MBE 350 Quiz 3 Review

positive reinforcement

+ R

international whaling commission (IWC) Purpose

1. Safeguard future generations of whale stocks 2. Protect whales from further overfishing 3. Achieve optimum level without causing widespread economic and nutritional distress

types of interactions

1. operational/direct interactions 2. ecological/biological interactions

petroleum oil and marine mammals

1989 exxon valdez oil spill 2010 deepwater horizon oil spill

florida manatee lifespan

20-30 years in the wild The oldest living manatee in managed care was "Snooty, who was 69 years old"

endangered species act (ESA) Candidate assessment process

Biologists (NOAA and FWS) assess the species status and decide whether it meets the definition of a candidate Species added to the candidate list Assessed annually updated to modify status accordingly

initial diagnosis pinnipeds

Blood, fecal, opportunistic samples

dirty dozen

aldrin chlordane DDT dieldrin dioxins endrin furans heptachlor hexachlorobenzene mirex PCBs toxaphene

POPs negative impacts

Carcinogenic and immunotoxic Humans aree xposed through contaminated food - reproductive (fertility), developmental, behavioral, neurologic, endocrine, immunologic adverse health effects

what is a necropsy?

animal autopsy

Methods used to teach animals (including humans) to respond in a particular manner to specific stimuli (Ramirez, 1999)

antecedent (S^D) -> behavior consequence (bridge, reinforce) consequence (LRS)

Level A harassment

any act of pursuit, torment, or annoyance that has the potential to injure a marine mammal stock in the wild

Specimen

any animal/plant, whether alive or dead

Law of effect:

any behavior followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and any behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is likely to be reduced or stopped

Harass

any human activity, intended or not intended, that can cause an animal injury or change its behavior

body condition

Code 1: alive Code 2: fresh carcass Code 3: moderate decomposition Code 4: advanced decomposition Code 5: mummified or skeletal remains

intake physical examination

auscultation thoracia auscultation abdominal auscultation

Intermittent bridge

Controversial with the marine mammal industry Can be used to indicate "good job" while animal maintains position

initial diagnosis

Cytology + culture and sensitivity Opportunistic samples Urine, nasal discharge, wound discharge, regurgitation

necropsies involve

Detailed gross examination (with history of stranding) Photographs Morphometrics Collecting samples

threats

Disease Fisheries Boats Shark predation

cold stress syndrome (CSS)

Exposure to water temperature <68 F results in Emaciation, lethargy Dehydration, constipation GI disease with secondary infections Dermatisis Muzzle, head, extremities severely affected Treatment Warm wter Correct dehydration Treat secondary infections Nutritional support

florida manatee sanctuary act Management authority

Florida fish and wildlife conservation commission (FWC)

what is a take?

Harass, hunt, capture, kill or collect, including attempt to

depredation Examples

Harbor seals in Ireland - 45% of salmon in gillnet fisheries Cape fur seals in Africa - mob purse seine nets -> annual culling

"Dead man's test"

If a dead man can do it, it is not a behavior

interactions/synergies population density

Influences disease dynamics through transmission (direct) and effects on host nutrition (indirect) Spread of viruses is limited by low host density Macroparasites - require high host density

international whaling commission (IWC) commercial whaling exemptions scientific research

Japan

Behaviorism movement

John B. Watson (1919) Applied the same experimental principles of behavior to humans that had been applied to animals

POPs

Lipophilic and store in blubber Bioaccumulate and biomagnify Passed to offspring so females have decrease after reproduction

Animal 7006

March 2008 and May 3-7 2008

anthropogenic sound explosions

Nuclear devices - tested underwater or around oceans Limited (1963) and Comprehensive (1996) Test Ban Treaty Chemical explosions - oceanic research, construction, and military testing

microparasites

Parasite species too small to be seen with the naked eye, such as bacteria, protists, and fungi.

Marine mammal protection act (MMPA) Exemptions permits

Permits may be issued for 1. Scientific research 2. Educational public displays 3. Photography 4. Incidental take from commercial fishing operations 5. subsistence/craft making for alaska natives 6. Taking in defense of self/others 7. Good samaritan 8. National defense

external examination

State of decomposition/body condition Nutritional condition Sex determination Signs of HI Ectoparasites Conspecific rake marks Lesions (labeled A-Z) Anything else that is abnormal

prevalence

The number or proportion of cases of a particular disease or condition present in a population at a given time.

carcass recovery

Towing, lifts, trailer

anthropogenic sound seismic exploration

Use high-intensity sound to image Earth's crust Used for finding and monitoring reserves of oil and natural gas Arrays of airguns -> seismic reflection profiling (exposure can be up to 12-48 guns, pulses of 2,000 psi, area of 400 m^2)

Goal is

ZMRG (zero mortality rate goal), which = 10% of PBR

operational interactions

bycatch non-target catch entanglements depredation

studying animal communication field of behavioral analysis

communication occurs when a signal changes the probability of subsequent behavior of signaler or receiver Difficult to detect if animal learned something

FWC biologist day in the life

education outreach research response

Re-export

export of any specimens that has previously been imported

PBDEs

flame retardants

operational interactions

gear

Strategic stock

human-caused mortality exceeds PBR, stock is declining, or is listed under ESA

Reinforcement

increases the frequency of a behavior

pathogen

macroparasites vs microparasites

parasites

microparasites, macroparasites

remove stimulus

negative

Optimum sustainable population

number of animals resulting in maximum productivity of the population/spp., keeping in mind carrying capacity of the habitat and health of the ecosystem

signs

objectively observed indicators of a disorder

Streptococcus pneumoniae

pneumonia

increase behavior

reinforcement

epizootic

relating to or denoting a disease that is temporarily prevalent and widespread in an animal population.

International whaling commission (IWC) Commercial whaling exemptions

scientific research objection to current moratorium

MMPA marine mammal permits

scientific research photography

vibrio spp

skin and systemic/septicemia -> typically wound contamination

B.F. Skinner's operant chamber (1930)

taught subjects to perform in a specific manner in response to certain stimuli

florida manatee sanctuary act permits 2

"Permitted activities may not, either intentionally or negligently, molest, harass, collide with, injure, or harm manatees" With permit - vessels shall be operated at no greater than idle speed in "motorboats prohibited" or "no entry zones"

florida manatee behavior

"Semi-social" species Mother and calf pairs Mating herds Most of their time spent foraging and resting

quotes about aboriginal whaling

"There are not words for the emptiness I would feel if we didn't have matka . . . I could not even imagine such a thing, it is so much a part of me" (alaskan elder, in ibid:38) "Whales are very important to the people who eat whales . . . once we don't have the whales' nutrients in our bodies, it's like part of our bodies is missing" (Tina Netser, in Freeman et al. 1998:39)

Try not to think of positive and negative as

"good" or "bad", but rather "adding" or "subtracting"

disease

"interruption, cessation or disorder of body functions, systems or organs"

ciguatoxins

(CTXs) - dinoflagellate (Gambierdiscus toxicus); lipid soluble; grows on filamentous algae; biotransforms and bioaccumulates up food chain; ciguatera fish poisoning; similar in effect to brevetoxin but more potent

domoic acid

(DA) - diatoms (Pseudo Nitzschia spp), water-soluble amino acid that mimics neurotransmitter glutamate; causes brain lesions (hippocampus)

Non-target catch

(Hall, 1996) - non-target portion that is utilized

brevetoxins

(PbTx) - Florida red tide toxin; dinoflagellates (Karenia brevis); lipophilic; neurotoxic shellfish poisoning/upper respiratory effects; associated with fish die-offs, manatee and dolphin mortality

saxitoxins

(STXs) - dinoflagellates; water-soluble; paralytic shellfish poisoning

endemic

(adj.) native or confined to a particular region or people; characteristic of or prevalent in a field

PCBs

(polychlorinated biphenyl) - electrical transformers, capacitors, hydraulic fluids, additives to paints/lubricants

positive punishment

+P

Behavior

- anything an animal does using muscles, glands, or electrical impulses; also called a response

Stock

- distinct demographic unit where births and deaths are significantly more important than immigration and emigration; management unit of the MMPA

gear 1. Passive gear

- drift and set gill nets and longlines Shift in 1940 from natural to synthetic fibers Large source of mortality Cetaceans and pinnipeds in gillnets is a global problem UN - ban on nets longer than 1.6 miles (1992); then international moratorium in 2002 EU - banned use of drift nets in 2013 Illegal use continues

general types of interactions 1. Direct

- for target prey species (most common) (compete with marine mammals for same resource)

Depredation

- marine mammals remove or damage catch

Consequence

- occurs directly after a behavior Can be pleasant (reinforcement) or unpleasant (punishment)

Antecedent

- the event that immediately precedes/evokes a behavioral response Cues, signals, or environmental stimuli E.g. Pavlov's bell ringing, S^D

gear 2. Active gear

- trawls and purse seines Greater potential to reduce interactions Mortality still occurs

Bycatch

-> decline of sea otters, harbor porpoises, pelagic crustaceans primary threat to several endangered species

negative punishment

-P

negative reinforcement

-R

international whaling commission (IWC) strategies review/revise "schedules" establishes

1. Catch limits by species and area 2. Whale sanctuaries 3. Protection of calves and females accmopanied by calves 4. Restrictions of hunting methods

Endangered species act (ESA) Five factors that influence listing

1. Destruction, modification, or curtailment of species habitat/range 2. Overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes 3. disease/predation 4. Inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms 5. Other natural/manmade factors affecting species continued existence

Endangered species act (ESA) Strategies

1. Develop and implement recovery plans 2. Authorization to see land purchases/exchanges for important habitat 3. Federal aid to state and commonwealth conservation departments 4. Prohibits the "take" and interstate/international trade of listed animals and plants

manatees why rehabilitation?

1. Diagnosis of disease 2. Advancements of clinical care techniques 3. Understanding of basic anatomy and physiology 4. Return animals to breeding population 5. Identify threats to larger populations of manatees

Florida manatee sanctuary act manatee protection plans (MPP) aims

1. Educate law enforcement 2. Develop boat facility siting strategies 3. Initiate habitat protection

determining if a bacteria/fungus is a pathogen or contaminant

1. Evaluate cytology! If no inflammatory cells or abnormalities, organism is likely environmental contamination 2. If many inflammatory cells present, could indicate it's a pathogen and result in the decision to start treatment

Marine mammal protection act (MMPA) Marine mammal health and stranding resposne program purpose

1. Facilitate collection and dissemination of marine mammal data and health trends 2. Correlate health of marine mammals with physical, chemical, and biological environmental parameters 3. Response to UMEs

subspecies of the west indian manatee (trichechus manatus)

1. Florida Manatee (Trichechus manatus latirostris*) 2. Antillean manatee (Trichechus manatus manatus)

Stock assessment reports required for all marine mammals and includes

1. Geographic range 2. Minimum population estimate, current, and maximum net productivity rates, and current population trends 3. Annual human-caused mortality/serious injury 4. Commercial fishery interactions 5. Status of stock 6. Estimate potential biological removal (PBR)

MMPA impetus

1. Growing concern for decline of whales, even with protection from IWC 2. Public reaction to harvesting baby harp seals and Pribilof fur seals via clubbing 3. Increased public awareness to the isngificatn number of incidental dolphin mortalities as a result of commercial fishing (dolphin-tuna fishery)

Florida manatee sanctuary act Permits

1. Habitat restoration 2. Scientific or educational purposes 3. Enhancement of propagation/survival of manatees 4. Construction, maintenance, or repair - includes dredging and debris removal

studying animal communication two main questions

1. How many types of calls are there? 2. What do they mean?

Convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora (CITES) Cites trade database objectives

1. Identify where trade might negatively impact wild populations 2. Accuracy of information 3. Review trends 4. Evidence of trade infractions/inadequate enforcement

Endangered species act (ESA) 3 types of permits

1. Incidental take permits 2. Enhancement of survival permits 3. Recovery and interstate commerce

Marine mammal protection act (MMPA) Purpose

1. Maintain marine mammal stocks at their optimum sustainable populations (OSP) 2. Maintain marine mammal stocks as functioning elements of their ecosystems

Marine mammal protection act (MMPA) Incidental take by commercial fishing operations strategies

