy or insecurity in dealing with future decision situation)

Social identity theory

is a theory developed to understand the psychological basis of discrimination. -- individuals have not one but multiple "personal selves." Which self is activated depends on the group with which the person identifies. The mere act of identifying, or "categorizing," oneself as a member of a group will generate favoritism toward that group, and this favoritism is displayed in the form of "in-group" enhancement. This in-group favoritism occurs at the expense of the out-group.

Ecological fallacy

is acting with the mistaken assumption that a generalized cultural value applies equally to all members of the culture

Emotional intelligence

is an ability to understand emotions and manage relationships effectively demonstrated in the ways in which we deal with affect

The Employee Value Proposition (EVP) -- Psychological Contract

is an exchange of value in what the organization offers the employee in return for his or her work contributions. ( psychological contract)

The glass ceiling effect

is an invisible barrier limiting career advancement of women and minorities. EX: "she has too many parenting responsibilities to do a good job at this level."

Eustress

is constructive stress that results in positive outcomes for the individual. -- It occurs when moderate—not extreme—stress levels prompt things like increased work effort, greater creativity, and more diligence. EX: the tension that causes you to study hard before exams, pay attention in class, and complete assignments on time.

A self-fulfilling prophecy

is creating or finding in a situation that which you expected to find in the first place. - Self-fulfilling prophecies can have both positive and negative outcomes.

Distress

is destructive stress that is dysfunctional for the individual -- Key symptoms of indi- viduals suffering distress are changes from regular attendance to absenteeism, from punctuality to tardiness, from diligent work to careless work, from a positive attitude to a negative one. -- Outcomes= Job burnout, - More extreme reactions to distress = bullying of co-workers and even workplace violence. - It is also clear that too much stress can overload and break down a person's physical and mental systems, resulting in absenteeism, turnover, errors, accidents, dissatisfaction, reduced performance, unethical behavior, and even illness.

Perceived inequity:

is feeling under-rewarded or over-rewarded in comparison with others -- In both cases the motivational value of rewards is determined by social comparison. 1. Felt neg. inequity 2. Felt Pos. inequity

Emotional dissonance

is inconsistency between emotions we feel and those we try to project * Deep acting occurs when someone tries to modify his feelings to better fit the situation * Surface acting occurs when someone hides true feelings while displaying very different ones

The affective events theory

is one way of summarizing how emotions and moods end up influencing human behavior in organizations The basic notion of the theory is that day-to-day events involving other people and situations end up having an impact on our emotions and moods . They, in turn, influence our job performance and satisfaction

Shaping

is positive reinforcement of successive approximations to the desired behavior. -reinforcement given only when the entire first step and an aspect of the second are completed successfully

Framing error

is solving a problem in the context perceived. -- occurs when managers and teams evaluate and resolve a problem in the context in which they perceive it—either positive or negative.

The law of effect

is that behavior followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated; behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is not

The essence of performance-contingent pay

is that you earn more when you produce more and earn less when you produce less

Social awareness

is the ability to empathize and understand the emotions of others

Relationship management

is the ability to establish rapport with others to build good relationships

Emotional empathy

is the ability to feel what the other person is experiencing in a particular situation

Cognitive empathy

is the ability to know how others are viewing things

Self-management

is the ability to think before acting and to control disruptive impulses

Self-awareness

is the ability to understand our emotions and their impact on us and others

Operant conditioning

is the control of behavior by manipulating its consequences (learning by reinforcement) working overtime is behavior, praise from boss is consequence

Long-term/short-term orientation

is the degree to which a culture emphasizes long-term or short-term thinking. - It reflects the degree to which people and organizations adopt long- term or short-term performance horizons. South Korea is high on long-term orienta- tion, whereas the United States is a more short-term-oriented country.

Masculinity - femininity

is the degree to which a society values assertiveness or relationships. - It reflects the degree to which organizations emphasize competition and assertiveness versus interpersonal sensitivity and concerns for relationships. Japan = considered a very masculine culture, whereas Thailand = a more feminine culture.

