MCAT

Van der Waals equation of state

(P + n^2*a/V^2) * (V - nb) = nRT Used to correct the ideal gas law for intermolecular attractions (a) and molecular volume (b)

Translation Initiation (Prokaryotes)

30S ribosome attaches to the Shine-Dalgarno sequence Scans for a start codon Lays down fMet in the P site of the ribosome

Tertiary Structure

3D shape of a single polypeptide chain Stabilized by hydrophobic interactions, acid-base interactions, hydrogen bonding and disulfide bonds

Synapsis

4 Chromatid tetrad comes together Fusion of homologous pairs of chromosomes

Functional Attitudes Theory

4 functional areas of attitudes: Knowledge, ego expression, adaptability, ego defense

Amino Acids

4 groups attached to a central (a) carbon: an amino group, a carboxylic acid group, a hydrogen atom and an R group

Maximum number of electrons within a subshell

4*l + 2

Translation Initiation (Eukaryotes)

40S ribosome attaches to the 5' cap Scans for a start codon Lays down Met in the P site of the ribosome

Epidermis

5 stratum: basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum, corneum

Posttranscriptional Modifications of mRNA

5' cap: 7-methylguanylate triphosphate ca 3' poly-A tail Splicing of introns

Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex

5-enzyme complex: Pyruvate dehydrogenase, dihydrolipoyl transacetylase, dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase, pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase, pyruvate dehydrogenase phosphatase In the mitochondrial matrix Forms acetyl-CoA and NADH from pyruvate Inhibited by acetyl-CoA and NADH

Sleep Cycle

90 minutes Stage 1-2-3-4-3-2-REM REM becomes more frequent toward the morning

Trig Values

0 deg: sin = 0; cos = 1; tan = 0 30 deg: sin = 0.5; cos = sqrt(3)/2; tan = sqrt(3)/3 45 deg: sin = sqrt(2)/2; cos = sqrt(2)/2; tan = 1 60 deg: sin = sqrt(3)/2; cos = 0.5; tan = sqrt(3) 90 deg: sin = 1; cos = 0; tan = undefined 180 deg: sin = 0; cos = -1; tan = 0

Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex Energy Yield

1 NADH per molecule of pyruvate Net 2 NADH per molecule of glucose

Cell Theory

1. All living things are composed of cells 2. The cell is the basic functional unit of life 3. Cells arise only from preexisting cells 4. Cells carry genetic information as DNA. This is passed on from parent to daughter cell Viruses are not living because they are acellular, can reproduce without the assistance of a host cell, and can use RNA for genetic material

Birth

1. Cervix thins out and amniotic sac ruptures 2. Uterine contractions, coordinated by prostaglandins and oxytocin, birth of the fetus 3. Placenta and umbilical cord are expelled

Axon Hillock

Cell body transitions into axon Where action potentials are initiated

Thrombocytes (Platelets)

Cell fragments from megakaryocytes required for coagulation

Absolute Refractory Period

Cell is unable to fire another action potential

Relative Refractory Period

Cell requires a larger than normal stimulus to fire an action potential

Envelope

Cell wall and cell membrane of bacteria Control the movement of solutes into and out of the cell

Blood Composition

Cells and plasma (aqueous mixture of nutrients, salts, respiratory gases, hormones and blood proteins)

Indeterminate Cleavage

Cells that are capable of becoming any cell in the organism

Determinate Cleavage

Cells that are committed to differentiating into a specific cell type

Cell-mediated (cytotoxic) immunity

Centered on the functions of T-cells

Structure of the Nervous System

Central Nervous System: Brain and spinal cord Peripheral Nervous System: cranial and spinal nerves --- Somatic: voluntary --- Autonomic: automatic ------ Parasympathetic (rest and digest) ------ Sympathetic (fight or flight)

Hindbrain

Cerebellum, medulla oblongata, reticular formation Vital functions Embryonic brain: comes from the rhombencephalon which is differentiated into the myelencephalon and metencephalon

Forebrain

Cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system, thalamus, and hypothalamus Complex perceptual, cognitive, behavioral processes Emotion and memory Embryonic brain: comes from the prosencephalon and differentiates into the telencephalon and diencephalon

Natural Selection

Chance variations exist between individuals and advantageous variations (those that increase an individual's fitness for survival/adaption) give the most opportunities for reproductive success

Obedience

Change in behavior based on a command from someone seen as an authority figure

Differentiation

Changes a cell undergoes due to selective transcription to take on characteristics appropriate to its cell line

Mutations

Changes in DNA sequence Nucleotide mutations Chromosome mutations

Stresses Applied to a System

Changes in concentration (increasing concentration of reactants/decreasing concentration of products will shift the reaction to the right; increasing concentration of products/decreasing concentration of reactants will shift the reaction to the left) Changes in pressure and volume (increasing pressure on a gaseous system/decreasing its volume will shift the reaction toward the side with fewer moles of gas; decreasing pressure on a gaseous system/increasing its volume will shift the reaction toward the side with more moles of gas) Changes in temperature (increasing the temperature of an endothermic reaction/decreasing the temperature of an exothermic reaction will shift the reaction to the right; decreasing the temperature of an endothermic reaction/increasing the temperature of an exothermic reaction will shift the reaction to the left)

Pragmatics

Changes in language delivery depending on context

Vector Multiplication

Changes the magnitude May reverse the direction Dot product (results in a scalar quantity) Cross product (results in a vector quantity; the RHR is used to determine the resultant vector's direction)

Conformity

Changing beliefs or behaviors in order to fit within a group or society

Vector Subtraction

Changing the direction of the subtracted vector And then following the procedures for vector addition

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

Characterized by obsessions and compulsions

Lewis Dot Symbols

Chemical representation of an atom's valence electrons Drawing a Lewis dot structure requires a balance of valence, bonding, and nonbonding electrons in a molecule or ion

Pheremones

Chemicals given off by animals that have an effect on social, foraging and sexual behavior in other members of that species

Prophase

Chromosomes condense, nuclear membrane dissolves, nucleoli disappear, centrioles migrate to opposite sides of the cell, spindle apparatus forms Kinetochore of each chromosome is contacted by a spindle fiber

Telophase I

Chromosomes may or may not fully decondense Cell may enter interkinesis after cytokinesis

Homologues

Chromosomes that are given the same number, but are from opposite parental origin

Metaphase

Chromsomes line up along the metaphase plate (equatorial plate)

Lymphatic System

Circulatory system that consists of one-way vessels with intermittent lymph nodes

Bacteria

Classified by shape: Cocci: spherical Bacilli: rod-shaped Spirilli: spiral-shaped Classified by metabolic processes: Obligate aerobes: require oxygen for metabolism Obligate anaerobes: cannot survive in oxygen-containing environments Facultative anaerobes: can survive in environment with or without oxygen, and toggle between aerobic and anaerobic metabolism Aerotolerant anaerobes: cannot use oxygen for metabolism, but can survive in its presence

Primary Appraisal of Stress

Classifying a potential stressor as irrelevant, benign-positive, or stressful

Closed Pipes

Closed at one end Node on one end, antinode on the other end Support standing waves Length of the pipe is equal to some odd multiple of quarter-wavelength # of quarter-wavelengths = harmonic lambda = 4L/n f = nv/4L

Circulatory System Flow

Closed system with nonconstant flow Resistance decreases as total cross sectional area increases Arterial circulation is primarily motivated by the heart Venous circulation has 3 times the volume of arterial circulation and is motivated by skeletal musculature and expansion of the heart

Desmosomes and Hemidesmosomes

Anchor layers of epithelial tissue together using intermediate filaments

Cortical Sex Hormones

Androgens and estrogens Steroid hormones Released by adrenal cortex

Adipocytes

Animal cells used for storage of large triacylglycerol deposits

Role Partner

Another individual who helps define a specific role within the relationship

Angular Frequency (w)

Another way of expressing frequency Expressed in radians per second w = 2*pi*f = 2*pi/T

Pituitary Gland

Anterior: Releases hormones that regulate activities of the endocrine glands, activates them to release their own hormones, controlled by the hypothalamus Posterior: ADH and oxytocin

Humoral Immunity

Antibody production by plasma cells, which are activated by B-cells

Antibody Activation

Antigen-binding region undergoes hypermutation Improves the specificity of the antibody produced Cells can be given signals to switch isotypes of antibody (IgM, IgD, IgG, IgE, IgA)

Dendritic cells

Antigen-presenting cells in the skin

Social Anxiety Disorder

Anxiety due to social or performance situations

Cluster C disorders

Anxious, fearful Avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive disorders

Newton's Second Law

Any acceleration is the result of the sum of the forces acting on the object and its mass F net = ma

Somatic cells

Any cells in the body other than reproductive cells

Oxidation States

Any free element: 0 Monatomic ion: equal to the charge of the ion Group IA: +1 Group IIA: +2 Group VIIA: -1 H: +1, unless paired with a less electronegative element (-1) O: -2, except in peroxides or compounds with more electronegative elements (-1) Sum of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms present, is equal to the overall charge of that compound

Law of Constant Composition

Any pure sample of a compound will contain the same elements in the same mass ratio

Newton's Third Law

Any two objects interacting with each other experience equal and opposite forces as a result of their interaction F AB = -F BA

Deviance

Any violation of norms, rules or expectations within a society

Stressor

Anything that leads to a stress response Includes environment, daily events, workplace or academic settings, social expectations, chemicals and biological stressors Psychological stressors: pressure, control, predictability, frustration and conflict

Stimulus

Anything to which an organism can respond

Dendrites

Appendages that receive signals from other cells

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Approaches an individual uses to resolve moral dilemmas Preconventional (obedience)(self-interest), conventional (conformity)(law and order), postconventional (social contract)(universal human ethics)

Gastrulation

Archenteron is formed with a blastopore at the end Archenteron grows through the blastocoel and contacts the opposite side Creates 3 primary germ layers

Detection Bias

Arises from educated professionals using their knowledge in an inconsistent way by searching for an outcome disproportionately in certain populations

Biological Aromatic Heterocycles

Aromatic: cyclic, planar, conjugated, contain 4n + 2 pi electrons (Huckel's rule) Heterocycles: ring structures that contain at least 2 different elements in the ring

Amino Acid Titration

At low pH, the AA is fully protonated Near the PI, the AA is a neutral zwitterion At high pH, the AA is fully deprotonated Curve is flat near the pKa values Curve is nearly vertical at the pI

Rutherford

Atom has a dense, positively charged nucleus Makes up only a small fraction of the volume of the atom

Formal Charges

Atom is surrounded by more or fewer valence electrons than it has in its neutral state (assuming equal sharing of electrons in a bond)

Isotopes

Atoms of an element with the same atomic number but have different mass numbers Differ in the number of neutrons Isotopes of hydrogen: protium, deuterium, tritium

Natural Killer Cells

Attack cells not presenting MHC molecules (virally infected cells and cancer cells)

Game Theory

Attempts to explain decision-making between individuals as if they are participating in a game

Kinetic Molecular Theory

Attempts to explain the behavior of gas particles Gas particles have negligible volume Gas particles do not have intermolecular attractions or repulsions Gas particles undergo random collisions with each other and the walls of the container Collisions between gas particles are elastic Average kinetic energy of the gas particles is directly proportional to temperature (KE = 1/2*mv^2 = 3/2*kB*T) Root-mean-square speed: Urms = sqrt(3RT/M)

Stereotypes

Attitudes and impressions are made based on limited and superficial information about a person or group of individuals

Learning Theory of Attitude

Attitudes are developed through forms of learning: direct contact, direct interaction, direct instruction, and conditioning

Elaboration Likelihood Model of Attitude

Attitudes are formed and changed through different routes of information processing based on the degree of elaboration

Social Cognitive Theory of Attitude

Attitudes are formed through observation of behavior, personal factors, and environment

Gravity

Attractive force between 2 objects as a result of their masses

Adhesive Forces

Attractive forces between molecules of a fluid and a different material

Cohesive Forces

Attractive forces between molecules of the same fluid

Prostaglandins

Autocrine and paracrine signaling molecules Regulate cAMP molecules Smooth muscle contraction, body temperature, sleep-wake cycle, fever and pain

Water Dissociation Constant (Kw)

Autoionization constant for water: Kw = [H3O+][OH-] = 10^-14 at 298K Only affected by changes in temperature

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

Automated process Millions of copies of a DNA sequence can be created from a very small sample by hybridization

Rooting Reflex

Automatic turning of the head in the direction of a stimulus that touches the cheek

Fertility Rate

Average number of children born to a woman during her lifetime in a population

Mortality Rate

Average number of deaths per population size over time Usually measured as the number of deaths per 1000 people per year

Hypothalamus and Posterior Pituitary

Axons of nerves projected by hypothalamus into the posterior pituitary Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin are synthesized in the hypothalamus and travel down the axons to the posterior pituitary, where they are released into the bloodstream