1. Monitoring program 2. List of fisheries (cat 1-3) 3. Take reduction plans (TRP) must be drafted for stock in which incidental mortality/serious injury exceeds PBR 4. Emergency regulations

Marine mammal protection act (MMPA) Strategy

1. Moratorium on the "take" of marine mammals 2. Research

examples of macroparasites

1. Nematodes - Crassicauda sp - causes cranial lesions/bone damage; striped dolphin study -> 11-14% of natural mortality 2. Hookworms - Uncinaria lucasi - important source of pup mortality in northern fur seals and California sea lions (transmitted via milk); cyclical infections 3. Trematodes - Nacirema globicephale and Nacirema spp - air sinus fluke; targets cranial nerve VIII

conservation efforts manatees

1. Ongoing population assessment and trend monitoring 2. Health and disease survelliance; rescue, rehabilitation and release with post-release follow-up 3. Environmental monitoring 4. Maintenance of current and estabishment of additional sanctuaries 5. Enhanced public awareness and education

international whaling commission (IWC) strategies create/allocate funds

1. Scientific research 2. Entanglement efforts 3. Ship strike mitigation 4. Conservation management plan 5. Strategic plan for whale watching

Marine mammal protection act (MMPA) Marine mammal health and stranding resposne program In addition to establishing stranding networks, also established:

1. Unusual mortality event (UME) response/investigation Working group Funds 2. National marine mammal tissue bank 3. Biomonitoring 4. Analytical quality assurance

Fishing practice/activity

1. habitat degradation - bottom trawling 2. use of explosives or cyanide 3. noise pollution

HERA staffing and contracts

10-14 day operations 60-80 total staff members/day Veterinarians Animal handlers Laboratory processors Dive safety officer Emergency medial technician Boat captains VIPS students/externs/interns

Permitting and regulations

1974 - issued 1-year permits ("American tunaboat association permit" Required onboard observers Required porpoise safety panels - medina panel Backdown procedures strictly enforced - ALL live animals released 1975 - 95% of dolphins released successfully during back down 1977 - issued 3 year general permits with annal dolphin mortality quotas (52,000 in 1978 to 31,000 in 1980 1980 - 1984 - annual quote of 20,500 US fleet = 94 vessels (1980) to 44 vessels (1984) US and foreign kill estimates for most of 1980s exceed estimates for 1970s

MMPA amendments and other efforts

1981 - research -> separate dolphins from tuna, technology to locate large tuna without dolphins, fishing gear other than purse seins 1984 - 1986 -> closed fishery once quote reached (20,500) Required nations important tuna into US to follow rules Including intermediary nations Must take onboard observers if requested 1992 - move toward moratorium US dolphin protection consumer information act (DPCIA) Empower the consumer "Dolphin safe" certification program Three major US canners ceased purchase of tuna caught by encircling dolphins Intl. dolphin conservation act: international, global moratorium

International whaling commission (IWC) Strategies

1986 commercial moratorium (temporary) review/revise "schedules" Scientific research create/allocate funds

example of take reduction plan

1996 - incidental mortality of beaked whales due to drft-gillnet fisheries eliminated via TRP

dolphin-tuna fishery

2 technical developments (1950s) - nylon nets and power block Nets: up to 1 mile long, 600 ft deep - deployed, pursed Utilized dolphin - tuna interactions in eastern tropical pacific (ETP_ Mortality estimates 1959 - 1972 - 350,000 - 650,000 annually 1970s - 200,000 - 300,000 annually; US fleet - 80% Inception and primary focus of MMPA (1972) NMFS - permit system (2-year exemption); 689,000 deaths Must determine species composition and stock structure of entire ETP 1974 - permits with mortality quotas

manatee anatomy gastrointestinal system

20% of the animal's weight Hindgut fermenter (like horses and elephants) Single stomach with large colon

Marine mammal populations are losing access to pray due to fisheries interactions 2. Southern resident killer whales

2019 estimate = 78 (20% decline in 5 years) Reproduction and mortality are related to abundance of chinook salmon

manatee rescues the basics

4 main methods for conducting manatee rescues Stretcher Land-based Hoop net Boat-based Rescues often require a large experienced crew Collaboration is key Can be dangerous Can be time and weather service Successful rescues can sometimes span over days, weeks, or months

DWH oil affects dolphin's ability to respond appropriately to stress dead dolphins

50% of carcasses had thin adrenal cortices Couldn't rule out that injury to adrenal cortex was due to oil contaminants

how much of global fish stocks are sustainable?

66% of fish stocks are fished sustainably 34% are overfished

what makes up the strandings that SER responds to?

87% dead 13% live 87% dolphins 8.8% small whales 1.4% large whales 1% pinnipeds 1% harbor porpoises 1% unidentified *based on 2010-2020 data

Those that exceed PBR

= "strategic stocks" (cat 1 and cat 2) Requires a Take Reduction Team (TRT) and Take Reduction Plan (TRP)

Discriminative stimulus (S^D)

A conditioned signal or cue that elicits a behavior through a reinforcement schedule An antecedent to a behavior (can be environmental) Visual, auditory, or tactile stimuli may be used as cues

7 criteria for UMEs

A marked increase in strandings compared with historical data Animals are stranding at a time of year which is unusual for species and location An increase in strandings in a localized area The species, age, or sex composition of the stranded animals is different than that of animals that normally strand

Primary reinforcement

A reinforcing event that does not depend on learning to achieve its reinforcing properties An unconditioned reinforcer or anything of intrinsic value to an organism Based off of a primary drive - thirst, sex, air, hunger, sleep; also called an unlearned drive What's your currency?

The bridge

A signal that is conditioned to be reinforcing because it is paired with an established reinforcer The bridge is used to indicate the instant at which an animal successfully completes a desired approximation or behavior, or at any time in which the desired topography is being emitted Any aspect of the behavior can and should be bridged in order to maintain all aspects of the behavior (entrance, exit, intensity, frequency, duration, topography, etc)

signal type communication

A signal that provides info from signaler to receiver 1. Direct communication 2. Indirect communication

Criteria

A standard by which something can be judged or decided Behavior must meet criteria in order to be reinforced Can be lowered in extreme situations Refers to all aspects of the behavior: latency, response to bridge, frequency, intensity, topography, and duration

Bering-chukchi-beaufort seas stock of bowhead whales (taken by antive people of alaska and chukotka)

A total of up to 392 bowhead whales can be landed in the period 2019-2025, with no more than 67 whales struck in any year, except that any unused portion of a strike quota from the three prior quota blocks shall be carried forward and added to the strike quotas of subsequent years, provided that no more than 50% of the annual strike limit is added to the strike quota for any one given year

Eastern north pacific gray whales (taken by native people of chukotka and washington state)

A total of up to 980 gray whales can be landed in the period 2019-2025 provided that the number of whales struck in any year shall not exceed 140 (except that any unused portion of a strike quota from the prior quota block shall be carried forward and added to the strike quotas of subsequent years, provided that no more than 50% of the annual strike limit is added to the strike quota for any one year)

anthropogenic sound acoustic deterrant devices and pingers

ADD - effort to repel marine mammals from fishing activities Pingers - effort to reduce bycatch ADH - acoustic harassment device - reduce depredation by marine mammals

the florida manatee views from necropsy

Abdominal view after removing the skin and muscle from the ventrum Abdominal view after removing the gastrointestinal tract

Latent reinforcement ->

Accidental reinforcement of undesirable behavior Frustration Aggression

effects on marine mammals masking

Acoustic signals masked by anthropogenic noise

Five properties of a bridge (Pryor, 1985)

Acts as a termination cue Marks the apex of the behavior Secondary reinforcer Means "good" Bridges the gap of reinforcement

Positive

Adding a stimulus to an organism's environment

Harmful algal blooms (HABs)

Adversely affect marine animal health and reprocution, coastal ecosystem integrity, human health and economics Different classes of toxins known to affect marine mammals Usually diatmoms and dinoflagellates Exposure through respiration or diet Biotoxins = typically neurotoxins that interfere with ion channels in brain or via cell-signaling pathways; must exist in high cocnentrations to cause problems

harmful algal blooms

Adversely affect marine animal health and reproduction, coastal ecosystem integrity, human health, and economics 4 classes of toxins known to affect marine mammals (5 total); usually diatoms and dinoflagellates Exposure through respiration or diet

brevetoxicosis

Aka "red tide" -> accumulation of harmful algae Karenia brevis Clinical signs Neurologic -> brevotoxins are toxins that affect nervous system Repsiraoryr vs GI (depends on route of transmission) Symptoms similar to seizure -> lose motor control Cause of mass mortalities Many animals found decreased prior to intervention

photographs

All pictures must include a scale that contains the field number and date External photos All aspects of teh carcass All appendanges (both sides) Head-on shot Lesions - take further out photo before taking a close-up, take photos at a 90 degree angle, avoid glare Internal photos Good practice to take photos of everything internal - normal and abnormal

Pollution biomarkers

An alteration in a biological response occurring at molecular, cellular, or physiological levels which can be related to exposure to or toxic effects of environmental chemicals PAHs can activate the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), which causes downstream changes in transcription of various genes such as cytochrome P4501A1 (CYP1A) So detecting elevations in CYP1A indicates PAH exposure

West greenland common minke whales (taken by greenlanders)

An annual strike limit of 164 whales is allowed for the years 2019-2025. Any unused portion of a strike quota from the prior quota block under a strike limit algorithm management advice shall be carried forward and added to the strike quotas of subsequent years, provided that no more than 50% of the annual strike limit is added to the strike quota for any one year

West greenland fin whales (taken by greenlanders)

An annual strike limit of 19 whales is allowed for the years 2019-2025. Any unused portion of a strike quota from the prior quota block under a strike limit algorithm management advice shall be carried forward and added to the strike quotas of subsequent years, provided that no more than 50% of the annual strike limit is added to the strike quota for any one year.

West greenland bowhead whales (taken by greenlanders)

An annual strike limit of 2 whales is allowed for the years 2019-2025. Any unused portion of a strike quota from the prior quota block under a strike limit algorithm management advice shall be carried forward and added to the strike quota of subsequent years, provided that no more than 50% of the annual strike limit is added to the strike quota for any one year

East greenland common minke whales (taken by greenlanders)

An annual strike limit of 20 whales is allowed for the years 2019-2025. Any unused portion of a strike quota shall be carried forward and added to the strike quotas of subsequent years, provided that no more than 3 strikes shall be added to the strike quota for any one year. Commencing in 2020, and provided a strike limit algorithm for this stock has been developed by then, any unused portion of a strike quota from the prior quota block under a strike limit algorithm management advice can be carried forward and added to the strike quotas of subsequent years, provided that no more than 50% of the annual strike limit is added to the strike quota for any one year

West greenland humpback whales (taken by greenlanders)

An annual strike of 10 whales is allowed for the years 2019-2025. Any unused portion of a strike quota from the three prior quota blocks under a strike limit algorithm management advice shall be carried forward and added to the strike quotas of subsequent years, provided that no more than 50% of the annual strike limit is added to the strike quota for any one year.

zoonosis

An infectious disease that is transmissible from animals to humans.

The A-B-C's of training

Antecedent Behavior Consequence

common reasons for rehabilitation

Anthropogenic trauma Cold stress Orphaned manatee calves Brevetoxicosis (red tide)

What is behavior?