Distributive justice

is the degree to which all people are treated the same under a policy EX: a sexual harassment case, this might mean that a complaint filed by a man against a woman would receive the same consideration as one filed by a woman against a man.

Commutative justice

is the degree to which exchanges and transactions are considered fair EX: sexual harassment, commutative justice is present when everyone involved perceives themselves as having full access to all the available facts and information.

Interactional justice

is the degree to which people are treated with dignity and respect in decisions affecting them EX: a sexual harassment case, may mean that both the accused and accusing parties believe they have received a complete explanation of any decision made.

Procedural justice

is the degree to which rules are always properly followed to implement policies. EX: a sexual harassment case, this may mean that required formal hearings are held for every case submitted for administrative review.

Reinforcement

is the delivery of a consequence as a result of behavior. -- Managing reinforcement properly can change the direction, level, and persistence of an individual's behavior. ties to classic psychology

Need for affiliation (nAff)

is the desire for friendly and warm relations with others -- Someone with a high need for affiliation is drawn to interpersonal relationships and opportunities for communication.

Need for power (nPower)

is the desire to control others and influence their behavior. -- Someone with a high need for power seeks influence over others and likes attention and recognition.

Need for achievement (nAch)

is the desire to do better, solve problems, or master complex tasks. --Someone with a high need for achievement, for example, will prefer individual responsibilities, challenging goals, and performance feedback.

Proactive personality

is the disposition that identifies whether or not individuals act to influence their environments * positively related to career success

Person-job fit

is the extent to which an individual's skills, interests, and personal characteristics match well with the requirements of the job

Person-organization fit

is the extent to which an individual's values, interests, and behaviors are consistent with the culture of the organization

Culture

is the learned and shared way of thinking and acting among a group of people or society EX: In which its members eat, dress, greet and treat one another, teach their children, solve everyday problems, and so on. -- Culture = "software of the mind." Making the analogy that the mind's "hardware" is universal among human beings. But the software of culture takes many different forms.

Personality

is the overall combination of characteristics that capture the unique nature of a person as that person reacts to and interacts with others. -- It combines a set of physical and mental characteristics that reflect how a person looks, thinks, acts, and feels.

Ethics

is the philosophical study or morality -- When we apply ethical reasoning to decisions made by individuals and teams in organizations, the focus is on moral problems and dilemmas that are associated with the decision-making process.

Universal design

is the practice of designing products, buildings, public spaces, and programs to be usable by the greatest number of people. -- It is the most visible changes made from the ADA have been in issues of universal design.

Instrumentality

is the probability that performance will lead to various work outcomes

Expectancy

is the probability that work effort will be followed by performance accomplishment -- Expectancy would equal zero if the person felt it were impossible to achieve the given performance level; it would equal one if a person were 100 percent certain that the performance could be achieved.

Decision making

is the process of choosing a course of action to deal with a problem opportunity. (Usually described in 5 steps - the Rational Decision Model)

Attribution

is the process of creating explanations for events. - It is one of the ways in which perception exerts its influence on behavior.

Goal setting Theory: (Process theory)

is the process of developing, negotiating, and formalizing the targets or objectives that a person is responsible for accomplishing

Job design, and the best job design: (3)

is the process of specifying job tasks and work arrangements -- The "best" job design is one that 1. meets organizational performance requirements 2. offers a good fit with individual skills and needs 3. provides opportunities for job satisfaction.

Emotion and mood contagion

is the spillover of one's emotions and mood onto others

Impression management

is the systematic attempt to influence how others perceive us (One of the most powerful forces in impression management today might be the one least recognized—how we communicate our presence in the online world of social media)

Individualism- Collectivism

is the tendency of members of a culture to emphasize individual self-interests or group relationships. - It reflects the degree to which people are likely to prefer working as individuals or working together in groups. The United States is a highly individualistic culture, whereas Mexico is a more collectivist one.