Articular Cartilage

Coats each bone in the joint Aids in movement and provides cushioning

Auditory Pathway

Cochlea - Vestibulocochlear nerve - Medial Geniculate nucleus of the thalamus - auditory cortex (temporal lobe) Superior olive: localizes sound Inferior colliculus: startle reflex

Tumor Suppressor Genes

Code for proteins that reduce cell cycling and promote DNA repair Mutations can lead to cancer

Translation Termination

Codon in the A site is a stop codon Release factor places a water molecule on the polypeptide chain Releases the protein

3 Components of Emotion

Cognitive (Subjective) Behavioral (Facial expressions and body language) Physiological (changes in the autonomic NS)

Sensory Ganglia

Collections of cell bodies outside the CNS

Osmotic Pressure

Colligative property Sucking pressure in which a solution is drawing water in Water moves toward the compartment with the highest osmotic pressure Pi = i*MRT

Protein Concentration Determination

Colorimetrically (UV spectroscopy or color change reaction) BCA Assay, Lowry reagent assay Bradford protein assay: uses a color change from brown-green to blue

Groups

Columns Elements in the same group have the same valence shell electron configuration

Genotype

Combination of alleles one has at a given genetic locus Homozygous: having 2 of the same allele Heterozygous: having 2 different alleles Hemizygous: having only one allele (males in sex chromosomes)

Fructose

Comes from honey, fruit and sucrose Trapped in the cell by fructokinase Cleaved by aldolase B to form glyceraldehyde and DHAP

Galactose

Comes from lactose in milk Trapped in the cell by galactokinase Converted to G1P by galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase and an epimerase

Determination

Commitment to a specific cell lineage Can be accomplished by uneven segregation of cellular material during mitosis or with morphogens (to respond, must have competency)

Twin Studies

Compare concordance rates between monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twins

Adoption Studies

Compares similarities between adopted children and their adoptive parents, relative to the similarities with their biological parents

Behaviorism

B.F. Skinner Theory that all behaviors are conditioned

Watson-Crick Model

Backbone: alternating sugar and phosphate groups and is read 5' to 3' Two strands are antiparallel, wound in a double helix Purines pair with pyrimidines (A-T via 2 H bonds; G-C via 3 H bonds) Bases are biological aromatic heterocycles Follow Chargaff's rules B-DNA (R handed helix)

Balanced Equations

Balance the least common atoms Balance the more common atoms (hydrogen and water) Balance charge, if needed

Skin

Barrier, protection from elements and pathogens Prevents dehydration and salt loss from the body Thermoregulation 3 layers: hypodermis (subcutaneous), dermis, epidermis

Retrieval

Based on priming interconnected nodes of the semantic network Process of demonstrating that something that has been learned has been retained

Carbohydrate Nomenclature

Based on the D and L forms Sugars with the highest-numbered chiral carbon with the -OH on the right in a Fischer projection are D sugars Sugars with the -OH on the left side are L sugars

Behaviorist Perspective of Personality

Based on the concept of operant conditioning Personality is described as the behaviors one has learned from prior rewards and punishments

Histone Acetylation

Completed by histone acetylases Acetylate lysine residues Decreases positive charge and weakens the interaction between histones and DNA Forms euchromatin with active genes (Deacetylases removes acetyl groups, forming heterochromatin with inactive genes)

Strong Acids and Bases

Completely dissociate in solution Have very weak (inert) conjugates

Peptide Bond Formation

Condensation/Dehydration reaction (Hydrolysis to break) Releases one molecule of water Nucleophilic amino group attacks the electrophilic carbonyl group of another amino acid Bonds are rigid because of resonance

Resistors

Conductive materials with a moderate amount of resistance that slow down electrons without stopping them

Source-Monitoring Error

Confusion between semantic and episodic memory Person remembers the details, but confuses the context

Repulsive Forces

Between like charges

Attractive Forces

Between opposite charges

Fundamental Attribution Error

Bias toward making dispositional attributions rather than situational attributions in regard to the actions of others

pH Control

Bicarbonate buffer system When blood pH decreases, respiration rate increases to compensate by blowing off carbon dioxide, causes a left shift in the buffer equation, reducing the hydrogen ion concentration When blood pH increases, respiration rate decreases to compensate by trapping carbon dioxide, causes a right shift in the buffer equation, increasing the hydrogen ion concentration

Binding Proteins

Bind a specific substrate, either to sequester it in the body or hold its concentration at a steady state

Positive Control

Binding of a protein increases transcriptional activity

Negative Control

Binding of a protein reduces transcriptional activity

RNA Polmerase II

Binds to the TATA box within the promoter region of the DNA (-25)

Vitamin E (tocopherols)

Biological antioxidants Aromatic rings destroy free radicals, preventing oxidative damage

Enzymes

Biological catalysts that are unchanged by the reactions they catalyze and are reusable Catalyze a single reaction or type of reaction with high specificity Stabilize the transition state

Fertilization

Blastula produces human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) (an LH analog), maintains the corpus luteum At the end of the 1st trimester, hCG levels drop and placenta secretes progesterone

Kidney Vascular System

Blood from renal artery flows into afferent arterioles Forms glomeruli in Bowman's capsule (first capillary bed) Blood then flows through the efferent arteriole to the vasa recta (second capillary bed) , which surrounds the nephron Blood then leaves the kidney through the renal vein

Portal System

Blood passes through two capillary beds in series

Hypophyseal portal system

Blood travels from the capillary bed in the hypothalamus to the capillary bed in the anterior pituitary

Renal portal system

Blood travels from the glomerulus to the vasa recta through an efferent arteriole

Hepatic portal system

Blood travels from the gut capillary back to the liver capillary bed via the hepatic portal vein

Organizations

Bodies of people with a structure and culture designed to achieve specific goals Exit outside of each individual's membership

Animal Communication

Body language, rudimentary facial expressions, visual displays, scents, vocalizations

Intramembranous Ossification

Bones form directly from undifferentiated tissue (mesenchyme)

Appendicular Skeleton

Bones of the limbs, pectoral girdle and the pelvis

Inner Ear

Bony labyrinth filled with perilymph Inside is the membranous labyrinth filled with endolymph Cochlea - sound Utricle and saccule - linear acceleration Semicircular canals - rotational acceleration

Parkinson's Disease

Bradykinesia, resting tremor, pill-rolling tremor, masklike facies, cogwheel rigidity, shuffling gait Decreased production of dopamine

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord

Information Processing Model

Brain encodes, stores, and retrieves information like a computer

Brain Mapping and Imaging

Brain lesions (humans and animals) Electrical stimulation Activity recording using electroencephalography (EEG) and regional cerebral blood flow CT, PET, MRI, fMRI

Glycogenolysis

Breakdown of glycogen

Hypothalamus

Bridges nervous and endocrine systems Release of hormones is mediated by projections from other parts of the brain, chemo and baroreceptors in the blood vessels, and negative feedback from other hormones Stimulates anterior pituitary gland through paracrine release of hormones into the hypophyseal portal system

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

Brings in amino acids Recognizes the codon on the mRNA using its anticodon

Generalization

Broadening effect Stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus can also produce the conditioned response

Purines

A and G Contain 2 rings

Average Acceleration

A av = delta(v)/delta(t)

Cross Product

A x B = |A|*|B|*sin(theta)

Dot Product

A*B = |A|*|B|*cos(theta)

Fat-soluble Vitamins

A, D, E, K

Amphoteric

AA can accept or donate electrons

Blood antigens

ABO surface antigens: A and B alleles are codominant while the O allele is recessive. An individual has antibodies for any alleles they do not have. Rh factor: D allele. Rh+ is dominant. An Rh- individual will only create Rh antibodies after exposure to Rh+ blood

Complete Ionic Equation

Accounts for all the ions present in a reaction Split al aqueous compounds into relevant ions Keep solid salts intact

Modern-synthesis model (Neo-Darwinism)

Accounts for mutation and recombination as mechanisms of variation Differential reproduction is the mechanism for reproductive success

Neutralization Reactions

Acid reacts with a base to form a salt and usually water

Endorphins and Enkephalins

Act as natural painkillers

Membrane-Associated Proteins (Peripheral)

Act as recognition molecules or enzymes

Endocrine

Act on distant tissues after traveling through the bloodstream

Paracrine

Act on local cells

Autocrine

Act on the same cell that released the signal

Juxtacrine

Act through direct stimulation of adjacent cells

Cell-Surface Antibodies

Activate immune cells Mediate allergic reactions

Enteropeptidase

Activates trypsinogen and procarboxypeptidases, initiating an activation cascade

Coagulation

Activation cascade Endothelial lining for blood vessel is damaged Collagen and tissue factor underlying the endothelial cells are exposed Coagulation cascade Formation of a clot over the damaged area Platelets bind to collagen, stabilized by fibrin, which is activated by thrombin Clots are broken down by plasmin

Immunization

Activation of B-cells that produce antibodies to an antigen Induces active immunity prior to exposure to a particular pathogen

Inflation

Active process Diaphragm and external intercostal muscles expand the thoracic cavity Increases the volume of the interpleural space Decreases the intrapleural pressure Pressure differential expands the lungs Drops the pressure within the lungs Draws in air from the environment (Negative-pressure breathing)

Phonology

Actual sound of speech

Percent Yield

Actual yield / theoreical yield * 100%

Positive Symptoms of Schizophrenia

Add something to behavior, cognition or affect Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, disorganized behavior

Translation Elongation

Addition of a new aminoacyl-tRNA into the A site of the ribosome Transfer of the growing polypeptide chain from the tRNA in the P site to the tRNA in the A site Uncharged tRNA pauses in the E site before exiting the ribosome

Spatial Summation

Addition of multiple signals near each other in space

Frequency Summation

Addition of multiple simple twitches before the muscle has an opportunity to fully relax

Resistors in Series

Additive, sum together to create the total resistance of a circuit Vs = V1 + V2 +... Rs = R1 + R2 +...

NADH in Glycolysis

Aerobic: oxidized by the ETC Anaerboic: oxidized by cytoplasmic lactate dehydrogenase (rate-limiting enzyme in fermentation)

Schedule of Reinforcement

Affects the rate at which the behavior is performed Can be based on a ratio of behavior to reward or on an amount of time Both can be fixed or variable Behaviors learned through variable-ratio schedules are the hardest to break

Esteem Support

Affirms the qualities and skills of the person

Gene Pool

All of the alleles in a given population

Populations

All of the individuals who share a set of characteristics Parameters: population data

Circularly Polarized Light

All the light rays have electric fields with equal intensity but constantly rotating direction Created by exposing unpolarized light to special pigments or filters

Plane-Polarized Light

All the light rays have electric fields with parallel orientation Created by passing unpolarized light through a polarizer

Eosinophils

Allergic reactions Invasive parasitic infections Release histamine, causing an inflammatory response

Cell Adhesion Molecules (CAM)

Allow cells to bind to other cells or surfaces

Conductors

Allow free and uniform passage of electrons when charged

Promiscuity

Allows a member of one sex to mate with any member of the opposite sex without exclusivity

Degenerate Code

Allows multiple codons to encode for the same amino acid

Social Mobility

Allows one to acquire higher-level employment opportunities by achieving required credentials and experience Can be in a positive upward direction or a negative downward direction

Selective Attention

Allows one to pay attention to a particular stimulus while determining if additional stimuli in the background require attention

Alleles

Alternative forms of a gene Dominant: requires only one copy to be expressed Recessive: requires 2 copies to be expressed

Irreversible Inhibition

Alters the enzyme in a way that the active site is unavailable for a prolonged period or permanently New enzymes must be made for the reaction to occur again

Standard Emf and Gibbs Free Energy

Always have opposite signs When E cell0 is +, delta(G) is - (Galvanic cells) When E cell0 is -, delta(G) is + (electrolytic cells) When E cell0 is 0, delta(G) is 0 (concentration cells)

Triiodothyronine (T3) and Thyroxine (T4)

Amino acid-derivative hormone Produced by follicular cells in thyroid TRH - TSH - T3/T4 Contain iodine Increase basal metabolic rate and alter utilization of glucose and fatty acids Required for proper neurological and physical development

Peptide Hormones

Amino acids Derived from larger precursor proteins cleaved during posttranslational modifications Polar - Cannot pass through the plasma membrane Bind to extracellular receptors, trigger the transmission of secondary messengers Each step of the signaling cascade can cause amplification of the signal Rapid onset but are short-lived Water-soluble. Travel freely in the bloodstream without a carrier protein.