Anything an animal (including humans) does using muscles, glands, or electrical impulses Also called a response

MMPA applies to

Applies to all marine mammals within the US Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)

Marine mammal protection act (MMPA) Marine mammal health and stranding resposne program

As part of 1992 amendment Authorized via level of agreement or section 109(h)

Marine mammal protection act (MMPA) Stock assessments

As part of 1994 amendment

intake physical examination once on-site and dry docked

Assess body condition - ventral and dorsal "Peanut head" - distinct neck due to loss of nuchal fat Prominent scapulae, spine, flat (thin), or concave (very thin) ventrum Longitudinal folds on ventrum = emaciated

effects on marine mammals mass strandings

Associated with high-intensity sonar during naval operations and airguns during seismic reflection profiling Predominantly beaked whales, mostly Cuvier's (81% of acoustic related strandings) 121 mass strandings of beaked whales from 1960 - 2004 Bodies show no apparent pathogenic disease, hemorrhaging (acoustic fats of head, ears and spaces in brain and along acoustic pathways), disorientation, acute impacts, bleeding from eyes, increased heart rate vs bradycardia

Effects of whaling Contributed to extinction of

Atlantic gray whale (early 1700s) Steller's sea cow (1768) Caribbean monk seal (1950s) Japanese sea lion (1970s)

indigenous/aboriginal harvesting

Authorized by MMPA of 1972 and regulated by International whaling commission (IWC) Subsistence hunts Extremely important to their culture, they have a respect for local resources and sustainability Traditional food (muktuk/mattak), feeds and provides resources to community Four IWC member countries conduct aboriginal subsistence hunts today North american inuits perform rituals and songs in honor of the animal's spirit Sometimes hunts will be coordinated with scientific research

Endangered species act (ESA) Permits

Based on listing status Permits may be authorized for scientific research, species enhancement, zoological/botanical exhibition, educational use, etc 3 types of permits

Florida manatee sanctuary act Manatee protection plans (MPP)

Began in 1989 15 key countries included in the Florida Manatee sanctuary act Developed by the countries in cooperation with FWC and USFWS MPP's are planning documents, not regulatory Aims

Classical conditioning

Behavior is elicited from the environment E.g. cold environment -> shivering Focuses on reflexive responses

Operant conditioning

Behavior is emitted from the animal E.g. trainer tells dog "sit" -> dog sits Focuses on voluntary responses

examples of classical conditioning

Bell ringing -> salivation (Ivan Pavlov, 1890) Can you think of another example?

vocal learning

Beluga mimics humans Killer whale talks to researchers Seal copying humans

The aboriginal subsistence catch limits currently in force are

Bering-chukchi-beaufort seas stock of bowhead whales (taken by antive people of alaska and chukotka) Eastern north pacific gray whales (taken by native people of chukotka and washington state) East greenland common minke whales (taken by greenlanders) West greenland bowhead whales (taken by greenlanders) West greenland fin whales (taken by greenlanders) West greenland common minke whales (taken by greenlanders) West greenland humpback whales (taken by greenlanders) Humpback whales taken by st vincent and the grenadines

global fisheries Food and agricultural organization (FAO) of United Nations

Between 1950-1960 -> expansion in fishing efforts and balance between landings and human population growth Government support and subsidies In mid-1980s - landings began to decline by 1.5 billion pounds annually Widespread depletion of large, predatory species and collapse of many populations Shift -> smaller and decrease in ecosystem complexity

bioaccumulation vs biomagnification

Bioaccumulation - increase in concentration of a pollutant in an organism Biomagnification - increase in concentration of a pollutant in a food chain

Marine mammal UMEs 1991 - 2019 by cause (n = 70)

Biotoxin - red tide blooms, algal blooms Ecological factors - hurricanes, influx of freshwater Human interaction - chemical and oil spills Infectious disease Undetermined

HERA data collection tools

Blood collection kits Fecal, gastric, blow hole, urine, milk collection tools* Biopsy tools* tooth collection kit Lesion biopsy tools* Freeze brand and tagging equipment Emergency drugs Data collection sheets/waterproof paper *denotes sterile procedure

initial diagnosis cetaceans

Blood, chuff, gastric, fecal, urine

initial diagnosis serenia

Blood, fecal, gastric, opposrtunitstic samples

effects of whaling Hunted to near extinction

Blue whale Minke whale Fin whale Humpback whale Eastern pacific gray whale North atlantic right whale - endangered

external morphometrics

Body length Tip of rostrum to the blowhole, top of the head to the hind flipper, tip of the rostrum to the genital slit Not following contours of the body Girth measurement Dorsal fin pictures Used for photo-ID Blubber thickness Sex determination Measurements of genitals Eyes, ears, nostrils/blowhole Discoloration, discharge, injuries, size shape, color, parasites Body condition Decomposition Lacerations Human interactions Skin condition Markings Lacerations Weight Tooth count Age determination Approximate in the field

HERA study animal

Bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) Original theory: over-eutrophication of water, sources: cane sugar, orange groves, golf courses 2nd largest cattle producing state behind Texas, increase growth rate and decrease bacteria and disease Lake Okeechobee drains into east and west Florida

Case study - the faroese

Brainstem damage, neurological disorders, intellectual disabilities among children, heart issues, and unusually high rate of Parkinson's disease; 2008 - health warning

orphaned calf

Calves dependent up to 2 years old Clinical presentation lethargic/dehydrated Hypoglycemic Poor body condition GI disorders from formula Nutritional support Feed every 3 huors Tube vs bottle feed Monitor weight daily

penalties

Can be upwards of $100,000 and/or one year of imprisonment Reward programs used for investigations

human related threats entanglements

Can you tell the difference between a manatee tag and a crab pot buoy?

Case study - the vaquita

Caught in gill nets targeting the totoaba 2017 ~ 30 2018 ~ 12 2021 < 10 remaining

interactions/synergies stress

Challenges homeostatic processes Natural stress - predators, inter- and intraspecific aggression, weather Anthropogenic stress -> vessel traffic, fishing, noise -> can modulate resistance to disease (though poorly understood)

HERA research vessels

Chase boats (3) Net boat (1) Animal processing vessel (1) Laboratory processing vessel (1) scout/photo- identification vessel (1) Safety boat (1) Backup (1)

how are marine mammals sentinel species for ecosystem and science health?

Choosing dolphins - apex predators Indicator species - resource managers Develop predictive models to create management strategies Stewards of the environment

manatees 1-888-404-FWCC process

Citizen calls FWC to report injured or sick manatee FWC biologist confirms need for rescue FWC coordinates the rescue and transports to critical care hospital Critical care hospital intakes the manatee and begin rehabilitation process

comprehensive health assessments components

Classical veterinary medicine Ecological principles Advanced diagnostics Environmental health screening Epidemiology

a time of change and conflict Whale watching

Coincided with decrease in marine mammal exploitation Non-consumptive utilization; not without issues $2 billion in annual estimated commercial worth 13 million people a year Perhaps marine mammals are "worth" more alive vs dead Also manatees, dolphins, polar bears, sea lions, otters, and seals

Case study - harp seals (canada)

Collapse of cod fishery in atlantic in early 1990s Harp seal populations increasing since 1980 and consume 20,000 tons polar cod/year + 54,000 tons of atlantic cod/year Data to support relationship nonexistent but socioeconomic implications were huge Canada's fisheries minister (Brian Tobin) - increased and encouraged total catch 1996 was largest reported seal hunt since 1970 -> 242,000 harp seals + 25,000 hooded seals 2016 - 400,000 harp seal quota but only 66,000 taken ($34 million in 2006 vs $1.6 million in 2016) Manage - hunting techniques and prohibit "white coats"

virology

Collect and properly store samples for later PCR analysis to ID and document viruses

intake physical examination fecal/gastric/urine sampling

Collect freshly passed feces Cytology +/- culture Occult blood testing Parasitology screening Gastric sample collected by passing gastric tube through nares Urine sample collected with a clean frisbee

life history

Collect samples to determine age estimate, trophic position, habitat usage, and reproductive status

cytology

Collect smears and stain to look at cell types

contaminants

Collect various samples according to protocols for analysis of toxins and other chemicals

biotoxins

Collect various samples and freeze for later analysis for harmful algae and dinoflagellates and associated neurotoxins

intake physical examination blood collection

Collected from brachial vascular bundle -> space between the radius and ulna

Dolphin-safe fishing - not safe for all

Compare bycatch from dolphin-sets, school sets and log-sets Dolphin mortality - almost never occurs in 2 latter By bycatch of sharks, billfish and sea turtles significantly higher in both Tuna bycatch (discard small tunas): 200 points (dolphin-set) vs 2000 pounds (school-set) vs 20,000 (log-set) Currently (after 25+ years) - most marine mammal scientists no longer consider dolphin mortality to be biologically significant

effects on marine mammals effects on behavior

Complex and not well understood May depend on hearing sensitivity, behavioral state, habituation/desensitizaiton, age, sex, presence of offspring, location of exposure, and proximity to shoreline Documented responses vary widely Requires long-term monitoring

IUCN composed of

Composed of government and civil society organizations: 1,400 member organizations with input from 18,000 experts

Convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora (CITES) Management authorities

Comprised of 183 parties Switzerland acts as the depository nation Each has own management authority United States - US Fish and Wildlife Service Meet every 2-3 years to review implementation of convention, including conservation status of listed species and amendment considerations Does not supersede national laws A party can make a unilateral statement ('reservations') to not be bound to the convention regarding the trade of a particular listed species

a time of change and conflict public awareness

Concern about populations and individual animals Belief that animals, like people, have intrinsic rights Dedicated community; non-governmental organizations

Secondary reinforcement

Conditioned reinforcer: a stimulus that becomes reinforcing because it is paired with another (previously established) reinforcer, usually a primary reinforcer In dolphin training, what do we strive to be the most effective secondary reinforcer?

POPs many pops have been banned

Congress banned PCBs in 1978 Clean Air Act - regulate production and release of dioxins 1970s - US restricts DDT use Stockholm convention (2001) - countries agreed to reduce or eliminate the production, use, and/or release of 12 key POPs

Marine mammal populations are losing access to pray due to fisheries interactions 1. Steller sea lion in Alaska

Continuous decline in 1970s; listed as endangered in 1997 (ESA) Fisheries in west and central aleutian island are likely to jeopardize continued existence (NOAA, 2010); "junk food theory" Western still declining, eastern rebounding Remove normal prey source, left with something with less nutrients

Samples

Cornell University Dx lab - Urine and Vitreous Antech Dx or Memorial Hospital - Complete Blood Count and Serum Chemistry MSU, CVM - culture University of Georgia - Morbilli virus and Brucella by PCR University of Florida and MSU, CVM - skin impression smears IMMS and MSU, CVM - Gross Pathology and Histopathology

comprehensive health assessments outcomes

Creating baseline understanding of specific population Looking for baseline for this species at this time at this location, perform for 4-5 years Improved screening for emerging and resurging diseases Long-term monitoring of specific population Prospective assessment of specific health risk factors

Heavy metals

Cu, Cr, Se, Ni, Al, Hg, Cd, Pb Connection between stillbirth of the pups and nickel concentrations in the air Cadmium in humans causes skeletal deformities and kidney damage - no toxic effect in marine mammals recorded Diet (main route), inhalation from atmosphere, absorption through skin, across placenta and through milk Bioaccumulate Tin - antifouling paints affect bottlenose dolphins Antifouling paint control act (1987)

DDT linked to cancer in california sea lions

DDT dumpted off coast of California

PCBs and killer whales

Damage immune systems, reproduction 25x more PCBs than amounts shown to alter fertility (Desforges et al. 2018) Populations in industrial areas most affected United Kingdom, Japan, Hawaii, NW Pacific Ocean Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW) of the Pacific NW Most studied population of KW, critically endangered Lack of food, ship noise, PCBs

kidney

Dark maroon in color, ovoid shape Renal tissue and larger blood cells can be examined for the presence of parasites Examine capsule (connective tissue around kidney) for presence of fluid or bubbles Note color, thickness, and opacity Remove capsule by making longitudinal incision to examine internal surface of capsule Note size, shape and external attributes of kidney Examine internal structure of each kidney by bread slicing (cutting thin cross sections) Note color and presence of stones Observe degree of differentiation between the cortex and medulla and medulla:cortex ratio within each reniculi Examine number of reniculi and characteristics of them Each one should be well demarcated but clustered together within the kidney itself Sample whole kidney for contaminants, histology, microbiology, molecular, and ancillary investigations

POPs in Biscayne Bay dolphins

Dart diopsy study in bottlenose dolphins Males have higher PCBs than females North BB male dolphins have higher PCBs than south BB

human interactions

Debris ingestion, watercraft-related wound, gear still attached, healed HI - entanglement scars