Knowing when to quit: Escalating commitment

is the tendency to continue a previously chosen course of action even when feedback suggests that it is failing Escalating commitments are a form of decision entrapment that leads people to do things that the facts of a situation do not justify. This is one of the most difficult aspects of decision making to convey to executives because so many of them rose to their positions by turning losing courses of action into winning ones.

The confirmation error

is the tendency to seek confirmation for what is already thought to be true and not search for disconfirming information (form of selective perception)

Selective perception

is the tendency to single out those aspects of a situation, person, or object that are consistent with one's needs, values, or attitudes. -- strongest impact occurs during the attention stage of the perceptual process.

Organizational behavior modification

is the use of extrinsic rewards to systematically reinforce desirable work behavior and discourage undesirable behavior. - It involves the use of four basic reinforcement strategies

Valence

is the value to the individual of various work outcomes -- scales from 1 (very undesirable outcome) to 1 (very desirable outcome).

Work sharing

is when employees agree to work fewer hours to avoid layoffs EX: workers in some organizations agreed to voluntarily reduce their paid hours worked so that others would not lose their jobs.

Telecommuting

is work done at home or from a remote location using computers, tablets, and smart phone devices

Merit pay

links an individual's salary or wage increase directly to measures of performance accomplishment --should create a belief among employees that the way to achieve high pay is to perform at high levels 1. should be based on realistic and accurate measures of work performance. 2. should clearly discriminate between high and low performers in the amount of pay increases awarded. 3. It also means that any "merit" aspects of a pay increase are clearly and contingently linked with the desired performance.

The behaviorally anchored rating scale (BARS)

links performance ratings to specific and observable job behaviors -- These include descriptions of superior and inferior performance. (discriminates among very specific work behaviors - makes BARS more valuable for both evaluation and development purposes)

Validity

means a performance measure addresses job-relevant dimensions

Reliability

means a performance measure gives consistent results

Social exchange

means that people build human relationships and trust through exchanges or favors based on reciprocity

Problem-focused coping

mechanisms manage the problem that is causing the distress -- Indicators of this type of coping are comments like "I'll get the person responsible to change his or her mind," "I'll make a new plan of action and follow it," and "I'm going to stand my ground and fight for what I need." EX: asking for help, reprioritizing.

In equity theory, the impact considers -->

not the reward giver's intentions that count in terms of impact - what counts is the perceives the reward in their social context Process = (Reward is given and received --> equity comparison takes place --> motivational impact of reward is felt)

Felt negative inequity

occurs when an individual believes he or she has received relatively less than others in proportion to efforts. under-reward inequity -- It appears that people are less comfortable when they are under-rewarded than when they are over-rewarded.

Felt positive inequity

occurs when an individual believes he or she has received relatively more than others in proportion to efforts. over-reward inequity

A crisis decision

occurs when an unexpected problem can lead to disaster if not resolved quickly and appropriately

Lack-of-participation error

occurs when important people are excluded from the decision-making process

A Contrast Effect

occurs when the meaning of something that takes place is based on a contrast with another recent event or situation. -- occurs, say, when a person gives a talk following a strong speaker or is interviewed for a job following a series of mediocre applicants.

Output measures

of performance assess achievements in terms of actual work EX: counting the number of actual sales made—

Activity measures

of performance assess inputs in terms of work efforts EX: use the number of customer visits made per day to assess a salesperson

In job sharing

one full-time job is split between two or more persons who divide the work according to agreed- upon hours

A 360 review

or assessment gathers feedback from a jobholder's bosses, peers, and subordinates, internal and external customers, and self-ratings -- typical approach asks the jobholder to complete a self rating and meet with a set of 360 participants to discuss it as well as their ratings. - common in today's team oriented orgs.

Fundamental attribution error

overestimates internal factors and underestimates external factors as influences on someone's behavior EX: When executives were asked to attribute causes of poor performance among their subordinates, they most often blamed internal deficiencies of the individual—lack of ability and effort, rather than external deficiencies in the situation—lack of support.