Specific Heat

Amount of energy necessary to raise one gram of a substance by one degree Celsius or one Kelvin Water: 1 cal/g*K

Ionization Energy

Amount of energy necessary to remove an electron from the valence shell of a gaseous species Increases from left to right across a period Decreases from top to bottom in a group Upper right has the highest

Electron affinity

Amount of energy released when a gaseous species gains an electron in its valence shell Increases from left to right across a period Decreases from top to bottom in a group Upper right has the highest

Nuclear Binding Energy

Amount of energy that is released when nucleons (protons and neutrons) bind together The more binding energy released, the more stable the nucleus

Expectancy-Value Theory

Amount of motivation for a task is based on the individual's expectation of success and the amount that success is valued

Theoretical Yield

Amount of product generated if all the limiting reagent is consumed with no side reactions

Half-Life

Amount of time required for half a sample of radioactive nuclei to decay

Stimulants

Amphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy Increase dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin concentration at the synaptic cleft

Phospholipids

Amphipathic Form the bilayer of biological membranes Contain a hydrophilic (polar) head group and hydrophobic (nonpolar) tails Head group is attached by a phosphodiester linkage Head group interacts with the environment and determines the function of the phospholipid

Amphiprotic species

Amphoteric species that can specifically behave as a Bronsted-Lowry acid or Bronsted-Lowry base Water and conjugate species of polyvalent acids and bases are amphoteric and amphiprotic

Capacitance

C = Q/V C = E0(A/d)

Pyrimidines

C, U, and T Contain 1 ring

Ambivalent Attachment

Caregiver has an inconsistent response to a child's distress Child will become distressed when the caregiver leaves and is ambivalent when they return

Avoidant Attachment

Caregiver has little or no response to a distressed, crying child Child shows no preference for the caregiver vs. strangers

Disorganized Attachment

Caregiver is erratic or abusive Child shows no clear pattern of behavior in response to the caregiver's absence or presence May show repetitive behaviors

Prokaryote Genetic Material

Carried in circular chromosomes Carried in plasmids which contain virulence factors, and can integrate into the new genome as episomes

Carbon Dioxide in the Blood

Carried in the blood in the form of carbonic acid or bicarbonate and hydrogen ions Nonpolar and not particularly soluble Bicarbonate, hydrogen ions, and carbonic acid are polar and highly soluble

X chromosome

Carries most genetic information Mutations cause sex-linked disorders

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Carries the message from DNA in the nucleus via transcription Travels into the cytoplasm to be translated

Umbilical Arteries

Carry deoxygenated blood from the fetus to the placenta

Tracts

Carry one type of information

Carriers

Carry only one copy of the diseased allele

Umbilical Veins

Carry oxygenated blood from the placenta back to the fetus

Role Performance

Carrying out the behaviors of a given role

Hydrolases

Catalyze cleavage with the addition of water

Lyases

Catalyze cleavage without the addition of water or transfer of electrons Reverse reaction (synthesis)

Oxidoreductases

Catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions that involve the transfer of electrons

Isomerases

Catalyze the interconversion of isomers

LCAT

Catalyzes the formation of cholesterol esters for transport with HDL

CETP

Catalyzes the transition of IDL to LDL by transferring cholesterol ester from HDL

Social Class

Category of people with shared socioeconomic characteristics 3 main classes: upper, middle, lower Groups have similar lifestyles, job opportunities, attitudes and behaviors

Resistors in Parallel

Cause a decrease in equivalent resistance of a circuit Vp = V1 = V2 =... 1/Rp = 1/R1 + 1/R2 +...

Excitatory signals

Cause depolarization of the neuron

Inhibitory signals

Cause hyperpolarization of the neuron

Magnetic Force

Caused by external magnetic fields on charges that are moving perpendicular to the field When particles undergo uniform circular motion: centripetal force is the magnetic force Fc = FB mv^2/r = qvB*sin(theta) Direction is determined using the RHR Moving point charge: FB = qvB*sin(theta) Current-carrying wire: FB = I*L*B*sin(theta)

Supercoiling

Causes torsional strain on the DNA molecule

Negative Selection

Causing apoptosis in self-reactive T-cells

Ganglia

Cell bodies of neurons of the same type within a nerve cluster in the PNS

Nuclei

Cell bodies of the individual neurons within a tract cluster in the CNS

Soma

Cell body Location of the nucleus and other organelles (ER and ribosomes)

Arcuate Fasciculus

Connects Wernicke's area and Broca's area Damage results in conduction aphasia (inability to repeat words heard despite intact speech generation and comprehension)

Pharynx

Connects mouth and posterior nasal cavity to the esophagus

Umbilical cord

Connects the fetus to the placenta

Waxes

Contain long-chain fatty acids esterified to long-chain alcohols Used as protection against evaporation and parasites in plants and animals

Membranes

Contain phospholipids Organize to form a hydrophilic interior and exterior polar heads with a hydrophobic core

cDNA libraries (expression libraries)

Contain smaller fragments of DNA Include only the exons of genes expressed by the sample tissue Can be used to make recombinant proteins or for gene therapy

Primary Group

Contain strong emotional bonds

Nucleus

Contains DNA which is organized into chromosomes Surrounded by nuclear membrane/envelope DNA is organized into coding regions called genes

Blastula (Blastocyst)

Contains a fluid-filled center called a blastocoel Contains the trophoblast (which becomes placental structures) and inner cell mass (which becomes the developing organism) Implants in endometrial lining and forms the placenta

Gangliosides

Contains a polar head group made of oligosaccharides with at least one terminal N-acetylneuraminic acid (NANA/sialic acid)

Sphingolipids

Contains a sphingosine or sphingoid backbone

Role Set

Contains all the different roles associated with a status

Bipolar II disorder

Contains at least one hypomanic episode and at least one major depressive episode

Major Depressive Disorder

Contains at least one major depressive episode

Bipolar I disorder

Contains at least one manic episode

Projectile Motion

Contains both an x and y component Assumes negligible air resistance The only force acting on the object is gravity

Chorion

Contains chorionic villi, which penetrate the endometrium and create the interface between maternal and fetal blood

Cyclothymic Disorder

Contains hypomanic episodes with dysthymia

I-band

Contains only thin filaments

Nucleus

Contains protons and neutrons Electrons move around it

Rough ER

Contains ribosomes Translation of proteins for secretion

Retina

Contains rods and cones Rods: detect light and dark Cones: come in three forms to detect colors Macula: contains mostly cones (central visual field) Fovea: center of the macula, contains only cones

Pons

Contains sensory and motor pathways between the cerebral cortex and medulla

A-band

Contains thick filaments in their entirety Only part of the sarcomere that maintains constant size during contraction

Dependent PD

Continuous need for reassurance

Cardiac Muscle

Contractile tissue of the heart Appears striated Under involuntary (autonomic) control Uninucleated (sometimes binucleated) Displays myogenic activity Connected with intercalated discs that contain gap junctions

Pleurae

Cover the lungs Line the chest wall Visceral pleura: lies adjacent to the lung Parietal pleura: lines the chest wall Intrapleural space: lies between the 2 layers and contains a thin layer of fluid that lubricates the 2 surfaces

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Cranial and spinal nerves

Current-Carrying Wires

Create magnetic field that are concentric circles surrounding the wire

Knockout Mice

Created by deleting a gene of interest

Transgenic Mice

Created by integrating a gene of interest into the germ line or embryonic stem cells of a developing mouse Can be mated to select for the transgene

Magnetic Fields

Created by magnets and moving charges SI unit is the Tesla (T) (10^4 gauss) Straight Wire: B = Mu0*I / 2*pi*r Loop: B = Mu0*I / 2*r (Does not contain pi)

Respiratory System Flow

Creates a pressure gradient for the respiratory system and circulatory system Air at the alveoli has zero speed

Gluconeogenesis

Creation of glucose from other sources (pyruvate -> glucose) Occurs during fasting Occurs in the cytoplasm and mitochondria, mostly in the liver Most is the reverse of glycolysis, using the same enzymes 3 irreversible steps of glycolysis must be bypassed by other enzymes

Structural Proteins

Cytoskeleton Anchoring proteins Much of the extracellular matrix Most common are collagen, elastin, keratin, actin and tubulin Generally fibrous in nature

Cytokinesis

Cytosol and organelles are split between the two daughter cells

Chromatin

DNA and associated histones

S stage: synthesis

DNA is replicated Chromatids are held together at the centromere

Central Dogma

DNA is transcribed into RNA RNA is translated into protein

Replication Origin

DNA is unwound at an origin of replication by helicases Produces 2 replication forks on either side of the origin Prokaryotes have a circular chromosome with 1 origin of replication Eukaryotes have linear chromosomes with multiple origins of replications

Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system

Decreased blood pressure - Juxtaglomerular cells of kidneys secrete renin - cleaves angiotensinogen (inactive) to angiotensin I (active) - angiotensin I converted to angiotensin II by angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) in the lungs - angiotensin II stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone Negative feedback loop

Atomic Radius Trends

Decreases from left to right across a period Increases from top to bottom in a group Bottom left is the largest

Punishment

Decreases the likelihood of a behavior

Common Ion Effect

Decreases the solubility of a compound in a solution that already contains one of the ions in the compound Presence of the ion shifts the dissolution reaction to the left, decreasing its dissociation

Stages 3 and 4 Sleep

Deep slow-wave sleep Delta waves predominate Where most sleep-wake disorders occur Dreaming focuses on consolidating declarative memories

Stratum Basale

Deepest layer of epidermis Contains stem cells Proliferate to form keratinocytes

Innate Immunity

Defenses that are always active Cannot target a specific invader Cannot maintain immunologic memory Nonspecific immunity

Adaptive Immunity

Defenses that take time to activate Target a specific invader Maintain immunologic memory Specific immunity

Z-lines

Define the boundaries of each sarcomere

Molecular Clock Model

Degree of difference in the genome between two species is related to the amount of time since the two species broke off from a common ancestor

Self-efficacy

Degree to which we see ourselves as being capable at a given skill or in a given situation Can be diminished to the point where learned helplessness results

Manifest Functions

Deliberate actions that serve to help a given system

Standard Gibbs free energy from equilibrium constant

Delta(G rxn) = -RT*ln(Keq)

Gibbs free energy from reaction quotient

Delta(G rxn) = Delta(G0 rxn) +RTlnQ = RTln(Q/Keq)

Standard Gibbs free energy of reaction

Delta(G rxn) = Sum(Delta(G products)) - Sum(Delta(G reactants))

Gibbs Free Energy

Delta(G) = Delta(H) - T*Delta(S) Derived from both enthalpy and entropy values Change in Gibbs free energy determines whether a process is spontaneous: < 0: proceeds in forward direction (spontaneous) = 0: dynamic equilibrium > 0: proceeds in reverse direction (nonspontaneous) Depends on temperature

Modified Standard State

Delta(G0') Physiological concentrations are much less than standard concentrations Must be adjusted for pH (pH = 7), temperature (310 K) and concentrations ([H+] = 10^-7 M)

Generalized enthalpy of reaction

Delta(H rxn) = H products - H reactants

Bond Enthalpy

Delta(H rxn) = Sum(Delta(H bonds broken)) - Sum(Delta(H bonds formed)) = total energy absorbed - total energy released

Standard enthalpy of reaction

Delta(H rxn) = Sum(Delta(H products)) - Sum(Delta(H reactants))

Standard entropy of reaction

Delta(S rxn) = Sum(Delta(S products)) - Sum(Delta(S reactants))

Second Law of Thermodynamics

Delta(S universe) = Delta(S system) + Delta(S surroundings) > 0

First Law of Thermodynamics

Delta(U) = Q - W

Internal Energy

Delta(U) = Q - W No work is performed in closed systems because pressure and volume remain constant So equal to the heat exchange within the environment (Q)

Potential Difference (Voltage)

Delta(V) = Vb - Va = W ab/q Change in electrical potential that occurs when a test charge is moved from one position to another Path independent and depends only on the initial and final positions of the test charge SI units are in volts (V)

SDS-PAGE

Denatures the proteins and masks the native charge so that comparison of size is more accurate Functional protein cannot be recaptured from the gel

Bohr

Dense, positively charged nucleus Surrounded by electrons revolving around the nucleus Orbits with distinct energy levels

Heterochromatin

Dense, transcriptionally silent DNA

Density

Density = m/V

Body Mass Regulation

Dependent on multiple factors Consumption and activity are modifiable factors

Polarity of Molecules

Dependent on the dipole moment of each bond and the sum of the dipole moments in a molecular structure All polar molecules have polar bonds Nonpolar molecuels can have nonpolar bonds, or polar bonds with dipole moments that cancel

Pyruvate dehydrogenase phosphatase

Dephosphorylates PDH when ADP levels are high Activates PDH

Marijuana

Depressant, stimulant and hallucinogenic effects Active ingredient is THC

Steroid Hormones

Derived from cholesterol Minimally polar - Can pass through the plasma membrane Bind and promote a conformational change in cytosolic or intranuclear receptors Complex binds to DNA, altering the transcription of a particular gene Slow onset but long-lived Lipid-soluble: Must be carried by specific proteins

Bone

Derived from embryonic mesoderm Compact and spongy (cancellous) types

Adrenal Medulla

Derived from nervous system Secretes catecholamines into bloodstream On top of kidneys

Neurulation

Development of the nervous system Begins after formation of the germ layers Notochord induces a group of overlying ectodermal cells to form neural folds surrounding a neural groove Neural folds fuse to form the neural tube (forms the CNS) The tip of each neural fold contains neural crest cells (become the PNS and specific cell types in other tissues)