Four IWC member countries conduct aboriginal subsistence hunts today

Denmark (Greenland) Russia (Chukotka) St Vincent and the Grenadines (Bequia) United States (Alaska and potentially a resumption of hunts previously undertaken by the Makah tribe of washington state)

marine mammal management cetaceans

Department of commerce NOAA/NMFS SE region stranding coordinator - Blair Mase Stranding networks/private institutions State agencies - FWC

marine mammal management manatees

Department of the interior USGS sirenian program USFWS Private (e.g. Mote Marine Laboratory) State agencies - FWC DEP

florida manatee gender determination

Determined by the location of openings on their ventrum Females: the urogenital opening is closer to the anus Males: the urogenital opening is closer to the miligis

domoic acid

Diatoms (Pseudonitzschia spp) Water-soluble amino acid that mimics neurotransmitter glutamate Causes brain lesions (hippocampus) Linked to strandings and mass mortalities of pinnipeds Also linked to numerous cetacean mortality events of several whale, dolphin, and porpoise species

disease in animals introduction

Difficult among free-ranging animals - diagnose and assess impacts Effects on life history and interactions with: host nutrition, behavior, genetics and environmental stressors/change Infectious + malignant, congenital, degenerative, deficiency, functional, toxic, and metabolic Most research focused on morbidity and mortality of stranded and captive animals US Navy Marine Mammal Biomedical Program

radiographs (x-rays)

Difficult to see detail because of large size Fractured ribs Gastrointestinal system Lungs Pneumothorax Pyothorax

ciguatoxins

Dinoflagellate (Gambierdiscus toxicus) Lipid soluble and bioaccumulates Grows on filamentous algae Ciguatera fish poisoning Impacts in marine mammals unknown Suspected contribution to the decline of Hawaiian monk seals

okadaic acid and dinophysis toxins (DST)

Dinoflagellates Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning DST not documented in marine mammals Okadaic acid exposure documented in bottlenose dolphins, south american sea lions, and peruvian fur seals

saxitoxins

Dinoflagellates; water soluble Paralytic shellfish poisoning Suspected cause of mass mortality of 14 humpback whales in Cape cod in 1987 Suspected contribution to mass mortalities of mediterranean monk seals in northwest Africa in 1997

petroleum oil and sea otters (mustelidae) external effects

Disruption of air layer in fur = hypothermia Transdermal absorption, ingestion Leads to internal contamination impacting organ systems Irritation of interdigital webbing, mucus membranes, urogenital

heaviside's dolphins

Don't whistle Use higher frequency clicks for echolocation Use lower frequency clicks for communication Emit bursts of clicks called "burst-pulse" sounds or "buzzes" = 500 clicks per second

Negative punishment

E.g. "step back" Dolphins enjoy attention from the trainers, access to fish, guests and toys Dolphin chases another dolphin -> trainer removes these items, in response to an undesirable behavior Removal of these items decreases the frequency of the preceding behavior Can you think of another example of negative punishment?

Negative reinforcement

E.g. a dominant and subordinate dolphin complete a set of bows together -> the dominant dolphin is then sent away from the subordinate animal Removal of dominant animal increases frequency of preceding behavior

anthropogenic sound industrial activities, offshore drilling and construction

E.g. coastal power plants, pile driving, dredging, tunnel boring, power-generating windmills and canal lock operations

Positive punishment

E.g. dog bark collar Dog barks excessively -> dog receives shock from shock collar

Positive reinforcement

E.g. dolphin jumps through hoop -> dolphin receives fish Addition of fish increases the frequency of the preceding behavior

contaminants challenges

Effects and thresholds levels are not fully understood Difficult to study (multidisciplinary and ethical/legal constraints) Exposure to mixtures of chemicals Few causal relationships established and mechanisms of action are poorly understood Species and geographic differences

Marine mammal protection act (MMPA)

Enacted in 1972

Endangered species act (ESA)

Enacted in 1973

Florida manatee sanctuary act

Enacted in 1978

Convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora (CITES)

Entered into force in 1975

human related threats other human related threats

Entrapment Harassment debris/fishing gear ingestion

erysipelas

Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae - skin and systemic/septicemia -> normal microfauna of fish slime layer (route - ingestion); vaccine in development

International whaling commission (IWC)

Established in 1946 under the international convention for the regulation of whaling

mouth, teeth and jaw mysticetes

Examine the baleen for gross lesions and trauma Collect 6+ baleen plates ensuring each is removed as close to the gum line as possible

Marine mammal health and stranding response program - goals

Facilitate collection and dissemination of health data Assess marine mammal health trends Correlate health with physical, chemical, environmental and biological parameters Coordinate effective response to unusual mortality events Overall, provide for animals

morbillivirus

Family Paramyxoviridae; widespread and most studied; population impacts; high mortality and range; significant in rehab efforts; PDV, CeMV = PMV + DMV + WMV + WMV; potential for very serious consequences in naive populations

anthropogenic trauma: entanglement

Field response and disentanglement Rehabilitation Amputation Osteomyelitis (bone infection) Re-entangle easily!

histeopathology

Fix samples for microscopic examination of tissue to study manifestations of disease (collect 2 samples - analysis and archive)

brevetoxins

Florida red tide toxin; dinoflagellate (Karenia brevis) Lipophilic Neurotoxic and upper respiratory effects Associated with fish die-offs, manatee and dolphin mortality Inhalation and ingestion causes brevetoxicosis Manatee - inhalation and ingestion Seizures, facial seizures, inflammation of mucus membranes, bleeding in lungs and brain, mortality events Dolphin - primarily ingestion Increased chuffing observed, internal bleeding, hemolysis, anemia, mortality events Acute vs chronic exposure - immune dysfunction and neurologic effects

global fisheries

Food and agricultural organization (FAO) of United Nations

interactions/synergies nutrition

Food limitation -> alters prevalence/incidence of disease by decreasing host immune response to infection (or altering behavior) "Junk food hypothesis" Some epizootic have exacerbated by poor nutrition Steller sea lion - 80% decline in population (WDP) complicated by poor nutrition (shift from herring to pollock) (Fritz and Hinckley 2005) Minke whale body condition reflects fluctuations in availability of preferred prey (immature herring) (Haug et al. 2002)

Humpback whales taken by st vincent and the grenadines

For the years 2019-2025, the total number of humpback whales taken shall not exceed 28

genetics

Freeze and place samples in DMSO solution for later DNA analysis

why do a necropsy?

Gain further insight into cause of death Common chronic disease Fisheries interaction Emerging zoonosis

ecological/biological interactions

General types of interactions

Marine mammal protection act (MMPA) Incidental take by commercial fishing operations

Goal is to reduce incidental mortality/serious injury to zero

spectrograms

Graphical visualization of sound X axis = time Y axis = frequency (Hz or kHz) color/shading = intensity of sound (dB)

2010 deepwater horizon oil spill

Gulf of Mexico 134 million gallons of oil 87 days

florida manatee sanctuary act strategy

Habitat speed zones Motorboat-prohibited zones No entry zones

fishing practice/activity 1. Habitat degradation - bottom trawling

Heavy rollers, chains, and wooden "doors" - penetrate up to 6 cm Short-term gain for fishery and scavenging marine mammals Long-term loss of fish when change habitat Gray whale and walrus

blood sampling hydration state

Hematocrit total protein Electrolytes creatinine

sound production in cetaceans odontocetes

High frequency vocalizations Clicks and whistles Echolocate Use larynx to produce whistles (low-frequency) and specialized air sacs near blowholes to create clicks (high frequency) Sound is channeled through the fats of the melon

natural oceanic noise

Highly variable Physical environment affects sound propagation

background on HERA history of health assessment studies (HERA)

Historical motivations Uniqueness of such studies

background on HERA comprehensive vs biopsy dart studies

Holistic vs component approaches Holistic = entire Component = part Differences in information obtained

manatee anatomy diaphragm

Horizontal plate, extends entire length of the body 2 separate hemidiaphragms = 2 pleural cavities Buoyancy control

intake physical examination obtain long history from FWC stranding biologist

How long has it been injured for? Has it been seen eating? What is the buoyancy like? Floating? Heavy? Is the animal moving well or lethargic? Can the animal dive? What is the respiratory rate in the water? During the drive? This can be variable, 3-5 breaths per 5 minutes is typical Breaths < 30 seconds apart = critical

types of interactions 2. ecological/biological interactions

Human population growth Global ocean lost > 90% of large, predatory fish (Myers and Worm, 2003)

interactions/synergies urbanization of the coastline

Human population increase/overlap -> with humans, pets, and livestock (and associated pathogens) Transmission via aerosols and/or runoff (shed by domestic/feral dogs and cats) Influenza B - isolated in 1999 from harbor seal (first non-human) Pathogen antimicrobial resistance - antibiotics for humans, domestic pets, and livestock + contamination via sewage/runoff (also related to increased HABs) Global transport of pathogen - via ballast water Human pharmaceuticals - hormones (birth control) and antipsychotics (e.g. Prozac) Plastics

safety precautions

Human safety is priority PPE for zoonotic diseases Disposable gloves, goggles, face masks, splash shields Bandage existing wounds Clean, bandage, document any injuries sustained during necropsy Have a well stocked first aid kit Proper disposal of blades, knives, needles Be prepared for chemicals pills and disposal Scrub exposed skin thoroughly before leaving lab or site Disinfect all equipment Properly dispose of biohazard materials and carcass

petroleum oil and sea otters, mustelidae internal exposure

Hypoglycemia - due to impaired feeding, liver dysfunction, decreased intestinal absorption Respiratory distress

International union for conservation of nature (IUCN)

IUCN is a membership union and its partner IUCN-US is a charitable 501(c)(3) organization based in the US

Earliest records of hunting

In cold climates, very valuable resource = protein, high-value diet, predictability, "easy" prey, warmth, energy, cultural Norweigians among the first to hunt whales as early as 4,000 years ago (japanese may have been earlier) Japan - culling marine mammals for many 1000s of years Early masters of whaling - Basques in the Bay of Biscay - used watch towers to look for northern right whales In arctic, native people have hunted marine mammals for 2000-3000 years During middle ages and renaissance, whaling gained popularity in northern europe Spread to North america and by mid 1700s, it became harder to find whales near atlantic coast Small-scale commercial whaling (1600s-1800s) - few records exist so exact impact is unknown

Immediacy of reinforcement

In order for a reinforcer to be effective, the reinforcer must occur immediately following the behavior

background on HERA

Incidental findings in field studies Stranding program findings Environmental perturbations History of heath assessment studies (HERA) Comprehensive vs biopsy dart studies Personnel

macroparasites

Include helminths (e.g. lungworms, liver flukes, roundworms, tapeworms) and arthropods (e.g. mites) Distributed - GI tract, viscera, urogenital tract, sinuses (Nacirema globicephale), brain, and blubber Manatees have a specific suite compared to cetaceans and pinnipeds -> reflection of diet (parasites have indirect life cycles and are transmitted through food webs)

effects on marine mammals hearing development

Increased noise may cause developmental problems for young

antibiotic resistance example

Indian River Lagoon - Health and Environmental Risk Assessment (2003-2018) - high prevalence of antibiotic resistant bacteria in fecal, gastric, and blowhole samples; including MRSA (Schaefer et al. 2011) CDC considers antibiotic resistance as one of the most critical emerging issues in human health

types of interactions 1. operational/direct interactions

Info about effects comes from commercial fisheries Include commercial, indigenous and recreational

2018 Southwest Florida Bottlenose Dolphin UME

Initial severe red tide bloom began Nov. 2017 UME started July 2018 Collier through Pinellas counties Up to 196 dolphins to date (11/19/2019) Investigation is still ongoing (11/2019) Manatees, sea turtles, and other animals also affected

effects on marine mammals non-auditory sound impacts

Interaction with marine mammal physiology Includes physiologic stress, neurosensory effects, effects on balance, tissue damage from acoustic resonance, gas bubble formation and/or growth in tissues and blood, and blast-trauma injury Acoustic resonance can lead to amplification of pressure in air cavities

convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora (CITES) purpose

International agreement between governments to ensure that international trade of specimens does not threaten their survival

culling/hunting - small cetaceans

Japanese drive hunts/culls - killing to reduce numbers/competition About half a million small cetaceans killed since 1960s Iki island (1976-1986) - largest cull ever recorded; coordinated response to decline in yellowtail No international body that monitors/manages hunting of small cetaceans IWC has subcommittee but limited influence Commercial hunts - traditionally for food Health concerns - study of Faroese

2013 Mid-Atlantic Cetacean UME

July 2013-July 2015 NY - N FL (Brevard Cty) 1827 stranded bottlenose dolphins 275/299 (92%) dolphins tested were + for morbillivirus Largest morbillivirus outbreak since 1987-88 event