A moral problem

poses major ethical consequences for the decision maker or others

Adams's Equity theory (Process theory)

posits that people will act to eliminate any felt inequity in the rewards received for their work in comparison with others. -- people are motivated to behave in ways that restore or maintain a sense of balance—perceived equity—in their minds. -- deals with social comparison

Equity Theory predicts that...

predicts that your behavior upon receiving a grade—working less or harder in the course—will be based on whether or not you perceive it as fair and equitable. Furthermore, that determination is made only after you compare your results with those received by others.

Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964

protects individuals against employment discrimination on the basis of race and color, as well as national origin, sex, and religion. -- Also prohibits employment decisions based on stereotypes and assumptions about abilities, traits, or the performance of indi- viduals of certain racial groups.

Certain environments

provide full information on the expected results for decision-making alternatives -- When a person invests money in a savings account, for example, absolute certainty exists about the interest that will be earned on that money in a given period of time. = programmed decisions

Risk environments

provide probabilities regarding expected results for decision- making alternatives -- often implement programmed decisions to gain speed and the appearance of efficiency.

Contingency thinking

rather than assuming best or universal answer - recognizes behavior and practices must be tailored to fit situation seeks ways to meet the needs of different management situations

Critical incident diaries

record actual examples of positive and negative work behaviors and results (good for feedback but debatable as evaluation tool -- usually used in combination w/ method)

Motivation

refers to forces within an individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work. 1. Direction: refers to an individual's choice among alternative ends or goals. 2. Level: refers to the amount of effort put forth. 3. Persistence: refers to the length of time a person sticks with a path of action, even in face of difficulty.

Instrumental values

reflect a person's beliefs about the "means" to achieve desired ends. -- They represent how you might go about achieving your important goals.

Terminal values

reflect a person's preferences concerning the "ends" to be achievedd; they are the goals an individual would like to achieve during his or her lifetime.

Social traits

reflect how a person appears to others in social settings

Self-monitoring

reflects a person's ability to adjust his or her behavior to external situational (environmental) factors

Cognitive component

reflects underlying beliefs, opinions, knowledge, info a person possesses - represents person's ideas about someone or something and the conclusions drawn about them ("my job lacks responsibility and this is important to me" --> first part is belief, second reflects underlying value)

Intermittent reinforcement

rewards behavior only periodically -- is more resistant to extinction and lasts longer upon the discontinuance of reinforcement. This is why shaping typically begins with a continuous reinforcement schedule and then gradually shifts to an intermittent one. -- Variable schedules typically result in more consistent patterns of desired behavior than do fixed reinforcement schedules.

Profit sharing

rewards employees in some proportion to changes in organizational profits -- both supposed to create greater sense of personal responsibility for performance improvements and increase motivation + cooperation and teamwork

Skill-based pay

rewards people for acquiring and developing job-relevant skills -- pay people for the mix and depth of skills they have, not for the particular job assignment they hold.

Personal conception traits

show up as personal beliefs and orientations toward settings and issues Include: locus of control, proactive personality, authoritarianism/dogmatism, machiavellianism, self-monitoring

What is a person schema?

sorting people in categories-- types of groups, in similar terms of perceived features. EX: Includes Prototypes -- are stored in long-term memory and retrieved only when needed for a comparison of how well a person matches the schema's features.

Job simplification

standardizes work to create clearly defined and highly specialized tasks -- It reduces the number of skills required, allows for hiring low-cost labor, keeps the need for job training to a minimum, and focuses expertise on repetitive tasks. but... lower work quality, high absenteeism + turnover, demands for high wages)

The law of immediate reinforcement

states that a reward should be given as soon as possible after the desired behavior occurs

The law of contingent reinforcement

states that a reward should only be given when the desired behavior occurs

Positive reinforcement

strengthens a behavior by making a desirable consequence contingent on its occurrence. - This is the administration of positive conse- quences that tend to increase the likelihood that desirable behavior will be repeated. EX: when a team leader nods to a team member to express approval after she makes a useful comment during a sales meeting. -- may lead to that person giving more useful comments.