Single-Displacement Reactions

Displacement reaction where an ion of one compound is replaced with another element

Double-Displacement Reactions

Displacement reaction where elements from two different compounds trade places with each other to form two new compounds

Generalized Anxiety Disorder

Disproportionate and persistent worry about many different things for at least 6 months

Antisocial PD

Disregard for the rights of others

Power in a Circuit

Dissipated across each resistor Dependent on the current and the voltage drop through the resistor P = W/t = delta(E)/t P = IV = I^2R = V^2/R

Arrhenius Bases

Dissociate to produce an excess of hydroxide ions in solution

Arrhenius Acids

Dissociate to prouce an excess of hydrogen ions in solution

Dissociative Disorders

Dissociative amnesia, dissociative identity disorder, depersonalization/derealization disorder

Micelles

Dissolve a lipid-soluble molecule in its fatty acid core Washes away with water because of its shell of carboxylate head groups

Wavelength (lambda)

Distance between 2 crests or 2 troughs

Concave Lenses

Diverging Only produce virtual, upright images

Convex mirrors

Diverging Only produce virtual, upright images

Iris

Divides eye into anterior and posterior chambers Dilator and constrictor pupillae muscles which open and close the pupil

Weak Acids and Bases

Do not completely dissociate in solution Have corresponding dissociation constants (Ka and Kb) Ka = [H3O+][A-]/[HA] Kb = [B+][OH-]/[BOH] Have weak conjugates Ka, acid x Kb, conjugate base = Kw Kb, base x Ka, conjugate acid = Kw

Prokaryotes

Do not contain membrane-bound organelles Contain genetic material in a single circular molecule of DNA which is located in the nucleoid region Carry out ETC using the cell membrane Ribosomes are smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes

Isolated Systems

Do not exchange matter or energy with the surroundings

Solids

Do not flow Retain their shape regardless of the container

Passive Transport

Does not require energy Molecule moves down its concentration gradient

Splicing

Done by snRNA and snRNPs in the spliceosome Introns are removed in a lariat structure Exons are ligated together

Nuclear Membrane (Envelope)

Double membrane Has nuclear pores that allow for exchange of materials between the nucleus and cytosol

Cluster B disorders

Dramatic, emotional, erratic Antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic disorders

Nonmetals

Dull Poor conductors of electricity Brittle Right side of the periodic table

Heat of Transformation

During a phase change, heat energy causes changes in the particles' potential energy and energy distribution (entropy), but not the kinetic energy No change in temperature at the phase change q = mL

Persistent Depressive Disorder

Dysthymia for at least two years Does not meet criteria for major depressive disorder

Michaelis-Menten Rates

E + S <--- (k-1) (k1)----> ES (kcat) ----> E + P

Energy of electron transition (Bohr Model)

E = -RH [1/(ni^2) - 1/(nf^2)]

Energy of an electron (Bohr Model)

E = -RH/n^2

Electric Field in a Capacitor

E = V/d

Planck relation (wavelength)

E = h*c/lambda

Planck relation (frequency)

E = h*f

Nernst Equation

E cell = E cell0 - RT/nF * ln(Q) E cell = E cell0 - 0.0592/n * log(Q) Relationship between the concentration of species in a solution under nonstandard conditions and the electromotive force

Total Energy Yield

Each NADH = 2.5 ATP; 10 NADH = 25 ATP Each FADH2 = 1.5 ATP; 2 FADH2 = 3 ATP 2 GTP -> 2 ATP 2 ATP (glycolysis) + 2 ATP (GTP) + 25 ATP (NADH) + 3 ATP (FADH2) = 32 ATP per molecule of glucose Differences in the NADH shuttle used, result in 30-32 ATP being produced

Cleavage

Early divisions of cells in the embryo Result in a larger number of smaller cells (overall volume does not change) Zygote becomes an embryo after the first cleavage (no longer unicellular)

Complete Dominance

Effect of one allele completely masks the effect of another

Neuroplasticity

Effects the amount of change that can occur in brain chemistry and physiology Decreases with age Effects learning and memory

Current from Photoelectric Effect

Ejected electrons create a current Magnitude of the current is proportional to the intensity of the incident beam of light

Photoelectric Effect

Ejection of an electron from the surface of a metal in response to light E = h*f

Long-Term Memory

Elaborative rehearsal Increased neuronal connectivity

Neuron Communication

Electrical: ion exchange and the generation of membrane potnetials down the length of the axon Chemical: neurotransmitter release from the presynaptic cell and the binding of them to the postsynaptic cell

Rechargeable Batteries

Electrochemical cells that can experience charging (electrolytic) and discharging (galvanic) states Ranked by energy density (amount of energy a cell can produce relative to the mass of batter material

Proton-Motive Force

Electrochemical gradient generated by the ETC across the inner mitochondrial membrane Intermembrane space has a higher concentration of protons than the matrix

Emission

Electron falls from a higher-energy to a lower-energy orbit Emission of a photon of light of the same frequency as the energy difference between the orbits

Absorbance

Electron jumps from a lower-energy to a higher-energy orbit by absorbing a photon of light Photon is of the same frequency as the energy difference between the orbits

Lewis Acids

Electron-pair acceptors

Lewis Bases

Electron-pair donors

Glycerol 3-Phosphate Shuttle

Electrons are transferred from NADH to DHAP Glycerol 3-Phosphate is formed Electrons are transferred to mitochondrial FAD, forming FADH2 1.5 ATP are formed

Malate-Aspartate Shuttle

Electrons are transferred from NADH to oxaloacetate Malate is formed Malate crosses the inner mitochondrial membrane Electrons are transferred to mitochondrial NAD+, forming NADH 2.5 ATP are formed

Quantum mechanical model

Electrons do not travel in defined orbits Localized in orbitals

N + l Rule

Electrons fill the principal energy levels and subshells according to increasing energy (the lower the sum, the lower the energy) (if equal, the one with the lower n value has lower energy and fills with electrons first)

Valence Electrons

Electrons in the outermost shell available for interaction (bonding) with other atoms (For the representative elements - s and/or p orbitals) (For the transition elements - s and/or d/f orbitals) Form bonds with other atoms to complete an octet in the valence shell

Atomic emission spectrum

Electrons return from the excited state to the ground state Emit an amount of energy that is equal to the energy difference between the two levels Sometimes the emission corresponds to a frequency in the visible light range

Intermolecular Forces

Electrostatic attractions between molecules Significantly weaker than covalent bonds

Standard state

Element's most prevalent form under standard conditions: standard enthalpy, standard entropy, standard free energy

Gamma decay

Emission of a gamma ray Converts a high-energy nucleus into a more stable nucleus AZ X* ----> AZ X + gamma

Alpha (a) Decay

Emission of an a particle ((4)(2) a) AZ X ----> (A-4)(Z-2) Y + (4)(2) a

Attachment

Emotional bond to another person Secure, avoidant, ambivalent, disorganized

Social Construction Model of Emotional Expression

Emotions are solely based on the situational context of social interactions

Humanistic Perspective of Personality

Emphasizes the internal feelings of healthy individuals as they strive towards happiness and self-realization

Culture

Encompasses the lifestyle of a group of people Includes both material and symbolic elements

Multiculturalism

Encouragement of multiple cultures within a community to enhance diversity

Nerve Terminal/Synaptic Bouton

End of the axon Where neurotransmitters are released from

Telomeres

Ends of chromosomes Contain high GC content Prevent unraveling of the DNA During replication, telomeres are shortened Can be partially reversed by telomerase

Kinetic Energy

Energy associated with the movement of objects Depends on mass and speed squared (not velocity) KE = 1/2*mv^2

Planck

Energy difference between energy levels: quantum Quantization Atomic absorption spectrum Atomic emission spectrum

Chemical Potential Energy

Energy stored in the bonds of compounds

Potential Energy

Energy stored within a system Exists in gravitational, elastic, electrical, and chemical forms

Positive Controls

Ensure that a change in the dependent variable occurs when expected

Negative Controls

Ensure that no change in the dependent variable occurs when none is expected

Acetyl-CoA from Fatty Acids

Enter the mitochondria using carriers Fatty acid couples with CoA in the cytosol, forming fatty acyl-CoA Fatty acyl-CoA moves to the intermembrane space Fatty acid group is transferred to carnitine to form acyl-carnitine, which cross the innter membrane Acyl group is transferred to mitochondrial CoA to reform fatty acyl-CoA Fatty acyl-CoA can undergo B-oxidation to form acetyl-CoA

Chemical digestion

Enzymatic cleavage of chemical bonds

Lock and Key Theory

Enzyme and substrate are exactly complementary

Induced Fit Model

Enzyme and substrate undergo conformational changes to interact fully

ATP Synthase

Enzyme responsible for generating ATP from ADP and Pi F0: ion channel, allowing protons to flow down the gradient from the intermembrane space to the matrix F1: uses the energy released by the gradient to phosphorylate ADP to ATP

Hormone-Sensitive Lipase

Enzyme that mobilizes lipids from adipocytes

Lipoprotein Lipase

Enzyme that mobilizes lipids from lipoproteins

Catecholamines

Epinephrine and norepinephrine Amino acid-derivative hormones Involved in the fight-or-flight response Promote glycogenolysis, increase basal metabolic rate, increase heart rate, dilate bronchi, alter blood flow

Static Friction

Exists between two objects that are not in motion relative to each other Depends on the magnitude of applied force Coefficient is always higher than the coefficient of kinetic friction 0 < fs < Us*N (Us*m*g)

Opponent-Process Theory

Explains the motivation for drug use Use drug use increases, the body counteracts its effects, leading to tolerance and uncomfortable withdrawal symptoms

Social Constructionism

Explores the ways individuals and groups make decisions to agree upon a given social reality

Feminist Theory

Explores the ways one gender can be subordinated, minimized, or devalued compared to the other

Nodes of Ranvier

Exposed areas of myelinated axons that permit saltatory conduction

Bernoulli's Equation

Expression of conservation of energy for a flowing fluid Sum of static pressure and dynamic pressure is constant between any 2 points in a closed system P1 + 1/2*density*v1^2 + density*g*h1 = P2 + 1/2*density*v2^2 + density*g*h2

Moro Reflex

Extends arms, slowly retracts them, and cries in response to the sensation of falling

Exoskeletons

External skeletons

Stigma

Extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society

Avoidant PD

Extreme shyness Fear of rejection

Visual Pathway

Eye - Optic Nerves - Optic Chiasm - Optic Tracts - Lateral Geniculate Nucleus of the Thalamus - Visual Radiations (Temporal and Parietal Lobes) - Visual Cortex (Occipital Lobe)

Temperature Conversions

F = 9/5 *C + 32 K = C + 273

Temperature Conversions

F = 9/5C + 32 K = C + 273

Oxidizing agent

Facilitates the oxidation of another compound Reduced itself Almost all contain oxygen or another electronegative element

Reducing agent

Facilitates the reduction of another compound Oxidized itself Often contain metal ions or hydrides

Mechanical Advantage

Factor by which a simple machine multiplies the input force to accomplish work Makes it easier to accomplish a given amount of work because the input force necessary to accomplish the work is reduced The distance through which the reduced input force must be applied is increased by the same factor Mechanical advantage = F out / F in

Type II Error (B)

Failing to reject the null hypothesis when it should be rejected

Hypodermis

Fat and connective tissue Connects the skin to the rest of the body

Reduction

Gain of electrons

Functions of the Respiratory System

Gas Exchange Thermoregulation Immune Response pH Control

Cornea

Gathers and filters light

Anxiety Disorders

Generalized anxiety disorder, specific phobias, social anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, panic disorder

Electric Field

Generated by a charge Exerts forces on other charges E = Fe/q = kQ/r^2

Centripetal Force

Fc = mv^2/r

Agoraphobia

Fear of places or situation where it is hard for an individual to escape

Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder

Feelings of detachment from the mind and body or from the environment

Fraternal (dizygotic) twins

Fertilization of two eggs by two different sperm

Endochondral Ossification

Fetal life Bone forms cartilage

Universal Gravitation Equation

Fg = G*m1*m2/r^2

Weight of a Volume of Fluid

Fg = density*V*g

Force of gravity (Weight on Earth)

Fg = m*g

Components of Gravity on an Inclined Plane

Fg parallel = mg*sin(theta) Fg perpendicular = mg*cos(theta)

Sympathetic Nervous System

Fight or flight Epinephrine is the neurotransmitter Increases heartrate and blood to muscles for movement, increases blood glucose, relaxes bronchi, decreases digestion, dilates pupil, inhibits saliva, increases sweating/goose bumps, inhibits the bladder and orgasm

DNA Polymerase I / DNA Polymerase delta

Fill in DNA after RNA primers have been removed

Kidney Solute Movement

Filtration Secretion Reabsorption

Negative Feedback

Final hormone of a pathway inhibits hormones earlier in the pathway, maintaining homeostasis

Quantization

Finite range of energy levels available to an electron Electrons can only exist at certain energy levels Energy of an electron increases the further it is from the nucleus