What's going on this year? 2020

Just not eating, GIs completely empty, eating algae 7 days from mouth to anus to process food Due to habitat loss

sperm whale clicks

Known for their clicks, buzzes and codas Up to 236 dB re 1 mu Pa @ 1 m echolocation/buzzes communication/codas

Paracoccidioidomycosis ceti/lobomycosis

Lacazia loboi/Paracoccidioides brasiliensis var ceti - dermal and subcutaneous lesions (trauma); zoonotic; related to decreased immune function

International whaling commission (IWC) Limitations of IWC

Lack of inspection and enforcement powers Does not include regulation of small odontocetes Members could object/excuse themselves to parts of law "Scietnific" permits are abused by many nations

bycatch statistics

Lack of reporting on a global scale Cetacean bycatches report to IWC scientific committee - limited by involvement US is unique with formal system for reporting as part of MMPA Category 1 (frequent), category 2 (occasional) and category 3 (remote likelihood) Only accurate reporting system comes from onboard observer programs; recently moved towards electronic monitoring

Depredation

Little quantitative data on extent, impact or economic cost Potential increased foraging success but also greater risk of injury Documented serious economic cost for fishermen -> often retaliate Occurs now in both coastal and pelagic waters

blood sampling organ function

Liver: AST, ALT< ALKP, GGT, total bilirubin Kidney: BUN, creatinine, SDMA

Lobomycosis-like disease in dolphins

Lobomycosis (lacaziosis) is a chronic, granulomatous, fungal infection of the skin and subcutaneous tissues, caused by Lacazia loboi, a non- cultivable yeast-like organism Rare, but identified in humans, first in Brazil (1930) along the Amazon Endemic to South and central America No cases in Europe, Canada, the US, and South Africa, mostly in travelers Found in dolphins in South America and in the United States, especially in estuarine waters along the east coast and Gulf of Mexico

marine mammal communication

Locate prey, avoid predators, find and select a mate, care for offspring, orient Marine environment favors acoustic over visual channel The degree of underwater communication varies Must consider what info is being communicated and how it is shaped Cetaceans have most elaborate specializations

adaptation and evolution long range vs short range signals

Long range - adapted in form and pattern of delivery to withstand degradation and attenuation - loud, stereotyped, spectrally simple, long, repetitive Short range - cue and soft vocalizations that evolved for close communication - more complex, subtle variations carry a lot of info, and incorporates non-acoustic information

Chronic effects of Deepwater Horizon oil spill

Long term effects found up to 10 years after the spill NRDA estimates 40+ years for full recovery of mammal populations in the Gulf

effects on marine mammals habituation and tolerance of noise

Loss of responsiveness to noise over time Examples Harbor seals and AHDs at aquaculture facilities Harbor porpoises and pingers

sound production in cetaceans mysticetes

Low frequency vocalizations Song, moans, groans Do not echolocate Only use larynx, inside the larynx is the u-fold adjacent to the laryngeal seac Expand and contract lungs and laryngeal sac to drive air across the u-fold, causing it to vibrate and produce sound

DWH oil affects dolphin's ability to respond appropriately to stress live dolphins

Low levels of cortisol release still found in 2013-2014 Due to a delayed response rather than complete suppression

mouth, teeth, jaws odontocetes

Lower jaw/teeth (4+) are separated and collected for age determination Tooth wear, integrity of dentition, and state of gingiva

sampling

Make sure stranding history data has been collected and recorded time/date of stranding/death, environmental conditions, location, behavior before death, euthanized/natural death, UME, how was it stored before necropsy Every marine mammal in US is required to be examined thoroughly for evidence of human interaction (HI) Begin filling out forms, checklists, and logs Start with photos and external examination Then begin necropsy and tissue/sample collection Label all samples TWICE A tissue without a legible label is useless Label bags/jars in advance

POPs in dolphins in the SE US

Male bottlenose dolphins in Brunswick, GA (superfund site) have extremely high PCBs

cold stress

Manatee death caused by exposure to prolonged cold water Manatee is usually malnourished and emaciated

natural

Manatee death resulting from infectious or non-infecitous disease, birthing complication, antural accident or other natura causes such as red tide toxicity

watercraft

Manatee hit by a boat, personal watercraft, barge or other type of vessel Death may result from propeller wounds, impact, crushing, or any combination of these

perinatal

Manatee less than 150 cm (5 feet) in total length, not determined to have died from human related causes

contaminants toxins

Many are lipophilic and bioaccumulate Many compounds affect endocrine and nervous systems Many are transmitted in milk

Marine mammals and loss of prey

Marine mammal populations are losing access to pray due to fisheries interactions

SER stranded species 2010-2020 causes

Mass strandings - two or more animals Weather events, disease, social cohesion, following prey, human-related (oil spill), out of habitat (coordinated with weather events)

Passive acoustic monitoring (PAM)

Measure, monitor, and determine the sources of sound in underwater environments ("eavesdrop" on acoustic behavior marine animals) Gather information about distribution and migrations Reliable estimates of population size Leads to data used in conservation and management strategies Monitor natural and anthropogenic sounds

sound production pinnipeds

Mechanism is understudied but similar to terrestrial mammals using larynx California sea lion can emit sounds without bubbles Mechanism of sound shaping/production differs between species Walrus - most diverse

heavy metals 2

Mercury accumulation through the food web mainly occurs in an organic form methylmercury (MeHg) Toxicity = central nervous system damage, sensory and motor deficits and behavioral impairment, emaciation, lethargic

Polycylic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)

Metabolized by marine mammals and do not accumulate Routes of exposure: Inhalation, ingestion of prey, and oiing of eyes, skin, and fur Exposure difficult to assess Biomarkers = CYP1A

Behavior modification

Methods used to teach animals (including humans) to respond in a particular manner to specific stimuli (Ramirez, 1999)

IUCN mission

Mission is to influence, encourage, and assist societies throughout the world to conserve the integrity and diversity of nature and to ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable

florida manatee sanctuary act purpose

Mitigate watercraft interactions and harassment of "Florida's state marine mammal" Protect manatee habitat from human activity and establish limited "safe havens"

Competition over limited resources

More complex, less obvious, difficult to study Concerns about consequences for fisheries prevail - species increasing at 5-12 percent per year, eating more fish

HERA process of examining animal

Morphometrics Photographic documentation Veterinary physical exam Respiratory and milk sample collection Gastric fluid collection Urine and fecal collection Ultrasonographic examination Tissue sampling Tooth sampling Assessment and sampling of skin lesions Marking for identification Field laboratory Release *hematological sampling

social context sea lions

Mother-pup calls Named "pup attraction calls" Very similar to those produced by territorial males ("full threat calls"

mouth, teeth, jaws

Mouth (mouth, tongue, palate, teeth/baleen, esophagus) checked for lesions, parasites, or discharge Examine acoustic fat for damage (hemorrhage/bleed ing) Histology is analyzed from acoustic fat sampling Presence of prey (including orientation within the mouth)

interactions/synergies host movement/distribution

Movement of pathogen-infected hosts -> severe epizootics Prompted by changes in prey density and environmental conditions (e.g. El Niño) -> movement of pathogens into susceptible host populations

manatee habitat and distribution

Narrow thermal tolerance Cannot survive extended periods of time cooler than 70 degrees F Cooler months -> warm water sites Natural springs = constant temp of 72 degrees F Power plant thermal outfalls

MMPA management authorities department of commerce

National marine fisheries service (NMFS) Cetaceans and pinnipeds (except walrus)

reproductive system both

Necropsies on the reproductive system give us insight into their reproductive habits, life history and histology

forms

Necropsy examination report Scar sketch Sample checklists UME datasheets Level A datasheet (includes question about HI) Human interaction datasheet YES, NO, or CBD (could not be determined) Best to be conservative: every animal or carcass is a CBD until proven otherwise Acknowledge confounding variables - decomposition, scavenger, damage, sunburn, and logistics are all things that make HI evaluation difficult

anthropogenic noise small ships, boats, and personal watercraft

Not significant contribution to global ocean sound environment Important local sources (>1 million registered boats in Florida)

reproductive system female

Note teh size, shape, color, and texture for both internal and external surfaces If a fetus is present and developed enough, remove and necropsy the fetus as well If it's too small: collect samples and preserve the fetus whole A mature ovary will possess darkened notches or scars (corpus albicans) A pregnant female will have a corpus luteum (a large yellow mass attached to the ovary) Count and note number of scars and presence/absence of corpus luteum Number of scars can give rough age estimate (determines number of ovulation cycles) Measures dimensions and weigh each ovary

manatee diet

Obligate herbivores of variety of marine/freshwater vegetation Mixed greens (lettuce, spinach, cabbage, kale), fruits and vegetables successful in rehabilitation setting Offered at various levels Floating, bottom feeders Food must be available 24/7 Consume 5-10% of body weight daily

heart

Observe and describe pericardium for lubrication fluid Note excessive fluid Note presence of gas bubbles and thickness of tissue Note size, color and texture of teh right and left atria and ventricles, aorta, pulmonary valve, as well as teh mitral and tricuspid valves Examine internal structures of heart, but leave both valves intact Examine the interior of the valves for a change in texture or the presence of lesions Sample the left and right ventricles and atria, septum, apex, and aorta for histology

liver

Observed in situ on-site and sampled Toxicology-heavy metals Organochlorines, histopathology, virology, parasitology Sliced for internal examination at regular intervals Examine parietal and visceral sides of the organ, color, texture, size of lobes Remember there is not gallbladder in cetaceans

Consequence

Occurs immediately following a behavior Either increases (reinforcement) or decreases (punishment) the frequency of the immediately preceding behavior

where do necropsies occur?

Occurs in a lab or in the field

Problems with punishment

Often teaches aggression Causes more vigorous responding Produces only temporary response suppression Punished subject learns to avoid both punishment and punisher Causes negative emotions Can lead to generalized response suppression

non-vocal communication

Open mouths Jaw popping Chuff Breach bubbles/"pleasure bubbles" Tail slapping S-posture Jaw pop, dusky dolphin tail slap

Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning is the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behavior

PBR calculation

PBR = N(min) x ½ R (max) x F(r) N(min) = min estimated stock size R (max) = max theoretical net productivity rate F ® = recovery factor

Little Albert experiment

Pavlov's principles applied to a nine month old baby

organohalogens

Persistent organochlorines or persistent organic pollutants (POPs) PCBs, DDTs, PBDEs, other pesticides, dioxins, and more The "Dirty Dozen"

FWC biologist day in the life research

Photo identification Health assessments Genetic sampling

Lobomycosis-like disease in dolphins cont 2

Photos collected under NMFS permit in Biscayne Bay, FL

anthropogenic trauma: watercraft pneumothorax

Pneumothorax: the presence of air in the cavity between the lungs and the chest wall, causing collpase of the lung Common from blunt force trauma I.e. the hull of the boat Usually a tear in the lung that needs time to heal Float on one side Because of hemidiaphragm, other side functions normally "D-shaped" on physical exam Can result in severe cardiovascular compromise

deepwater horizon DWH oil

Polycylic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)

deepwater horizon DWH oil spill

Polycylic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)

adaptation and evolution geographic variation/evolution

Population differences can occur via genetic divergence or cultural divergence Killer whales in Puget Sound - matrilineal "dialects" (e.g. Ford 1989, 1991) Humpback whale songs - geographic variation produced by cultural learning (e.g. Guinee et al. 1983, Payne et al. 1983)

IUCN red list (1964)

Powerful comprehensive information source/tool to inform and catalyze action for biodiversity conesrvation and policy change Divides species into nine categories

land-based rescue

Practice: compared to boat-based, land-based rescues are safer for both teh animal(s) and crew. However, due to logistics, we oftentimes are unable to use this method

boat based rescue

Practice: most common method used for manatee rescues. Also is the most dangerous Specifications: 400 ft x 30 ft

stretcher rescue

Practice: primarily used fo rrescuing debilitated manatees. Typically involves "hip towing" the manatee from the side of a vessel

hoop net rescue

Practice: used to rescue free-swimming manatees that are less than 6 ft in length Specifications: 8 ft long