Negative reinforcement

strengthens a behavior by making the avoidance of an undesirable consequence contingent on its occurrence. - It uses the withdrawal of negative consequences to increase the likelihood of desirable behavior being repeated. -- avoidance learning because its intent is for the person to avoid the negative consequence by performing the desired behavior.

Five key forces (the shift: the future of work)

technology (helpful but time consuming, globalization (workers everywhere competing), demography (more people less space), society (traditional communities under threat), energy resources (too few + shrinking)

Persons with Type B orientations

tend to be easygoing and less competitive -- Type B people tend to be much more laid back and patient in their relationships with others.

Persons with Type A orientations

tend to be impatient, achievement oriented, and competitive. -- Type A people tend to work fast and to be abrupt, uncomfortable, irritable, and aggressive. Such tendencies may show up as "obsessive" behavior.

In Expectancy theory, value rests with the suggestion that...

that motivation is a result of a rational calculation

Moderator variables suggest...

the 5 core characteristics do not affect all same way * suggest contingency view that enriched jobs = positive outcomes only for those with good fit for the job

Prejudice

the display of negative, irrational, superior opinions and attitudes toward diff people -Nature vs. nurture - likely that these two forces act in combination, with heredity setting the limits and environment determining how a person develops within them

Locus of control

the extent a person feels able to control their life and is concerned with a person's internal-external orientation (own control vs. fate)

Self Efficacy

the person's belief that he or she can perform adequately in a situation * associated with the concept of self-efficacy are such terms as confidence, competence, and ability

Perception

the process by which people select, organize, interpret, retrieve, and respond to information from the world around them -- It is a way of forming impressions about ourselves, other people, and daily life experiences. -- Serves as a screen or filter through which information passes before it has an effect on people.

Affect

the range of feelings in the forms of emotions and moods that people experience

One source of insight into personal creativity drivers is...

the three-component model of task expertise, task motivation, and creativity skills Creative decisions more likely to occur when: * a person has a lot of task expertise * more likely when high in task motivation

Problem-solving styles are most frequently measured by...

the typically 100-item Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), which asks individuals how they usually act or feel in specific situations. The MBTI is often used by organizations to improve self- awareness of participants in management development programs

Self-concept

the view individuals have of themselves as physical, social, spiritual, or moral beings

Individual differences

the ways in which people are similar and dissimilar in personal characteristics - the mix of these = diversity

Decisions typically made under three conditions:

uncertainty, risk, certainty ...providing the decision maker with non programmed or programmed types of decisions

Self-serving bias

underestimates internal factors and overestimates external factors as influences on someone's behavior. EX: When asked to identify causes of their own poor performance, however, the executives mostly cited lack of support—an external, or situational, deficiency.

Taylor's scientific management

used systematic study of job components to develop practices to increase people's efficiency at work

A Halo effect

uses one attribute to develop an overall impression of a person or situation. -- They are particularly important in the performance appraisal process because they can influence a manager's evaluations of subordinates' work perfor- mance. -- It is the manager's job to try to get true impressions rather than allowing halo effects to result in biased and errone- ous evaluations.

Classical decision model

views decision makers as acting in a world of complete certainty -- In a certain environment, the problem is clearly defined, all possible action alternatives are known, and their consequences are clear. - fits the 5 step decision making process

The behavioral decision model

views decision makers as acting only in terms of what they perceive about a given situation -- It recognizes that human beings have 1. cognitive limitations—limits on what we are able to know at any point in time. SO...They end up acting with 2. bounded rationality: where things are interpreted and made sense of as perceptions and only within the context of the situation.

Research shows pay only serves as motivator when...

when high levels of job performance are viewed as the paths through which high pay can be achieved

Leadership occurs ...

when leaders and followers work together to advance change that benefits the mission and vision of the organization.

The vale of Confucian dynamism:

with its emphasis on persistence, the ordering of relationships, thrift, sense of shame, personal steadiness, reciprocity, protection of "face," and respect for tradition.