Cartilage

Firm, elastic material secreted by chondrocytes Matrix is called chondrin Found in areas that require more flexibility or cushioning Avascular and is not innervated

Primacy Effect

First impressions are more important than later impressions

Cecum

First part of large intestine Outpocketing that accepts fluid from the small intestine through the ileocecal valve Site of attachment for the appendix

Duodenum

First part of the small intestine Primarily involved in chemical digestion Secretes brush-border enzymes (disaccharides, peptidases, enteropeptidase) and hormones (secretin and cholecystokinin)

Nucleotide Excision Repair (NER)

Fixes helix-deforming lesions of DNA (thymine dimers) Cut and patch process Uses excision endonuclease

Base Excision Repair

Fixes nondeforming lesions of the DNA helix (cytosine deamination) by removing the base Leaves an apurinic/apyrimidinic (AP) site AP endonuclease removes the damaged sequence Filled with correct bases

Leakage

Flow of genes between species through hybrid offspring

Formal Operational Stage

Focuses on abstract thought and problem solving

Conflict Theory

Focuses on how power differentials are created and how these differentials contribute to the maintenance of social order

Functionalism

Focuses on the function of each component of society and how they fit together

Correspondent Inference Theory

Focuses on the intentionality of other's behaviors When an individual unexpectedly performs a behavior that helps or hurts us, we explain the behavior by dispositional attribution

Posttranslational Modifications

Folding by chaperones Formation of quatenary structure Cleavage of proteins or signal sequences Covalent addition of other biomolecules (phosphorylation, carboxylation, glycosylation, prenylation)

Activity Level Determination

Follow the process of a known reaction, usually by a color change

Oxidation-Reduction Titrations

Follow transfer of charge Indicators change color when certain voltages of solutions are achieved

Vapor Pressure Depression

Follows Raoult's Law PA = XA*PA0 Presence of other solutes decreases the evaporation rate of a solvent without affecting its condensation rate Decreases the vapor pressure Explains boiling point elevation As the vapor pressure decreases, the temperature required to boil the liquid must be raised

Ohm's Law

For a given resistance, the magnitude of the current through a resistor is proportional to the voltage drop across the resistor V = IR V = E cell - I*r int

Fetal Shunts

Foramen Ovale: connects right atrium to left atrium, bypassing the lungs Ductus Arteriosus: connects pulmonary artery to the aorta, bypassing the lungs Ductus Venosus: connects the umbilical vein to the inferior vena cava, bypassing the liver

Weight

Force experienced by a given mass due to its gravitational attraction to Earth

Blood pressure

Force per unit area that is exerted on the walls of the blood vessels by blood Divided into systolic and diastolic components Must be high enough to overcome resistance created by arterioles and capillaries, but low enough to avoid damage of the vasculature and surrounding structures Measured with a sphygmomanometer Maintained by baroreceptor and chemoreceptor reflexes (Low blood pressure/high blood osmolarity promotes aldosterone and ADH release. High blood pressure promotes atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) release)

Friction

Force that opposes motion as a function of electrostatic interactions at the surfaces of two objects

Ionic Compounds

Form crystalline lattices (large, organized arrays of ions) Tend to dissociate in water and other polar solvents Tend to have high melting points

Altruism

Form of helping behavior in which the person's intent is to benefit someone else at some cost to themselves

Spatial Inequality

Form of social stratification across territories and their populations Can occur across residential, environmental and global lines Urban areas have more ability for social mobility

Neutralization Reactions

Form salts and sometimes water

Epithelial Cells

Form the parenchyma (functional parts of the organ) May be polarized (one side facing a lumen and the other side facing blood vessels/structural cells)

Ritual

Formalized ceremonial behavior in which members of a group or community regularly engage Governed by specific rules, including appropriate behavior and a predetermined order of events

Vitamin K (phylloquinone and menaquinones)

Formation of prothrombin, a clotting factor Performs posttranslational modifications on proteins, creating calcium-binding sites

Acetyl-CoA

Formed from PDH complex and other sources Contains a high-energy thioester bond Drives other reactions when hydrolysis occurs

Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)

Formed in the bone marrow Part of immune system Granular leukocytes: neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils. Nonspecific immunity. Agranulocytes: monocytes and lymphocytes (specific immunity)

Covalent Bond

Formed via the sharing of electrons between 2 elements of similar electronegativities

Ionic Bond

Formed via the transfer of one or more electrons from an element with a relatively low ionization energy to an element with a relativelt high electron affinity Between elements with large differences in electronegativities (> 1.7) Usually between metals and nonmetals Electrostatic attraction between the ions causes them to remain in close proximity, forming the bond Form crystalline lattices (large, organized arrays of ions)

Interneurons

Found between other neurons Linked to reflexes

GLUT 4

Found in adipose and muscle tissue Stimulated by insulin Low Km

GLUT 2

Found in the liver (for glucose storage) and pancreatic B-cells (as a glucose sensor) High Km

Spermatogenesis

Four haploid sperm produced Start from a spermatogonium After S Stage: primary spermatocytes After meiosis I: secondary spermatocytes After meiosis II: spermatids After maturation: spermatozoa

Somatosensation

Four touch modalities: pressure, vibration, pain and temperature

Combustion Reactions

Fuel and an oxidant (typically oxygen) react Form water and carbon dioxide (if the fuel is a hydrocarbon)

Noble Gases

Fully filled valence shell Prefer not to give up or take on additional electrons High ionization energies Nonexistent electronegativities and electron affinities

William James

Functionalism: studied how mental processes help people adapt to their environment

Stomach

Fundus, body, antrum, pylorus Lesser and greater curvature Thrown into folds called rugae Lined with secretory cells After digestion, food particles are called chime Passes into the duodenum through the pyloric sphincter

Immovable Joints

Fused together to form sutures or similar fibrous joints

DNA ligase

Fuses the DNA strands together to create one molecule

Interphase

G1, S, G2 DNA is uncoiled into chromatin

Cell Cycle

G1, S, G2, M, G0

Transposons

Genetic elements that can insert into or remove themselves from the genome

Basis of Schizophrenia

Genetic factors, birth trauma, adolescent marijuana use, family history High levels of dopaminergic transmission

Alzheimer's Disease

Genetic factors, brain atrophy, decreases in acetylcholine, senile plaques of B-amyloid, neurofibrillary tangles of hyperphosphorylated tau protein

Transformation

Genetic material from the surroundings is taken up by the cell, and incorporated into the genome

Law of proximity

Gestalt principle Elements close to each other tend to be perceived as a unit

Law of good continuation

Gestalt principle Elements that appear to follow the same pathway tend to be grouped together

Law of similarity

Gestalt principle Objects that are similar appear to be grouped together

Subjective contours

Gestalt principle Perception of nonexistent edges in figures, based on surrounding visual cues

Law of Pragnanz

Gestalt principle Perceptual organization will always be as regular, simple, and symmetric as possible

Law of closure

Gestalt principle When a space is enclosed by a group of lines, it is perceived as a complete or closed line

Law of Mass Action

Gives expression for Keq Only used for gaseous and aqueous species

Coulomb's Law

Gives the magnitude of the electrostatic force vector between 2 charges Force vector points along the line connecting the centers of the 2 charges Fe = k*q1*q2 / r^2

Luteinizing hormone (LH)

In males: causes the interstitial cells to produce testosterone (maintenance and development of male reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics) In females: causes ovulation, production of estrogens and progesterone

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

In males: stimulates the Sertoli cells and triggers spermatogenesis In females: stimulates development of the ovarian follicles, and production of estrogens and progesterone

Surfactant

In the alveoli Reduces surface tension at the liquid-gas interface Prevents collapse

Olfactory chemoreceptors (olfactory nerves)

In the olfactory epithelium Detection of volatile or aerosolized chemicals

Acinar Cells

In the pancreas Produce pancreatic juices (bicarbonate, pancreatic amylase, pancreatic peptidases (trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, carboxypeptidases A and B) and pancreatic lipase)

Interstitial cells of Leydig

In the testes Secrete testosteron and other androgens

Enteric nervous system

In the wall of the alimentary canal Controls peristalsis Upregulated by the parasympathetic nervous system Downregulated by the sympathetic nervous system

Dissociative Amnesia

Inability to recall past experience without an underlying neurological disorder Can involve dissociative fugue (sudden change in location that may involve the assumption of a new identity)

Law of Reflection

Incident angle will equal the angle of reflection, as measured from the normal Theta 1 = Theta 2

Simple Machines

Inclined plane, wedge, wheel and axle, lever, pulley and screw Provide the benefit of mechanical advantage

Surroundings

Include everything that is not part of the system

Linear Motion

Includes free fall and motion in which the velocity and acceleration vectors are parallel and antiparallel

Symbolic Culture

Includes the ideas associated with a culture group

Material Culture

Includes the physical items one associates with a given group

Glucocorticoids

Increase blood glucose in response to stress Mobilize fat stores Inhibit glucose uptake Increase the impact of glucagon and catecholamines Ex. Cortisol

Resonance

Increase in amplitude that occurs when a periodic force is applied at the natural (resonant) frequency of an object

Enzyme and Salinity

Increased salt concentration causes disruption of hydrogen bonds and ionic bonds

Physical Attractiveness

Increased with symmetry and proportions close to the golden ratio

Orexin

Increases appetite Alertness and sleep-wake cycle

Calcitonin

Increases bone formation Decreases calcium concentrations in the blood

Prolonged Fasting (Starvation)

Increases glucagon and catecholamine secretion Tissues rely on fatty acids 2/3 of brain's energy can be derived from ketone bodies

Catalyst

Increases reaction rate becuase it lowers the activation energy Homogeneous: same phase as the reactants Heterogeneous: different phase as the reactants

Parathyroid hormone

Increases resorption of bone Increases calcium and phosphate concentrations in the blood

Vitamin D

Increases resorption of bone, leading to increased turnover and production of stronger bone

Reinforcement

Increases the likelihood of a behavior

Spin Quantum Number (ms)

Indicates the spin orientation (+ - 1/2) of an electron in an orbital

Identity

Individual components of the self-concept related to the groups to which we belong

Compliance

Individuals change their behavior based on the requests of others Foot-in-the-door, door-in-the-face, lowball, that's-not-all

Dramaturgical Approach

Individuals create images of themselves in the same way actors perform a role in front of an audience Front Stage: where the individual is seen by the audience, strives to preserve a desired image Back Stage: Individual is not in front of an audience and is free to act outside the desired image

Social Cognitive Perspective of Personality

Individuals interact with their environment in a cycle of reciprocal determinism (people mold their environments according to their personalities, and those environments shape our thoughts, feelings and behaviors)

Rational Choice Theory

Individuals make decisions that maximize potential benefit and minimize potential harm Exchange theory applies this within social groups

Attribute Substitution

Individuals make judgements that are complex but instead substitute a simpler solution

Self-Serving Bias

Individuals view their own successes as being based on internal factors while viewing failures as being based on external factors

Induction

Inducer releases factor to promote differentiation to a competent responder

Operons

Inducible or repressible clusters of genes transcribed as a single mRNA Regulator gene: codes for a repressor protein Promoter site: binds RNA polymerase Operator site: place where a repressor protein can bind Structural gene: codes for the protein of interest

Veins

Inelastic, thin-walled structures Transport blood to the heart Stretch in order to accommodate large volumes of blood Do not have recoil capability Compressed by surrounding skeletal muscles Have valves to maintain one-way flow Small veins are called venules

Grasping Reflex

Infant closes fingers around an object placed in their hand

Virus Mechanism

Infect cells by attaching to specific receptors, and can enter the cell by fusing with the plasma membrane, being brought in by endocytosis or injecting their genome into the cell Reproduces by replicating and translating genetic material using the host cell's ribosomes, tRNA, amino acids and enzymes Viral progeny are released through cell death, lysis or extrusion

Prions

Infectious proteins that trigger misfolding of other proteins Usually converting a-helical structure to a B-pleated sheet Decreases solubility of the protein and increases resistance to degradation

Midbrain

Inferior and superior colliculi (sensorimotor reflexes) Superior: receives visual sensory input Inferior: receive auditory sensor input Embryonic brain: mesencephalon

Neutrophils

Ingest bacteria (particularly opsonized bacteria - those marked with antibodies) Follow bacteria using chemotaxis

Macrophages

Ingest pathogens Present them on major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules Secrete cytokines

Phagocytosis

Ingestion of large solid molecules in vesicles formed from the cell membrane

Pinocytosis

Ingestion of liquid into the cell in vesicles formed from the cell membrane

Mendel's Second Law (of Independent Assortment)

Inheritance of one allele does not influence the probability of inheriting an allele for a different trait

Uncompetitive Inhibition

Inhibitor binds only with the enzyme-substrate complex Km and Vmax decrease

Noncompetitive Inhibition

Inhibitor binds with equal affinity to the enzyme and the enzyme-substrate complex Vmax is decreased Km is unchanged