Commercial whaling today

Predominantly Norway, iceland and Japan

endangered species act (ESA) ESA success

Prevent the extinction of more than 99% of species listed 54 species have been delisted due to recovery 56 species have been downlisted from endangered to threatened Numerous species ahve avoided ESA listing due to the collaborative efforts Only 11 removed due to extinction since ESA was enacted

florida manatee habitat and range

Primarily live in florida, but can be found in adjacent states during summer months Evidence of manatees traveling to islands (e.g. Bahamas) also exists Range limited by temperature (i.e. unable to survive prolonged exposure to temperatures below 68 degrees F) Habitat typically includes shallow waters around the coast as well as rivers, canals, etc Live in both salt and freshwater

1989 exxon valdez oil spill

Prince William Sound, Alaska 11 million gallons oil Oil Pollution Act of 1990

anthropogenic sound commercial shipping

Principal source of background noise in world's oceans Large geographic areas Sources - propeller actions, propulsion machinery, and hydraulic flow Ocean shipping -> efficient and strong economic incentives ($829 billion, 2017) World's commercial fleet (2021) = 99,800 vessels of 100+ tons ~939 ports and 11 billion tons of goods per year

endangered species act (ESA) purpose

Provide a program for the conservation of endangered and threatened species and their associated ecosystems "Recover" listed species to the point at which protection by the ESA is no longer necessary

Objectives of the U.S. marine mammal stranding network

Provide for the welfare and humane treatment of live stranded marine mammals (including euthanasia when appropriate) Minimize risk to public health and safety To gain the maximum amount of scientific data from all stranded marine mammals Advance public education

Convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora (CITES) Cites trade database

Public access Managed by UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre 7 million records of trade in wildlife, with 500,000 being added per year

FWC biologist day in the life education outreach

Public outreach events Internships Volunteer program

marine mammal protection act MMPA of 1972

Purpose: to prohibit, with certain exceptions, the "take" of marine mammals in US waters and high seas by US citizens and the importation of marine mammals and marine mammal products into the US

endangered species act of 1973

Purpose: to protect and recover imperiled species and the ecosystems upon which they depend, by prohibiting the "take" of listed species

Florida manatee sanctuary act of 1978

Purpose: to protect manatees by providing guidelines for manatee speed zones and protection zones, as well as by prhobiting harassment, injury, capture, coleciton, etc. of manatees without a permit Shall take into consideration the rights of boaters, fishers and water skiers Manatee protection zones are established in areas where manatees inhabit regularly, periodically, or on a continuous basis

anthropogenic trauma: watercraft pyothorax

Pyothorax: fluid accumulation in the chest surrounding the lungs, usualyly caused by a bacteria Animal is "heavy", difficulty surfacing to breathe Water depth is important Causes Penetrating wound through chest wall Foreign body traveling through tissues around chest wall Holes created in the esophagus or trachea Ruptured lung abscess Poor prognosis Euthanasia versus treatment

examples of stretcher rescue manatees

RSW1615 - disoriented, due to a watercraft injury to the head RSW1601 - manatee suffering from seizures/paralysis, due to exposure to red tide

florida manatee population

Recently delisted to a threatened species Minimum count as of 2019 is 5,733

Endangered species act (ESA) Listing of Rice's whales

Recently identified as a new species and is the only year-round baleen whale in the Gulf of Maine Originally a Gulf of Mexico Bryde's whale Petition submitted by the Natural Resources Defense council in 2014 Service review (90 days) in 2015 and proposed rule published in 2016 Due to small population size, restricted range, and threats (including entanglements, oil spills, noise pollutions, etc), listed in April 2019 What's next?

sound production polar bears

Reflects terrestrial sound production mechanisms; not comparatively vocal Chuffs (warning), roar (confrontation), and humming (mothers and cubs)

Reinforcement and punishment

Reinforcement and punishment are defined by the way they affect behavior

brain

Removal Fragile, easily disrupted tissue (use extreme care when removing brain from skull) Cerebrospianl fluid (CSF) collected for cytology and culture before removal of head First: detach head to remove brain Remove all excess skin, blubbler, muscle, and connective tissue from around the dorsal and caudal skull With saw, make cuts from left to right through the middle of each occipital condyle, up each side of lateral skull and across dorsum (figure 4-92) Fully penetrate bone and remove cranium, avoid contact with brain Chisel remaining bone until back of skull removes in one piece (pull off evenly, or bony shelf (tentorium cerebellae) will puncture tissue and damage brain) Tease meninges (thin membranes enveloping brain) with fingers away from skull to sever each cranial nerve Examination Observe surface of brain tissue and note symmetry of cerebral hemispheres, cerebellum, and brains tem, analyzing color, texture, and evidence of parasites or lesions Evenly separate cerebral hemispheres, evaluate appearance and presence of worms or injuries One complt cerebral hemisphere is sent for histology, the other is evaluated for viral, bacterial or toxin presence Peritympanic sinuses are evaluated for evidence of parasites or fluid Keep the pituitary gland separately and send it for histology

brevetoxicosis treatment

Remove from toxic environment Generally recover in 24-48 hours flotation/shallow water to prevent drowning Supportive care Nutritional support Systemic antibiotics Anticonvulsants

reproductive system male

Remove the testes and measure/weigh them Take samples Section epidiymus for presence or absence of sperm Examine the external penis or discharge for presnce of papillomas or lesions

Negative

Removing a stimulus from an organism's environment

background on HERA personnel

Required expertise Needed expertise in such studies Collaboration is essential

FWC biologist day in the life response

Rescues Lab necropsy Field necropsy

necropsy team

Rescues are rewarding but infrequent Many people in the stranding field will be recovering and necropsying carcasses Necropsies should be done by a team of 2-3 trained personnel Debrief before beginning to know rules of action, safety, biosecurity, and disposal Know your role before you start Photographs, scribes and labeling samples (clean) Dissecting and collecting/storing samples (dirty)

HERA initial planning

Resources Stage Staff Contracts Budget

how sound affects marine mammals

Response depends on Sound pressure level, frequency, duration, novelty, habituation, physical/behavioral state of animals, ambient acoustics, and ecological features of environment Current understanding is insufficient Annoyance of sound depends on range of factors

Lobomycosis-like disease in dolphins cont

Results of a study conducted by Vilela et al. 2016 determined the likely cause in dolphins to be a novel uncultivated strain of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, referred to as paracoccidioidomycosis ceti.

stock assessments are

Reviewed at least every three years

lungs

Sampling lungs can tell you about the respiratory health of the animal When performing a lung necropsy The overall size, color, consistence, and aspect of the lungs are studied Bronchioles, bronchi, trachea, and lumen content are examined The pleural surface (thin layer of tissue on outer side of lungs) is examined - noting texture and color Normal lung tissue is "sponge-like" in texture and bright pink Check again for signs of collapsed lungs or parasites Samples taken for histopathology, bacteriology, and virology analyses The tissue is sliced at regular intervals and the cut surface is examined for liquids (ex. blood/serous) or foam oozing from parenchyma Check for signs of respiratory illness Some lung diseases include Lymphosarcoma Pleural fibrosis Pulmonary aspergillosis parasites/parasitic cysts Pulmonary abcessation Pulmonary hemorrhages

ESA permits

Scientific research Species enhancement zoological/botanical exhibition Education use Taking that is incidental to an otherwise lawful activity

manatee critical care facilities

SeaWorld Orlando Jacksonville Zoo Homosassa Springs Zoo Tampa Miami Seaquarium

Endangered species act (ESA) Delisting to extinct

Sept 29, 2021: proposed 23 species delisted to extinct

florida manatee reproduction

Sexual maturity: 3-5 years (females) and 5-7 years (males) Birth seasonality: May-September (most) Gestation: ~13 months Calf dependence: 1-2+ years Interbirth interval: 2.5-3 years

Abdominal auscultation

Should hear gas an peristaltic sounds Silence = lack of movement in GI tract = abnormal

social context bottlenose dolphins

Signature whistles - broadcast identity of caller Structurally very similar to early descriptions of "distress whistles" Identification and maintaining contact Some degree of plasticity and copying

Marine mammal interactions with fisheries

Significant threats to populations worldwide Efforts to manage conflicts historically one-sided -> changing K-selected species

Cetacean Morbillivirus

Single-stranded ribonucleic acid (RNA) paramyxovirus Three viruses in the genus Morbillivirus have been found in marine mammals: canine distemper virus (CDV), phocine distemper virus (PDV) and cetacean morbillivirus (CeMV), several strains of CeMV recognized in cetaceans (dolphin MV, porpoise MV, pilot whale MV and more) Causes debilitation, ocular and nasal discharge, erratic swimming, severe pneumonia and encephalitis Extremely contagious, can be spread through filtered water systems Has caused mass mortalities in pinnipeds and cetaceans since the 1980s

Brucella in marine mammals

Small (<1.5 mu m by 0.7 mu m), facultative, intracellular, Gram-negative coccobacilli (Quinn and Markey, 2003) Two species found in marine mammals: Brucella pinnipedialis and Brucella ceti Transmission poorly understood, may be horizontally, vertically, and through lungworm infection (Nymo et al., 2011) Causes neurologic and reproductive issues in animals Can be transmitted to humans directly or through contaminated seafood and call flu-like symptoms

impacts of anthropogenic sound

Sound introduced into ocean by humans is detrimental to marine mammals Mechanism of injury unclear (high-intensity leads to injury) Interference with ability to detect sound and can result in mass strandings Stress reduces developmental, reproductive, and/or immune function Sources more pervasive and more powerful Don't fully understand how marine mammals respond to sound

characteristics of sound

Sound propagation is efficient underwater Use sound for communication, sensing, avoidance of predation, and navigation Air-sea interface is a barrier to sound - alters perception Technology exists to keep things quiet (e.g. military submarines)

competition over limited resources examples

South african fur seals - ~ 2 million tons food/year and population growing* (Butterworth et al. 1995) Marine mammals in Pacific consume ~150 tons of food/year which exceeds human annual fish harvest by 3 times (Trites et al 1997) On a global scale, fish consumption by cetaceans is estimated to be equal to that of commercial fisheries harvests

interactions/synergies host genetics/gene pool

Species differences in susceptibility -> presumably reflect genetic differences Parasite resistance and reproductive success increase with greater genetic diversity

Scientific information gained from strandings

Species distribution and seasonality Mortality rates Life history (age, reproductive rates, etc) Incidence of diseases Effects of humans on marine mammals Fisheries interactions/boat strikes Contaminants

Convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora (CITES) Permits exceptions

Specimens in transit Animals "bred in captivity" Plants "artificially propagated" Scientific research Specimens that are personal/household effects Traveling collection (e.g. circus) Specimens acquired pre-CITES

Management

Stock - distinct demographic unit where births and deaths are significantly more important than immigration and emigration; management unit of the MMPA OSP - optimal sustainable population - population size that results in maximum productivity of population or species PBR - potential biological removal - maximum number of animals that can be removed from a stock while allowing for OSP; drives management PBR = N(min) x ½ R (max) x F(r) N(min) = min estimated stock size R (max) = max theoretical net productivity rate F ® = recovery factor Those that exceed PBR = "strategic stocks" (cat 1 and cat 2) Requires a Take Reduction Team (TRT) and Take Reduction Plan (TRP) Goal is ZMRG (zero mortality rate goal), which = 10% of PBR Bycatch -> decline of sea otters, harbor porpoises, pelagic crustaceans primary threat to several endangered species

parasitology

Store dead parasites in ethanol or collect live parasites for ID and documentation

IUCN study in 2011

Study in 2011 found that of the american species included on the IUCN red list, 71% of IUCN-listed amphibians, birds, mammals, gastropods, insects, and crustaceans are not listed by the ESA

symptoms

Subjective characteristics of disease felt only by the patient

anthropogenic trauma: watercraft pneumothorax treatment

Supportive care +/- floatation devices Monitor ability to swim and breath Closely monitor water level Thoracentesis under sedation Needle inserted into chest cavity and air aspirated out Thorascoscopy with positive pressure ventilation Requires general anesthesia Chest tube placement Risk of pyothorax!

Why is training important?