Decision-Making Traps and Issues (4)

• JUDGMENTAL HEURISTICS • DECISION BIASES • KNOWING WHEN TO QUIT • KNOWING WHO TO INVOLVE

Job Outcomes (3)

• Motivation • Job Satisfaction • Job Performance

Satisfaction with a leader is greater when there is congruence among these four values... Megilino Values Scheme include: (4)

■ Achievement—getting things done and working hard to accomplish difficult things in life ■ Helping and concern for others—being concerned for other people and with helping others ■ Honesty—telling the truth and doing what you feel is right ■ Fairness—being impartial and doing what is fair for all concerned

What are the big five personality traits?

■ Extraversion— ■ Agreeableness— ■ Conscientiousness— ■ Emotional stability— ■ Openness to experience—

Common Performance measurement errors that can reduce validity and reliability:

■ Halo error—results when one person rates another person on several different dimensions and gives a similar rating for each dimension. ■ Leniency error—high ratings for everyone; Strictness error = the opposite ■ Central tendency error—occurs when managers lump everyone together around the average, or middle, category; no very good or very poor ■ Recency error—occurs when a rater allows recent events to influence ratings ■ Personal bias error—displays expectations and prejudices such as racial bias in ratings

An individual may engage one of these alternatives to restore sense of equity:

■ Reduce work inputs (e.g., don't do anything extra in future: "If that is all I'm going to get, this is all I'm going to do."). ■ Change the outcomes received (e.g.,ask for a bigger raise: "Given my contributions and what I see others getting for their work, I believe I deserve more."). ■ Leave the situation (e.g., quit: "That's it, I'm out of here." ). ■Change the comparison points (e.g.,compare to a different co-worker: "Perhaps I'm looking at this the wrong way. My situation is more similar to Henry's than Alicia's."). ■ Psychologically distort things (e.g.,rationalize the inequity as temporary: "The boss has been under a lot of pressure and misses a lot of things going on in the office. Things should improve in the future."). ■ Try to change the efforts of the comparison person (e.g.,get a teammate to accept more work: "Look, Miranda, I know you've had a hard time at home, but it's only fair that you do a bit more to justify the raises that were just given out.").

What are the core building blocks of emotional intelligence?

■ Self-awareness—ability to understand your own moods and emotions ■ Self-regulation—ability to think before acting and to control bad impulses. ■ Motivation—ability to work hard and persevere ■ Empathy—ability to understand the emotions of others ■ Social skill—ability to gain rapport with others and build good relationships.

How to avoid escalating commitment:

■ Set advance limits on your involvement and commitment to a particular course of action; stick with these limits. ■ Make your own decisions; don't follow the lead of others because they are also prone to escalation. ■ Carefully determine just why you are continuing a course of action; if there are insufficient reasons to continue, don't. ■ Remind yourself of the costs of a course of action; consider saving these costs as a reason to discontinue.

What are the 5 core job characteristics?

■ Skill variety—the degree to which a job includes a variety of different activities and involves the use of a number of different skills and talents ■ Task identity—the degree to which the job requires completion of a "whole" and identifiable piece of work, one that involves doing a job from beginning to end with a visible outcome ■ Task significance—the degree to which the job is important and involves a meaningful contribution to the organization or society in general. ■ Autonomy—the degree to which the job gives the employee substantial freedom, independence, and discretion in scheduling the work and determining the procedures used in carrying it out ■ Job feedback—the degree to which carrying out the work activities provides direct and clear information to the employee regarding how well the job has been done

What are some common work stressors?

■ Task demands—being asked to do too much or being asked to do too little ■ Role ambiguities—not knowing what one is expected to do or how work performance is evaluated ■ Role conflicts—feeling unable to satisfy multiple, possibly conflicting, performance expectations ■ Ethical dilemmas—being asked to do things that violate the law or personal values ■ Interpersonal problems—experiencing bad relationships or working with others with whom one does not get along ■ Career developments—moving too fast and feeling stretched; moving too slowly and feeling stuck on a plateau ■ Physical setting—being bothered by noise, lack of privacy, pollution, or other unpleasant working conditions

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