Mixed Inhibition

Inhibitor binds with unequal affinity to the enzyme and the enzyme-substrate complex Vmax is decreased Km is increased or decreased depending on if the inhibitor has a higher affinity for the enzyme or ES complex

Competitive Inhibition

Inhibitor is similar to the substrate Binds to the active sire Can be overcome by adding more substrate Vmax is unchanged, Km increases

Scientific Method

Initial steps: generate a testable question, gather data and resources, form a hypothesis (focus on generating a hypothesis) Intermediate steps: collect new data, analyze the data, interpret the data and existing hypothesis (focus on testing hypothesis) Final steps: publish and verify results (relate to providing the results for further testing of the hypothesis)

Instincts

Innate, fixed patterns of behavior in response to stimuli

Mitochondria

Inner and outer membrane Outer membrane forms a barrier with the cytosol Inner membrane is folded into cristae and has enzymes for the ETC Between the membranes is the intermembrane space Inner mitochondria is called the mitochondrial matrix Can divide independent of the nucleus through binary fission Can trigger apoptosis by releasing enzymes into the cytoplasm

Cofactors

Inorganic molecules and metal ions that interact with enzymes and activate them

Ohmmeters

Inserted around a resistive element to measure resistance Self-powered Negligible resistance

Voltmeters

Inserted in parallel in a circuit Measures a voltage drop Have a very large resistance

Ammeters

Inserted in series in a circuit Measures current Negligible resistance

Lipids

Insoluble in water Soluble in nonpolar organic solvents

Dyssomnias

Insomnia Narcolepsy Sleep Apnea Sleep Deprivation

Borderline PD

Instability in relationships, mood and self-image Splitting (viewing others as all good or all bad) and suicide attempts

Myelin

Insulating substance that prevents substance loss Coats axons Created by oligodendrocytes in the CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS Prevents dissipation of the neural impulse and crossing of neural impulses from adjacent neurons

Dielectric Materials

Insulators placed between the plates of a capacitor Increase capacitance by a factor equal to the material's dielectric constant (K) C' = K*C

Postabsorptive (Fasting) State

Insulin secretion decreases Glucagon and catecholamine secretion increases Short-term fasting (overnight) Transition to catabolic metabolism

Postprandial/Well-Fed (Absorptive) State

Insulin secretion is high Anabolic metabolism prevails

Temporal Summation

Integration of multiple signals near each other in time

Gender Inequality

Intentional or unintentional empowerment of one gender to the detriment of the other

Quaternary Structure

Interaction between peptides in proteins that have multiple subunits

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Interconnected membranes that are continuous with the nuclear envelope

Endoskeletons

Internal skeletons

Drives

Internal states of tension the beget particular behaviors focused on goals Primary: bodily processes Secondary: stem from learning, accomplishments and emotions

Female Reproductive System Anatomy

Internal: Once per month, egg is ovulated into the peritoneal sac and is drawn into the fallopian tube (oviduct), which is connected to the uterus (lower end is the cervix), which is connected to the vaginal canal External: vulva

DNA cloning

Introduces a fragment of DNA into a vector plasmid Restriction enzyme (restriction endonuclease) cuts the plasmid and fragment, leaving them with sticky ends Fragment binds to the plasmid Introduced into a bacterial cell and replicated Creates many copies of the fragment of interest Can be used to create a protein of interest or lysed to allow for isolation of the fragment of interest from the vector

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

Intrusion symptoms (reliving the event, flashbacks, nightmares), avoidance symptoms (avoidance of people, places, objects associated with trauma), negative cognitive symptoms (amnesia, negative mood and emotions), and arousal symptoms (increased startle responses, irritability, anxiety)

Venturi Effect

Inverse relationship between pressure and speed Direct relationship between cross sectional area and pressure exerted on the walls of the tube

Social Capital

Investment people make in their society in return for economic or collective rewards Social networks are a powerful form of social capital

Ascribed Status

Involuntarily assigned to an individual Based on race, ethnicity, gender, family background, etc.

Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders

Involve significant bodily symptoms

Intermediate Filaments

Involved in cell-cell adhesion Maintain integrity of the cytoskeleton Anchor organelles (Keratin and Desmin)

Allantois

Involved in early fluid exchange between the embryo and the yolk sac

Somatic Symptom Disorder

Involves at least one somatic symptom May be linked to an underlying medical condition that causes disproportionate concern

Chemical Bonds

Ionic or covalent Form bonds to fufill the octet rule (elements are most stable with 8 valence electrons) Exceptions: Incomplete octet (H, He, Li, Be, B), expanded octet (elements in period 3 or greater), compounds with an odd number of electrons cannot have 8 electrons on each element

Specific phobias

Irrational fears of specific objects or situations

Prejudice

Irrational positive or negative attitude toward a person, group, or thing prior to an actual experience

Ligases

Join two large biomolecules, often of the same type

Fertilization

Joining of a sperm and an ovum Usually occurs in the ampulla of the fallopian tube Sperm uses acrosomal enzymes to penetrate the corona radiata and zona pellucida Once sperm contacts the plasma membrane, it establishes the acrosomal apparatus and injects its pronucleus Causes a release of calcium ions which prevents additional sperm from fertilizing the egg and increases the metabolic rate of the zygote (cortical reaction)

Hybridization

Joining of complementary base pair sequences

Halo Effect

Judgements of an individual's character can be affected by the overall impression of the individual

Weber's Law

Just noticeable distance for a stimulus is proportional to the magnitude of the stimulus Proportion is constant over most of the range of possible stimuli

Layers of the Meninges

Keep the brain anchored to the skull Reabsorbs cerebrospinal fluid which is secreted by cells that line the ventricles of the brain Skin - Periosteum - Skull - Dura Mater - Arachnoid Mater - Pia Mater

Single-Stranded DNA-Binding Proteins (ssBs)

Keep unwound DNA strands from reannealing or being degraded

Stabilizing Selection

Keeps phenotypes in a narrow range, excluding extremes

Keq and Standard Emf

Keq > 1, E cell0 is + Keq < 1, E cell0 is - Keq = 1, E cell0 is 0

Stratum Granulosum

Keratinocytes lose nuclei

Ketogenesis

Ketone body formation Occurs during prolonged starvation due to excess acetyl-CoA in the liver

HMG-CoA Reductase

Key enzyme in cholesterol biosynthesis Converts acetyl-CoA to mevalonic acid

Excretory System

Kidney produces urine, which flows into ureter at the renal pelvis Collected in the bladder and excreted through the urethra

Titrant

Known concentration Added slowly to the titrand to reach the equivalence point

Solubility Product Constant (Ksp)

Ksp = [A^n+]^m * [B^m-]^n Equilibrium constant for a dissociation reaction

Angular momentum of an electron (Bohr model)

L = n*h/2*pi

Luteal Phase

LH causes the ruptured follicle to become the corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone that maintains the uterine lining High levels of estrogen and progesterone cause negative feedback on GnRH, LH and FSH

Hallucinogens

LSD, peyote, mescaline, ketamine, mushrooms

Inducible Systems

Lac operon Bonded to a repressor under normal conditions (off) Can be turned on by an inducer that pulls the repressor from the operator site Inducer binds to the repressor protein

Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)

Lack mitochondria, a nucleus and organelles to make room for hemoglobin (protein that carries oxygen) Common measurements are hemoglobin concentration and hematocrit (% of blood composed of erythrocytes)

Bacterial Growth

Lag phase: bacteria adapt to new local conditions Exponential (log) phase: growth increases exponentially Stationary phase: resources are reduced, growth levels off Death phase: resources are depleted

Social Interactionist Theory of Language

Language acquisition is caused by a motivation to communicate and interact with other

Learning (Behaviorist) Theory of Language

Language acquisition is controlled by operant conditioning and reinforcement by parents and caregivers

Nativist (Biological) Theory of Language

Language acquisition is innate and controlled by the language acquisition device (LAD)

DNA libraries

Large collections of known DNA sequences

Genomic libraries

Large fragments of DNA Include both coding and noncoding regions of the genome Cannot be used to make recombinant proteins or for gene therapy

Fission

Large nucleus splits into smaller nuclei Energy released because the nuclei formed are more stable

Deletion Mutations

Large segment of DNA is lost

Thermoregulation

Large surface area of interaction between the alveoli and capillaries Vasodilation and vasoconstriction of capillary beds

Chromosomal Mutations

Larger-scale mutations affecting whole segments of DNA

Species

Largest group of organisms capable of breeding to form fertile offspring Reproductively isolated from each other by pre and postzygotic mechanisms

Spongy/Cancellous Bone

Lattice-like structure Bony spicules (trabeculae) Cavities are filled with bone marrow

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without a reward, but is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced

Gas Phase

Least dense phase of matter Fluids and conform to the shapes of their containers Easily compressible Described by temperature (T), pressure (P), Volume (V), and number of moles (n) 1 atm = 760 mmHg = 760 torr = 101.325 kPa

Whorfian (linguistic relativity) hypothesis

Lens through which we view and interpret the world is created by language

Euchromatin

Less dense, transcriptionally active DNA

Emotional Support

Listening to, affirming, and empathizing with someone's feelings

Y chromosome

Little genetic information Contains SRY (sex-determining region Y) gene which causes the gonads to become testes

Simple Machine Mechanism

Load: output force of a simple machine Load distance: distance a load works over W out = Load * load distance Effort: input force of a simple machine Effort distance: distance over which effort works over W in = effort * effort distance

Secondary Structures

Local structure of neighboring amino acids Stabilized by hydrogen bonding between amino groups and nonadjacent carbonyl groups

Thyroid

Located at the base of the neck in front of the trachea Produces T3, T4 and calcitonin

Centromeres

Located in the middle of chromosomes Hold sister chromatids together until separated during anaphase Contain high GC content to maintain a strong bond between chromatids

M-line

Located in the middle of the sarcomeres

Axon

Long appendage an action potential travels down

Explicit (Declarative) Memory

Long-term memory that stores facts and stories Semantic memory: facts we know Episodic memory: experiences

Implicit (Nondeclarative) Memory

Long-term memory that stores skills and conditioning effects

Body Mass Changes

Long-term: changes in lipid storage Changes in consumption and activity must surpass a threshold to cause weight change Threshold is lower for weight gain than for weight loss

Euchromatin

Loose DNA Transcription can occur Genes are active

Denaturation

Loss of 3D protein structure Caused by heat or solute concentration

Oxidation

Loss of electrons

Deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness in large groups Can lead to drastic changes in behavior

Radioactive Decay

Loss of small particles from the nucleus AZ X ----> A'Z' Y + emitted decay particle

Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia

Loss of something of behavior, cognition or affect Disturbance of affect and avolition

Statistical Significance

Low likelihood of the experimental findings being due to chance

Thermodynamic Products

Lower in free energy than kinetic products and therfore are more stable Proceed slower than the kinetic pathway More spontaneous

Enzyme Kinetics

Lower the activation energy necessary for reactions Do not alter the free energy or enthalpy change Change the rate at which equilibrium is reached

Extracellular digestion

Lumen of the alimentary canal

Positively Charged (Basic) Amino Acids

Lysine (Lys) (K) Arginine (Arg) (R) Histidine (His) (H)

Bacteriophage life cycles

Lytic cycle: bacteriophage produces massive numbers of new virions until the cell lyses. Bacteria are termed virulent Lysogenic cycle: virus integrates into the host genome as a provirus or prophage, which can reproduce along with the cell. Provirus can remain in the genome indefinitely, or leave in response to stimulus and enter the lytic cycle

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

Macromolecule that stores genetic information in all living organisms

Professional Antigen-Presenting Cells

Macrophages, dendritic cells, some B-cells, and certain activated epithelial cells

Microfilaments

Made of actin Structural protection for the cell Can cause muscle contraction through interactions with myosin Form the cleavage furrow during cytokinesis in mitosis

Groups

Made up of 2+ individuals with similar characteristics Share a sense of unity

Amplitude (A)

Magnitude of maximal displacement

Instantaneous Speed

Magnitude of the instantaneous velocity

Glycogen

Main energy storage form for animals More branched than amylopectin Optimizes energy efficiency More soluble in solution

Starches

Main energy storage form for plants Amylose: linear D-glucose polymer linked by a-1,4 glycosidic bonds Amylopectin: D-glucose polymer linked by a-1,4 glycosidic bonds and a-1,6 glycosidic branches

Membrane Potential

Maintained by the sodium-potassium pump and leak channels

Native PAGE

Maintains the protein's shape, but results are difficult to compare because the mass-to-charge ratio differs for each protein

Impression Management

Maintenance of a public image

Liver Metabolism

Maintenance of blood glucose levels Glycogenolysis Gluconeogenesis Processing of lipids, cholesterol, bile, urea and toxins

Sphingomyelins

Major class of sphingophospholipids Contain a phosphatidylcholine or phosphatidylethanolamine head group Major component of the myelin sheath