Supports animal health, husbandry and research -> more information to promote conservation of vulnerable and endangered species Promote experiential learning/inspires a passion for species conservation

effects on marine mammals hearing loss

TTS or PTS Extent of loss depends on sound power spectrum, hearing sensitivity of animals and duration of exposure Direct physical damage and indirect effects such as interference with communication, foraging, avoidance of predators and potential for erratic behavior Few data, but TTS has been observed in captive animals

Role of zoos and aquaria Training

Teaching wildlife to conserve themselves Avoid human beings Be more like their wild counterparts Sound the alarm

Catch limits for aboriginal subsistence whaling

The commission sets catch limits for aboriginal subsistence whaling. The catch limits are based on advice from the IWC's scientific committee using a strike limit algorithm to calculate safe catches limits. More information can be found here

Unusual mortality events

The marine mammal health and stranding response act of 1992 established a process to determine, respond, and investigate unusual mortality events in marine mammals An external advisory body of independent experts was developed (working group on marine mammal unusual mortality events) From 1991 to the present, there have been 67 formally recognized

incidence

The number or rate of new cases of a particular condition during a specific time.

Behavior analysis

The study of animal behavior

Behavior modification

The systematic use of behavior principles to shape behavior

Least reinforcing scenario (LRS)

The trainer delivers a 3-second pause, following an incorrect response, at the same point where reinforcement would have occurred The trainer's response should be neutral, with no overt or obvious changes in positioning (which could potentially reinforce the animal) Also functions as an S^D for the animal to behave calmly and attentively A calm response from the animal can be bridged and reinforced An alternative to punishment

2019 Northern Gulf of Mexico Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) UME

This UME began in February 2019 Spreads across the panhandle of Florida from Alabama to Franklin County and includes Alabama, Mississippi and Louisiana Up to 330 Tt to date (11/19/2019), approximately 3 times higher than the average number for this area Some of stranded dolphins have had visible skin lesions consistent with freshwater exposure The investigation is on-going and the UME has not been attributed to any one cause as of yet

ESA listed species

Threatened Endangered

natural threats

Tidally stranded Mating herds Orphaned calves

Disease in marine mammals

To be "healthy" -> thermoregulate, pursue prey, dive, migrate, maintain buoyancy, osmotic homeostasis, store energy Adaptations function together - one fails -> disturbs equilibrium Harbor seal example: low prey -> haul out -> seal lice -> heartworm -> impaired circulation -> stress/cortisol -> hormone imbalance -> osmotic imbalance 1980s and 1990s - unprecedented rise in mass die-offs -> public and scientific concern (animals and public health) Sentinels of ocean health

toxoplasmosis

Toxoplasma gondii - affects humans and many marine mammals (otters, -> belugas, dolphins, sea lions, seals; only known reservoir of toxic state (oocysts) is cat feces; anchovy - potential vector; Hawaiian monk seals

the florida manatee

Trichechus manatus latirostris Marine mammal Relatives include elephants and hdraxes Body is typically gray in color and sensory hairs are distributed throughout Appendanges include two front flippers and a large paddle Average length and weight for an adult manatee is 10 feet long and 1,000 pouds. They can weigh up to 3,000 pounds.

studying animal communication function

Try to link sound displays with a social/behavioral context Broad behavioral states; little fine-scale work

Bycatch statistics 2

US statistics 1990-1999 - loss of 6,215 marine mammals/year Improved by 2006 Gill nets predominant source (Read et al. 2006, 2013) Hotspots: Atlantic, Pacific, and Alaska Likely large underestimation US fleet = 1.1% gillnet, 5.9% trawl, and 4.2% other of global registry Global estimate: 654,000 killed annually

hydrophones

Underwater microphone that picks up acoustic signals Converts acoustic energy into electrical energy to measure amplitude and frequency Can also be put in tags (Dtags) Hydrophone array = number of hydrophones placed in known locations Patterns on seafloor or towed in horizontal line behind ship Arrays determine direction of sound

MMPA management authorities department of interior

United States Fish and Wildlife Service Walrus, manatees, sea otters, and polar bears

anthropogenic sound sonar

Used to probe ocean -> info about objects in water column, sea bottom, or within sediments Based on echoes/reflections Military and civilian use Commercial sonar - fish finding, depth sounding, and sub-bottom profiling Military sonar - target detection/localization/classification Low frequency, mid frequency (like radar), high frequency (weapons)

HERA project procedures

Utilize NOAA Fisheries and IACUC (USDA-AWA) Approved Protocols Collection Handling Examination Sampling Marking Release

culture swabs

Various protocols to collect swabs for analysis of bacteria and microbial agents

petroleum oil and sea otters (mustelidae)

Very vulnerable to oil

signal type types of signals

Vocal Non-vocal with sound Non-vocal without sound Blend

international whaling commission (IWC)

Voluntary, not bounded by amendments and no enforcement

reasons for manatee rescues

Watercraft Entanglement Entrapment Other: human Calf of rescued mother Calf by itself Mother of rescued calf Natural Undetermined

Causes for manatee mortalities in Florida in 2020

Watercraft, cold stress, flood gate/lock, natural, other human, undetermined, perinatal, not necropsied Undetermined -> likely caused by stage of decomposition

causes of mass strandings

Weather Disease Social cohesion Following prey inshore Human related Out of habitat

Large-scale commercial whaling (mid 1800s - 1900s)

Whaling in US hit its peak in mid-1800s with gun-loaded harpoons and steamships Estimated more whales hunted in early 1900s than the previous 4 centuries combined Kerosene, petroleum, and other fossil fuels became more popular and reliable than whale oil so the industry plummeted Early 1970s, US listed 8 whales as endangered species and outlawed whaling in 1971 Limited whaling still permitted to indigenous cultures

blood sampling inflammation/infection

White blood cell count, band neutrophils, fibrinogen, erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), serum amyloid A, iron

POPs (persistent organic pollutants)

Widely used in industrial production after WWII - have proven to have unforeseen negative impacts Pest and disease control, crop production, industry Persist for long periods in the environment, can be transported long distances via air or water Reservoirs in marine and freshwater sediments Low water solubility = strong bonds to particular matter in aquatic sediments

natural sources of noise

Wind, waves and swell patterns Bubbles Currents and turbulence Earthquakes Precipitation Ice cover and activity Marine life

primary pathogen

a microbe able to cause disease in an otherwise healthy individual

UME

a stranding that is unexpected; involves a significant die-off of any marine mammal population; and demands immediate response

SER responds to an average of

800 strandings per yr*

International whaling commission (IWC) Management authorities

88 member governments United States acts as the depository nation

epidemic

A widespread outbreak of an infectious disease.

IUCN active in

Active in 160+ countries

thoracia auscultation

Adult heart rate = 40-60 bpm Calf heart rate = 60-75 bpm

Level B harassment

acts that have the potential to disturb (but not injure) a marine mammal or stock in the wild by disrupting behavioral patterns, including, but not limited to, migration, breathing, nursing, breeding, feeding, or sheltering

what is harassment?

Any human activity, intended or nont intended, that causes an animal to chage its behavior

Convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora (CITES) Permits considerations

Appendix status Legally obtained Not detrimental to species survival Suitable housing/care conditions for live specimens Not primarily for commercial purposes (i.e. appendix I)

Punishment

decreases the frequency of a behavior

Marine mammal protection act (MMPA) Management authorities

department of commerce department of interior *same as for the endangered species act

manatee anatomy

diaphragm gastrointestinal system

ecological/biological interactions General types of interactions

direct indirect fishing activity

DWH oil affects

dolphin's ability to respond appropriately to stress mechanism unknown

background on HERA stranding program findings

emerging diseases mass mortalities

anthropogenic sound

explosions commercial shipping seismic exploration sonar industrial activities, offshore drilling and construction acoustic deterrant devices and pingers small ships, boats, and personal watercraft

trade

export, re-export, import, and introduction from the sea

history of recreational fishing

fish getting smaller over time

ecosystem overfishing

fishing physical impact of fishing gear by catch - economic discards, regulatory discards, collatoral mortality harvest mortality incidental mortality habitat modification or destruction discarded bycatch and offal biological interactions - predator/prey interactions, competitive interactions, changes in marine food webs altered ecosystem structure and function decline in mean trophic level

general types of interactions 3. Fishing activity -

fishing practice has negative impact on habitat or behavior of marine mammal resulting in decreased access to prey

lobo-mycosis

flesh-eating necrotizing fungus

stock

group of marine mammals of same spp. or smaller taxa in a common spatial arrangement, that interbreed when mature

Take

harass, hunt, touch, restrain, feed, capture, kill, or collect, including attempt to. Includes collection of dead animals or parts

effects on marine mammals anthropogenic noise

hearing loss masking hearing development non-auditory sound impacts effects on behavior habituation and tolerance of noise mass strandings

valuable sample analysis according to decomposition code code 4 advanced decomposition

histology (limited), virology (PCR), life history, genetics

valuable sample analysis according to decomposition code code 3 moderate decomposition

histology (limited), virology (PCR), microbiology (PCR), parasitology, contaminants, biotoxins, life history, genetics

valuable sample analysis according to decomposition code code 2 fresh carcass

histology, cytology, virology (tissue), microbiology (swabs or tissue for culture, tissue for PCR), parasitology, contaminants, biotoxins, life history, genetics

types of analyses of collected samples

histopathology cytology virology culture swabs parasitology contaminants biotoxins life history genetics

venn diagram - interaction between

host, environment, pathogen

imbalance between

host, pathogen, and environment

cultures

identifies the bacteria/fungus causing a disease and provides antibiotics or antifungals that work best for that particular organism Use in tandem with cytology

brevetoxins acute vs chronic exposure

immune dysfunction

fishing practice/activity 3. Noise pollution -

impacts poorly understood but major cause for concern May interfere with echolocation of feeding cetaceans May deter cetaceans from feeding areas

Entanglements -

in discarded gear/marine debris (cryptic mortality)

Species

includes subspecies of fish, wildlife, or plant, and any distinct population segment which interbreeds when mature

natural threats parasitic enteritis

inflammation of the small intestine caused by pinpoint trematodes Commonly found in calves and concurring with other stressors (e.g. red tide/cold stress)

blood sampling

inflammation/infection hydration state organ function many more test options: hormone levels, antibody titers, etc

DDT

insecticide used to control malaria carrying mosquitos

human related threats watercraft collisions

is the leading human-related threat for Florida manatees Typical signs of watercraft injuries include buoyancy issues, resulting in the animal listing, having diffisulty to submerge, and/or dry spots on their skin Sharp trauma vs blunt force trauma

valuable sample analysis according to decomposition code code 5 mummified/skeletal remains

life history, genetics

leptospira spp

liver, kidney, and reproduction -> California sea lions and fur seals (reproductive failure and hemorrhagic conditions in fetuses and neonates)

water quality

lobomycosis bacteria and fungus are at odds - in balance, keep each other at bay Indian River Lagoon, world's longest estuary (Vero Beach to South Beach, 156 miles long, outer bank island chain between FL and Atlantic Ocean Only 3 places where water can change from IRL to Atlantic Tampa Bay/Sarasota area, estuary areas where water doesn't exchange greatly

adaptation and evolution

long range vs short range signals geographic variation/evolution

drift and set gill nets

longlines purse seine bottom trawl pelagic trawl

Papillomavirus lesions + herpes virus lésion

malignant transformation

natural threats cold stress

manatees are unable to survive prolonged exposure to temperatures below 68 degrees F Symptoms can include emaciation, necrotic tissue, and lethargic behavior

PBR - potential biological removal -

maximum number of animals that can be removed from a stock while allowing for OSP; drives management

Potential biological removal

maximum number of animals, not including natural mortalities, that may be removed from a stock, while allowing that stock to reach/maintain its OSP

pox virus/tattoo skin disease (TSD)

may indicate stress; climatic events; time of weaning

Why do we train animals?

mental/physical stimulation health/husbandry Companionship Police, military, and rescue work Therapeutic needs Entertainment Education Research

viruses

morbillivirus pox virus/tattoo skin disease papilloma virus herpes virus influenza virus