Depressive Disorders

Major depressive disorder and seasonal affective disorder

Seasonal Affective Disorder

Major depressive disorder with seasonal onset

Direct Hormones

Major effects on non-endocrine tissues

Tropic Hormones

Major effects on other endocrine tissues

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

Makes up the ribosome Enzymatically active

Ethnocentrism

Making judgements about other cultures based on the values and beliefs of one's own culture

Hemizygous

Males are with respect to unpaired genes on the X-chromosome Males will express sex-linked disorders even with only one copy of a recessive allele

Sensorimotor Stage

Manipulation of the environment to meet physical needs Circular reactions Object permanence ends this stage

Stratum Corneum

Many thin layers of keratinocytes form

Molecular Weight

Mass (in amu) of the constituent atoms in a compound

Molar Mass

Mass of one mole of a compound Usually measured in grams/mole One mole = Avogadro's number = 6.022 * 10^23 particles

Percent composition by mass

Mass of solute per mass of solution * 100% Used for aqueous solutions and solid-in-solid solutions

Percent Composition

Mass of the individual element / molar mass of the compound * 100%

Oral cavity

Mastication: mechanical digestion of food Salivary amylase and lipase: chemical digestion of food Food is formed into a bolus and swallowed

Insulators

Materials that do not conduct a current

Open System

Matter and energy can be exchanged with the environment

T-cells

Mature in the thymus Peptide hormone thymosin promotes T-cell development

Solubility

Maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a given solvent at a given temperature

Crest

Maximum point of a wave (point of most positive displacement)

Total Lung Capacity (TLC)

Maximum volume of air in the lungs when one inhales completely

Semantics

Meaning of words

Inclusive Fitness

Measure of an organism's success in the population Based on the number of offspring, success in supporting offspring, and the ability of the offspring to support others

Arithmetic Mean (Average)

Measure of central tendency that equally weighs all values Most affected by outliers X = Sum(Xn)/n

Entropy

Measure of energy dispersion in a system

Entropy

Measure of how much energy has spread out or how spread out energy has become As the number of available microstates increases, the potential energy of a molecule is distributed over the larger number of microstates, increasing the entropy Delta(S) = Q rev/T

Electronegativity

Measure of the attractive force of the nucleus for electrons within a bond Increases from left to right across a period Decreases from top to bottom in a group Upper right has the highest

Entropy

Measure of the degree to which energy has been spread throughout a system or between a system and its surroundings Delta(S) = Qrev/T Ratio of heat transferred per mole per unit kelvin Maximized at equilibrium

Mass

Measure of the inertia of an object (amount of material)

Gram Equivalent Weight

Measure of the mass of a substance that can donate one equivalent of the species of interest GEW = molar mass/n

Enthalpy

Measure of the potential energy of a system found in intermolecular attractions and chemical bonds Can be calculated using heats of formation, heats of combustion or bond dissociation energies

Reaction Rates

Measured in terms of the rate of disapearance of a reactant or appearance of a product Increasing the concentration of reactant will increase reaction rate because there are more effective collisions per time Increasing the temperature will increase the reaction rate because the particles' kinetic energy is increased Changing the medium can increase or decrease reaction rate, depending on how the reactants interact with the medium

Hermann von Helmholtz

Measured the speed of a nerve impulse Psychology is a natural science

Viscosity (n)

Measurement of a fluid's internal friction

Standard Deviation

Measurement of variability about the mean Can be used to determine outliers SD = sqrt((Sum((Xn - mean)^2)/n-1)

Simple Mercury Barometer

Measures incident pressure As the pressure increases, more mercury is forced into the column, increasing its height As pressure decreases, mercury flows out of the column under its own weight, decreasing its height

Spirometer

Measures lung capacities and volumes

Drug Addiction

Mediated by mesolimbic pathway Includes the nucleus accumbens, medial forebrain bundle, ventral tegmental area Dopamine is the main neurotransmitter

Flippases

Membrane proteins Maintain the bidirectional transport of lipids between the layers of the phospholipid bilayer

Sensory Dermis Cells

Merkel Cells (deep pressure and texture) Free nerve endings (pain) Meissner's corpuscles (light touch) Ruffini endings (stretch) Pacinian corpuscles (deep pressure and vibration)

Vitamin D (cholecalciferol)

Metabolized to calcitriol in the kidneys Regulates calcium and phosphorus homeostasis in the intestines (increases calcium and phosphate absorption) Promotes bone formation A deficiency can cause rickets

Vitamin A (Carotene)

Metabolized to retinal Vision and retinoic acid for gene expression in epithelial development

SI Units

Meter, kilogram, second, ampere, mole, kelvin, candela

Gene Therapy

Method of curing genetic deficiencies Introducing a functional gene with a viral vector

Endocytosis

Method of engulfing material into cells via the cell membrane

Exocytosis

Method of releasing material to the exterior of cells via the cell membrane

Dilution Formula

MiVi = MfVf

ATP

Mid-level energy molecule High-energy phosphate bonds Participates in phosphoryl group transfers as a phosphate donor

Half-equivalence point

Midpoint of the buffering region Half of the titrant has been protonated [HA] = [A-] Buffer is formed

Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep

Mind appears close to awake on EEG Eye movements and body paralysis Dreaming focuses on consolidating procedural memories

Difference Threshold/Just-Noticeable Difference

Minimum difference in magnitude between two stimuli before one can perceive this difference

Two-Point Threshold

Minimum distance necessary between 2 points of stimulation on the skin such that points can be felts as 2 distinct stimuli

Work Function

Minimum energy necessary to eject an electron from a given metal Value depends on the metal used W = h*fT

Threshold Frequency (fT)

Minimum light frequency necessary to eject an electron from a given metal

Absolute Threshold

Minimum of stimulus energy that is needed to activate a sensory system

Threshold of Conscious Perception

Minimum of stimulus energy that will create a signal large enough in size and long enough in duration to be brought into awareness

Trough

Minimum point of a wave (point of most negative displacement)

Threshold

Minimum stimulus that causes a change in signal transduction

Moles of electrons transferred during reduction

Mn+ + ne- = M(s)

Demographic transition

Model used to represent drops in birth and death rates as a result of industrialization

Amino Acid-Derivative Hormones

Modified amino acids Share some features with peptide and steroid hormones Epinephrine, norepinephrine, T3 and T4

Thyroid Hormones

Modulate the impact of other metabolic hormones Have a direct impact on basal metabolic rate

Serotonin

Modulates mood, eating, sleeping and dreaming

Molar Solubility

Molarity of the solute at saturation

Transition State Theory

Molecules form a transition state (activated complex) during a reaction in which old bonds are partially dissociated and new bonds are partially formed Transition state is the highest point on a free energy diagram

Nonpolar Bonds

Molecules in which both atoms have exactly the same electronegativity (< 0.5)

Intermediates

Molecules that exist within the course of the reaction but are neither reactants or products

Moles from Mass

Moles = Mass of a sample/molar mass

Molarity

Moles of solute per liters of solution Most common unit of concentration Used for rate laws, the law of mass action, osmotic pressure, pH and pOH, and the Nernst equation

Equivalents

Moles of the species of interest Most often seen in acid-base chemistry and oxidation-reduction reactions Eq = mass of compound / GEW

Secondary Traits

More personal characteristics Limited in occurrence

T3 (triiodothyronine)

More potent than T4 Shorter half-life Available in lower concentrations in the blood T4 is converted to T3 at the tissues

Enhancers

More than 25 base pairs away from the transcription start site Signal molecules bind to receptors (transcription factors) that bind to DNA response elements using the DNA-binding domain Increase the expression of the relevant gene

Codominance

More than one dominant allele

Dreaming

Most occurs during REM Different models for the content and purpose of dreaming

Recency Effect

Most recent information we have about an individual is most important in forming impressions

Drive Reduction Theory

Motivation arises from the desire to eliminate drives, which create uncomfortable internal state

Incentive Theory

Motivation is the desire to pursue rewards and avoid punishments

Types of Neurons

Motor (Efferent), Interneurons, Sensory (Afferent)

Mechanical Digestion of Lipids

Mouth and stomach

Transferases

Move a functional group from one molecule to another

Emigration

Movement away from a geographic area

Immigration

Movement into a new geographic area

Current

Movement of charge that occurs between 2 points that have different electrical potentials Movement of positive charge from the high-potential end of a voltage source to the low-potential end Really, negatively charged particles (electrons) move in a circuit from low potential to a high potential I = Q/delta(t)

Effusion

Movement of gas from one compartment to another through a small opening under pressure

Migration

Movement of people from one geographic location to another

Secretion

Movement of solutes from blood to filtrate anywhere other than Bowman's capsule

Filtration

Movement of solutes from blood to filtrate at Bowman's capsule Direction and rate is determined by Starling forces (hydrostatic and oncotic pressure differentials between the glomerulus and Bowman's space)

Reabsorption

Movement of solutes from filtrate to blood

Irreversible Reactions in Glycolysis

Glucokinase/Hexokinase PFK-1 Pyruvate Kinase

Directional Selection

Moves the average phenotype toward one extreme

Fructose-1,6-Bisphosphatase

Gluconeogenic enzyme Converts FBP to F6P Bypasses PFK-1 Rate-limiting step of gluconeogenesis Activated by ATP directly and glucagon indirectly (via low levels of F26BP) Inhibited by AMP directly and insulin indirectly (via high levels of F26BP)

Glucose-6-Phosphatase

Gluconeogenic enzyme Converts G6P to free glucose Bypasses glucokinase Found only in the ER of the liver

Phosphoenolpyruvate Carboxykinase (PEPCK)

Gluconeogenic enzyme Converts oxaloacetate to PEP Uses GTP Works to bypass pyruvate kinase in glycolysis Activated by glucagon and cortisol

Pyruvate Carboxylase

Gluconeogenic enzyme Converts pyruvate into oxaloacetate Uses ATP Works to bypass pyruvate kinase in glycolysis Activated by acetyl-CoA from B-oxidation

Glycolysis Pathway

Glucose (Hexokinase) -> G6P -> F6P (PFK-1) -> FBP -> Glyceraldehyde 3P (Glyceraldehyde 3P dehydrogenase) -> 1,3BPG (3-phosphoglycerate kinase) -> 3PG -> 2PG -> PEP (Pyruvate kinase) -> pyruvate

Disruptive Selection

Moves the population toward two different phenotypes at the extremes Can lead to speciation

Frameshift Mutations

Moving the three-letter transcriptional reading frame

Polysaccharides

Multiple monosaccharide units Repeated glycosidic bonding

Estimation

Multiplication: Round one up and one down Division: Round both in the same direction

Prokaryote Growth

Multiply through binary fission: chromosomes replicate while the cell grows, cell wall grows inward along the midline, and divides into two identical daughter cells

Antagonistic Pairs

Muscles that serve opposite functions When one muscle contracts, the other lengthens

Cardiovascular System

Muscular 4-chambered heart, blood vessels, blood

Nonpolar, Nonaromatic Amino Acids

Glycine (Gly) (G) Alanine (Ala) (A) Valine (Val) (V) Leucine (Leu) (L) Isoleucine (Ile) (I) Methionine (Met) (M) Proline (Pro) (P)`

Glycogenesis

Glycogen synthesis Occurs via activation of glucose using UTP (forms UDP-glucose)

Branching Enzyme

Glycogenesis enzyme Moves a block of oligoglucose from one chain and adds it to the growing glycogen as a new branch Uses an a-1,6-glycosidic linkage

Glycogen Synthase

Glycogenesis enzyme Rate-limiting enzyme of glycogenesis Creates a-1,4 glycosidic linkages between glucose molecules Activated by insulin in liver and muscle

Removal of Neurotransmitters

Must be cleared from postsynaptic receptors to stop the propogation of the signal Neurotransmitter can be broken down by an enzyme Neurotransmitter can be absorbed back into the presynaptic cell by reuptake channels Neurotransmitter can diffuse out of synaptic cleft

Nonsense (truncation) Mutations

Mutations that cuase a premature stop codon

White matter

Myelinated axons Deeper than grey matter in the brain

Parasomnias

Night terrors Sleepwalking

Neutron

No charge Mass = 1 amu

Incomplete Dominance

No dominant alleles Heterozygotes have intermediate phenotypes

Silent Mutations

No effect on protein synthesis

Silent Mutation

No effect on the protein

Interferons

Noncellular nonspecific defense Given off by virally infected cells Prevent viral replication and dispersion to nearby cells

Lysozyme

Noncellular nonspecific defense In tears and saliva Antibacterial compound

Mucus

Noncellular nonspecific defense Mucous membranes Traps pathogens Respiratory system: propelled upward by cilia and can be swallowed or expelled

Skin

Noncellular nonspecific defense Physical barrier Secretes antimicrobial compounds like defensins

Complement System

Noncellular nonspecific defense Punch holes in the cell walls of bacteria Makes them osmotically unstable

Stomach and Gut

Noncellular nonspecific defense Stomach acid Bacterial colonization in gut - prevents overgrowth by competition