Marine mammal populations are losing access to pray due to fisheries interactions 3. California sea lions -

mothers unable to find enough food to support lactation UME

macroparasites

move between hosts and environment

*in general, marine mammal populations are

much smaller than they were historically, while human population growth has increased exponentially

herpes virus

mucous membranes (oral and genital), skin, neuro (encephalitis), GI, and respiratory; commonly associated with papilloma virus and involved in malignant transformation

papilloma virus

mucous membranes (oral and genital); potential to develop into malignancy (cancer); model for human health (HPV)

microparasites

multiply within their hosts

fungi

mycotic infections relatively rare (but increasing); opportunistic; exposed via inhalation, trauma, or ingestion Paracoccidioidomycosis ceti/lobomycosis Aspergillus spp

florida manatee diet

non-discriminative herbivore

bycatch

non-target portion that is discarded

international whaling commission (IWC) commercial whaling exemptions objection to current moratorium

norway, iceland, russia*

IUCN 9 categories of red list

not evaluated data deficient least concern near threatened vulnerable endangered critically endangered extinct in wild extinct

factors that can cause organisms to become diseased

nutrition population density host movement/distribution host genetics/gene pool urbanization of the coastline stress

interactions/synergies

nutrition population density host movement/distribution host genetics/gene pool urbanization of the coastline stress

other category descriptions

other human floodgate/canal lock

macroparasite

parasites that are large enough to be seen with the naked eye

gear

passive gear active gear

PTS

permanent temporary shift, permanent damage, never recover to pre-exposure levels

Marine mammal protection act (MMPA) Exemptions

permits

POPs

persistent organic pollutants

OSP - optimal sustainable population -

population size that results in maximum productivity of population or species

add stimulus

positive

Both reinforcement and punishment can be

positive and negative

enzootic

present endemically in certain populations

Classical conditioning

process of behavior modification where a subject comes to respond (reflexively) in a desired manner to a previously neutral stimulus (conditioned stimulus) that has been repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus that elicits the desired response

secondary pathogen

produces disease following infection with another agent

A time of change and conflict

public awareness whale watching

decrease behavior

punishment

paper discussion Evidence that ship noise increases stress in right whales

purpose: noise around 9/11, FGCs in hormones, increase or not after sept 11th, 2001, glucocorticoids decreased -> stress hormones low frequency acoustic signals 20-200 Hz ship sounds high shipping traffic habitat displacement, behavioral changes and alterations in the intensity, frequency, and intervals of calls low frequency ambient noise has increased by 10-12 dB coinciding with a doubling of the global shipping fleet shipping noise directly overlaps the frequency band of acoustic communication signals used by the largest of cetaceans, baleen whales evolved to rely primarily upon acoustic signalling to communicate, locate prey, and navigate elevated low frequency underwater noise levels near busy shipping routes and ports have the potential to interfere significantly with whale calls used to maintain contact, aggregate to feed and locate potential mates ('acoustic masking'), potentially affecting critical life history events habitat displacement, behavioral changes, and alterations in vocalizations owing to the challenges of studying free swimming large whales, it is unknown whether these responses to background noise translate into biologically significant effects that may have long-term consequences for individuals or populations marked decrease in ship traffic in the Bay of Fundy, Canada, and acoustic recordings revealed a noticeable decrease in low frequency background noise levels a study of stress related fecal hormone metabolites was also underway throughout the 2001 field season and over the four subsequent years whale poop! here we show that a post 9/11 decrease in background underwater noise from reduced large ship traffic corresponded to a decrease in stress related fGC hormone levels in right whales beaufort 1-2 up stress = up cortisol metabolites = 1 day delay cortisol = steroid hormone, stress steroid reproductive hormones and adrenal glucocorticoids hypothalamus, adrenal, pituitary 6 dB decrease in the overall background noise (50 Hz - 20 kHz) low frequency 150 Hz decrease in large vessel traffic following 9/11 ship traffic decrease in sound 144 samples bay of fundy significant decease in fGCs increased courtship activity could be a significant social stressor elevating fGC levels acoustic studies have shown that right whales alter their vocalization behavior in noisy habitats by increasing both the amplitude and frequency of their stereotyped upcalls, which are the main contact sounds used by these whales highest levels of background low-frequency noise associated with heavy shipping traffic and that the frequencies of right whale upcalls were significantly higher in this habitat here we show a decrease in baseline concentrations of fGCs in right whales in association with decreased overall noise levels (6 dB) and significant reductions in noise at all frequencies between 50 and 150 Hz as a consequence of reduced large vessel traffic in the bay of fundy following years more correlations, up stress = up cortisol associated with decreased underwater low frequency noise resulting from a reduction in large vessel traffic social aggression, predators, starvation and drought, as well as anthropogenic disturbances within minutes to an hour of experiencing (or even perceiving) a stressor maladaptive, suppressing growth, immune system function and reproduction, with implications for individual and population fitness extremely difficult because of the logistics of studying free swimming whales and the inability to conduct a controlled study tried to rule out other factors other than 2001 for comparison much less conducive to faecal sample collection because of their use of near-shore habitats along eastern north america, recovery of the critically endangered north atlantic right whale population has been seriously impaired by mortalities from ship collisions and fishing gear entanglements reroute ships for a day? less visible but pervasive disturbance to these coastal dwelling whales that may have negative consequences for population viability not unique to the bay of fundy stellwagen bank national marine sanctuary poop -> days to months while increases in low frequency ocean noise must be considered a potential anthropogenic stressor for all baleen whales in coastal areas with high levels of ship traffic, depleted populations experiencing the cumulative impact of multiple stressors and those with particular acoustic characteristics may be at heightened risk yes, definitely NARW

paper discussion bioaccumulation and biomagnification of persistent organic pollutants in Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins (Sousa chinensis) from the Pearl River Estuary, China

purpose: to investigate the bioaccumulation and potential biomagnification of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) DDTs were the most abundant residue in the dolphins followed by PCBs and other OCPs purpose: to observe bioaccumulation in prey species size, sex, length pollution in general area Pearl River, China blubber samples -> stranding and bycatch no females analyzed for biomagnfification teeth normality -> lipid concentrations in blubber -> standardized to this DDT concentrations significantly increased with males, not with females fig 2, 3 lactational transfer in females female peaked, males constantly increased DDT then PCB close second PCBs = industry, hydraulics, machinery no difference between juveniles and males for lipids -> no determinant factor for POPs females plateaued, males a lot higher for DDT this high in dolphins, how high in humans eating same fish indicator for policy in the area, maintenance of the species no other studies have similar findings -> sufficient sample size biomagnification factors -> indo-pacific humpback dolphins and prey fishes, huge biomagnification that happens in food web

protozoan parasites

rare

background on HERA environmental perturbations

red tide, slime

gear modifications

reducing bycatch in swordfish fishery - drift gill net vs deep-set buoy gear how can bottom trawls be changed to reduce damage to seafloor animals? create spaces under sweeps safety net technologies

Classical conditioning involves

reflexive responses

Good training techniques involve the use of

reinforcement (green) and avoiding punishment (pink(

brucella spp

reproduction, muscle, neuro -> most species affected; effects unclear (likely endemic/enzootic but linked to abortion and neonatal mortality)

nocardia spp

respiratory and skin - ubiquitous in soil, organic matter and water

Aspergillus spp

respiratory mycosis

types of biotoxins

saxitoxins domoic acid brevetoxins ciguatoxins

types of biotoxins

saxitoxins okadaic acid and dinophysis toxins (DST) domoic acid brevetoxins ciguatoxins

marine mammals are

sentinel species for ecosystem and human health

increase in antibiotic resistant bacteria

serious public health concern

Threatened species:

species likely to become endangered within the foreseeable future throughout all/significant portion of its range

Endangered species:

species which is in danger of extinction throughout all/significant portion of its range

four main methods for conducting manatee rescues

stretcher land-based hoop net boat-based

if a fishery is fully exploited or fully fished

sustainable fishery potential being reached best for food security 60% of world's fisheries

if a fishery is under exploited

sustainable fishery potential not being reached not good for food security 7% of world's fisheries

animals have no

symptoms, can't tell us, use signs instead

general types of interactions 2. Indirect food web effect -

target species of fishery is predator or prey of some important component of marine mammal diet (throwing off the food web)

TTS

temporary threshold shift, resolve over time

paper discussion North Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) ignore ships but respond to alerting stimuli

test why they could hear sound and get hit hear noise -> go to surface and hang out 4 stimuli: vessel noise as the test stimulus, right whale social sounds, and an alert signal as alternative stimuli, and silence as an experimental control archival digital acoustic recording tag DTAG to record acoustic and motor behavior of the whales in the presence of these exposures DTAG simultaneously records the pitch, roll, heading, and depth of the whale and temperature of the water at a sampling rate of 46 Hz tagged with DTAGs hydrophone - sound they make and hear no whale got same stimuli found no significant deviations from diving patterns occurred in the five whales exposed to the silent stimulus, the seven exposed to whale vocalizations or the five exposed to the vessel approach stimulus five out of six whales exposed to alert signal, however, significantly altered their regular behavior and did so in identical fashion each whale abandoned their current foraging dive prematurely as evidence by curtailing their bottom time, executed a shallow angled high power ascent, remained at or near the surface for the duration of the exposure, an abnormally long surface interval, and spent significantly more time at subsurface depths (1-10 m) compared with normal surfacing periods when whales stay within 1 m of the surface means habituation? don't realize they are there not good! this one won't work alert signal) -> just go to surface sound attenuation focus on horizontal avoidance

auscultation

the action of listening to sounds from heart, lungs, or other organs with a stethoscope as part of a medical exam

The 2010 Deepwater Horizon (DWH) oil spill was

the largest in US history

cytology

the study of cells using a microscope as a diagnostic tool Useful to detect disease during a clincal case OR as a preventative medicine tool for routine monitoring Diseases will produce cytological abnormaltieis to indicate illness We are looking at/for: epithelial cells, white blood cells, red blood cells, parasites, neoplastic cells, fungal hyphae, bacteria

endangered species act ex. polar

threatened species

E.L. Thorndike's Puzzle Box with cats (1898)

timed the escape to reach a fish outside the box; tested Escape Latency

contaminants

toxins challenges

protozoan parasites

toxoplasmosis

biotoxins

typically neurotoxins that interfere with ion channels in brain or via cell-signaling pathways; must exist in high cocnentrations to cause problems

biotoxins

typically neurotoxins that interfere with ion channels in brain or via cell-signaling pathways; must exist in high concentrations to cause problems

dioxins

unintentionally produced from combustion

if a fishery is over exploited or overfished

unsustainable fishery potential exceeded bad for everything 33% of world's fisheries

microparasites

viruses bacteria fungi protozoan parasites

Historically, every part of the whale

was used Meat, skin, blubber, and organs - eaten as important source of protein, fats, vitamins, and minerals Baleen - woven into baskets, used as fishing line, roofing material (warmer climates), corsets, hoop skirts Bones - made tools and weapons, carved ceremonial items such as masks Whale oil from blubber of right and bowhead whales and spermaceti in sperm whales - oil lamps Ambergris - excretion of sperm whales digestive system - perfume fixative

All behaviors are influenced by

what happens AFTER the behavior

radiographs

x-rays

Convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora (CITES) Strategies

~38,700 species listed Appendix I - includes all species threatened with extinction Appendix II - not necessarily threatened with extinction, but may become so unless trade is strictly regulated Appendix III - includes species protected at least in one country and need cooperation of other parties to control trade

more data from necropsies =

better understanding of trends in population health and threats

wild fish catch by gear type

bottom trawl purse seine small scale other gear pelagic trawl unknown gear gillnet longline (high to low)

brevetoxins inhalation vs ingestion

brevetoxicosis Manatee - inhalation and ingestion (seizures, facial seizures, pirouette) Inflammation of mucus membranes, pulmonary hemorrhage and edema, cerebral hemorrhage Dolphin - primarily ingestion (increased chuffing noted) Internal bleeding, hemolysis, anemia

bacteria

brucella vibrio erysipelas leptospira nocardia streptococcus pneumoniae

endangered species act ex. walrus

candidate for listing

natural threats brevetoxicosis

caused by the inhalation/ingestion of Karenia brevis (i.e. red tide) Typical symptoms include seizures and paralysis What could this lead to?

impacts of anthropogenic sound pollution

change amplitude and frequency of calls to communicate with noise, leave area, repeat calls

signal type

communication types of signals

Convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora (CITES) Permits

considerations exceptions