Viscous Drag

Nonconservative force generated by viscosity

Second-Order Reactions

Nonconstant rate that depends on the concentration of reactant Concentration vs. time curve is nonlinear Slope of 1/[A] vs. time curve is k

First-Order Reactions

Nonconstant rate that depends on the concentration of reactant Concentration vs. time curve is nonlinear Slope of a ln[A] vs. time curve is -k

Enantiomers

Nonidentical, nonsuperimposable mirror images D and L forms of the same sugar

Signal Detection Theory

Nonsensory factors (experiences, motives and expectations) play a role in perception of stimuli

Electrolytic cells

Nonspontaneous reactions Negative electromotive force Used to create useful products through electrolysis Anode is positively charged Cathode is negatively charged

Diastereomers

Nonsuperimposable configurations of molecules with similar connectivity Differ at at least one of the chiral carbons

Allergic Reactions

Nonthreatening exposures incite an inflammatory response

Standard Distribution

Normal distribution with a mean of 0 and a SD of 1 68% are within 1 SD, 95% are within 2 SD, 99% are within 3 SD

Physiological Zero

Normal temperature of the skin to which objects are compared to determine if they are warm or cold

Adiabatic Processes

Not heat is exchanged

Neurulation

Notochord stimulates overlying ectoderm to fold over, forming a neural groove surrounded by neural folds Neural fold becomes neural crest cells (spread throughout the body, becoming different tissues) Furrow closes to form a neural tube (alar plate - sensory neurons, basal plate - motor neurons) Neural tube folds on itself to form the embryonic brain

Astrocytes

Nourish neurons and form the blood-brain barrier Controls transmission of solutes from the bloodstream into nervous tissue

Telophase

Nuclear membrane reforms, spindle apparatus disappears

Nucleotides

Nucleosides with 1-3 phosphate groups added DNA: deoxyribose RNA: ribose Adenine (A), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G), Thymine (T) and Uracil (U)

Frameshift Mutations

Nucleotide addition or deletion Change the reading frame of subsequent codons

Carbohydrate Organization

Number of carbon atoms and functional groups Common names: glucose, fructose, galactoses 3: trioses, 4: tetroses, 5: pentoses, 6: hexoses Aldehydes on most oxidized group: aldoses Ketones on most oxidized group: ketoses

Prevalence

Number of cases of a disease per population in a given period of time

Frequency (f)

Number of cycles a wave makes per second Expressed in hertz (Hz)

Normality

Number of equivalents per liters of solution Molarity of the species of interest Used for acid-base and oxidation-reduction reactions

Incidence

Number of new cases of a disease per population at risk in a given period of time

Atomic number

Number of protons in a given element

Period (T)

Number of seconds it takes for a wave to complete a cycle T = 1/f

Fetal Circulation

Nutrient, gas and waste exchange occurs at the placenta Oxygen and carbon dioxide are passively exchanged due to concentration gradients

Newton's First Law (Law of Inertia)

Object will remain at rest or move with a constant velocity if there is no net force on the object F net = ma = 0

Phenotype

Observable manifestation of a genotype

Network

Observable pattern of social relationships between individuals or groups

Bystander Effect

Observation that when in a group, individuals are less likely to respond to a person in need

Isobaric Processes

Occur at a constant pressure

Isothermal Processes

Occur at a constant temperature

Isovolumetric (Isochoric) Processes

Occur at a constant volume

Dipole-dipole interactions

Occur between oppositely charged ends of polar molecules Stronger than London forces Evident in the solid and liquid phases but negligible in the gas phase due to the distance between particles

Dissociative Identity Disorder

Occurrence of 2 or more personalities that take control of a person's behavior

Gas and Solute Exchange

Occurs at the level of the capillaries Relies on the existence of concentration gradients to facilitate diffusion Capillaries are leaky, aiding in the transport of gases and solutes

Mismatch Repair

Occurs during G2 Uses the genes MSH2 and MLH1

Extinction

Occurs in classical conditioning Conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus enough times Habituation to the conditioned stimulus Spontaneous recovery can occur

Meiosis

Occurs in gametocytes (germ cells) Produces up to 4 nonidentical haploid sex cells (gametes) One round of replication and 2 rouds of division (reductional and equational divisions)

Translational Equilibrium

Occurs in the absence of any net forces acting on an object Has a constant velocity May or may not also be in rotational equilibrium

Rotational Equilibrium

Occurs in the absence of any net torque acting on an object Has a constant angular velocity (usually 0)

Fatty Acid Biosynthesis

Occurs in the cytoplasm Comes from acetyl-CoA transported from the mitochondria 1. Activation (Transacylase) 2. Bond Formation (Condensation) 3. Reduction 4. Dehydration 5. Reduction Cycle is repeated 8 times to form palmitate

Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP)

Occurs in the cytoplasm of most cells Generates NADPH and sugars for biosynthesis

Fatty Acid Oxidation

Occurs in the mitochondria Requires transport of acetyl-CoA from the cytosol using the carnitine shuttle 1. Oxidation 2. Hydration 3. Oxidation 4. Cleavage Branched and unsaturated fatty acids require special enzymes (isomerase and reductase)

Menstruation

Occurs when there is no fertilization Estrogen and progesterone levels drop, causing the endometrial lining to slough off Block on GnRH is removed

Destructive Interference

Occurs when waves are exactly out of phase with each other Amplitude of the resultant wave is equal to the difference in amplitude between the 2 interfering waves

Cluster A disorders

Odd, eccentric Paranoid, schizotypal, and schizoid disorders

Archaea

Often extremophiles (live in harsh environments) Use chemical sources of energy rather than light Similarities to eukaryotes and bacteria

Secondary Groups

Often temporary Contain fewer emotional bonds and weaker bonds overall

Proactive Interference

Old information is interfering with new learning

Olfactory Pathway

Olfactory nerves - olfactory bulb and tract - higher-order brain areas

Adrenal Glands

On top of the kidneys Adrenal medulla: releases epinephrine and norepinephrine that cause changes in the sympathetic nervous system Adrenal Cortex: Release corticosteroids (cortisol - stress hormone) and sex hormones (testosterone and estrogen)

Oogenesis

One haploid ovum and and a variable number of polar bodies are formed from an oogonium At birth, oogonia have undergone replication and are primary oocytes arrested in prophase I Ovulated egg is a secondary oocyte, arrested in metaphase I If the oocyte is fertilized, it completes meiosis II to form an ovum Cytokinesis is uneven (most of the cytoplasm and organelles go to the ovum)

Role Conflict

One has difficulty in satisfying the requirements of multiple roles simultaneously

Role Strain

One has difficulty satisfying multiple requirements of the same role simultaneously

In-Group

One in which an individual identifies with

Relative Poverty

One is poor in comparison to the larger population

Polygamy

One member of a sex having multiple exclusive relationships with members of the opposite sex Polygyny and polyandry

Equivalent

One mole of the species of interest

Semiconservative

One old parent strand and one new daughter strand is incorporated into each of the 2 new DNA molecules

Decomposition Reactions

One reactant is chemically broken down into two or more products

Out-Group

One that an individual competes with or opposes

Stratum Lucidum

Only present in thick, hairless skin Nearly transparent

Plane Mirrors

Only produce virtual, upright images Images are the same size as the object Can be thought of as spherical mirrors with an infinite radii of curvature

Positive Selection

Only selecting for T-cells that can react to an antigen presented on MHC

Open Pipes

Open at both ends Antinodes at both ends lambda = 2L/n n = harmonic (number of nodes) f = nv/2L

Big Five Traits of Personality

Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism

Hydraulic Machines

Operate on the application of Pascal's principle to generate mechanical advantage

Resistance

Opposition to movement of electrons through a material R = resistivity*L/A (also affected by temperature)

Circulating Antibodies

Opsonize pathogen (mark them for destruction by phagocytic cells) Agglutination into insoluble complexes that are interested by phagocytes Neutralize pathogens

Digestive Tract

Oral cavity - Pharynx - Esophagus - Stomach - Small Intestine - Large Intestine - Rectum

Freud's Psychosexual Stages

Oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital Based on the erogenous zones that are the focus of each phase of development Failure at any given stage leads to fixation Based on the tensions caused by the libido

Eye

Organ that is specialized to detect light in the form of photons

Biological Factors of Cognition

Organic brain disorders, genetic and chromosomal conditions, metabolic derangements and drug use

Bone Matrix

Organic components: collagen, glycoproteins, and other peptides Inorganic components: hydroxyapatite Organized into concentric rings (lamellae) around a central Haversian or Volkmann's canal Structural unit is called an osteon/Haversian system Between rings are lacunae (where osteocytes reside) which are connected with canaliculi which allow for nutrient and waste transfer

Mendel's First Law (of Segregation)

Organism has 2 alleles for each gene, which segregate during meiosis, resulting in gametes carrying only one allele for each trait

Discrimination

Organism learns to distinguish between two similar stimuli

Chimeras

Organisms that contain cells from two different lineages

Social Movements

Organized to either promote (proactive) or resist (reactive) social change

Periodic Table of Elements

Organizes elements according to atomic numbers Reveals patterns of similar chemical and physical properties among elements

First Trimester

Organogenesis (heart, eyes, gonads, limbs, liver, brain)

Middle Ear

Ossicles: malleus (hammer), incus (anvil) and stapes (stirrup) Footplate of the stapes rests on the oval window of the cochlea Connected to the nasal cavity by the Eustachian tube

Bone Remodeling

Osteoblasts Osteoclasts Parathyroid hormone Vitamin D Calcitonin

Neuroglia/Glial Cells

Other cells within the nervous system

Self-esteem

Our evaluation of ourselves The closer our actual self is to our ideal self and our ought self (who other want us to be), the higher the self-esteem

Diluting Segment

Outer medulla Salt is actively reabsorbed Filtrate becomes more diluted

Mitochondrial Membrane

Outer membrane: highly permeable Inner membrane: surrounds the matrix where the TCA cycle products electrons that are used in the ETC; contains many enzymes important in cellular respiration; does not contain cholesterol; folds called cristae

Menopause

Ovaries stop producing estrogen and progesterone Menstruation stops and FSH and LH levels rise Physical and physiological changes

Intracellular Digestion

Oxidation of glucose and fatty acids to make energy

Alkaline Earth Metals

Oxidation state of +2 Lose two electrons Most reactive of all metals

Halogens

Oxidation state of -1 Prefer to gain an electron Highest electronegativities of nonmetals

Chalcogens

Oxidation states of -2 or +6 (depending on nonmetal vs. metal) Biologically important

Malate Dehydrogenase

Oxidizes malate to form oxaloacetate Generates the third NADH

Succinate Dehydrogenase

Oxidizes succinate to form fumarate Flavoprotein that is anchored to the inner mitochondrial membrane because it requires FAD Reduced to form FADH2

Cooperative binding

Oxygen is carried by hemoglobin In the lungs, there is a high partial pressure of oxygen which results in loading of oxygen onto hemoglobin In the tissues, there is a low partial pressure of oxygen, resulting in unloading Each successive oxygen bound to the hemoglobin increases the affinity of other subunits Each successive oxygen released decreases the affinity of the other subunits

Power

P = 1/f

Pressure

P = F/A Exerted by a fluid on the walls of its container and on objects placed in the fluid Scalar quantity Pressure exerted by a gas against the walls will always be perpendicular to the container walls

Gauge Pressure

P gauge = P - P atm = (P0 + density*g*z) - P atm In liquids: gauge pressure is caused by the weight of the liquid above the point of measurement

Gay-Lussac's Law

P/T = k P1/T1 = P2/T2 Special case of the ideal gas law for which volume and number of moles are held constant Direct relationship between temperature and pressure

Combined gas law

P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2 Combination of Boyle's, Charles', and Gay-Lussac's laws Inverse relationship between pressure and volume and direct relationships between pressure and volume with temperature

Sources of Acetyl-CoA

PDH complex Fatty acids (B-oxidation) Carbon skeletons of ketogenic amino acids Ketone bodies Alcohol

Acetylcholine

PNS: transmits nerve impulses to muscles CNS: attention and arousal

Glucose-6-phosphate Dehydrogenase

PPP enzyme Rate-limiting enzyme of PPP Converts G6P to 6-phosphogluconate Generates NADPH Activated by NADP+ and insulin Inhibited by NADPH

Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures

PT = PA + PB + PC + ... PA = XA*PT Individual gas components of a mixture of gases will exert individual pressures in proportion to their mole fractions Total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the component gases

Boyle's Law

PV = k P1V1 = P2V2 Special case of the ideal gas law for which temperature and number of moles are held constant Inverse relationship between pressure and volume

Ideal Gas Law

PV = nRT Relationship between the four variables of the gas state for an ideal gas

Gate Theory of Pain

Pain sensation is reduced when other somatosensory signals are present

Diamagnetic

Paired electrons, cannot be easily realigned with magnetic fields Repelled by magnets

Autonomic NS Divisions

Parasympathetic (rest-and-digest) AND Sympathetic (fight-or-flight)

Social Development

Parent- Stranger Anxiety - Separation Anxiety Solitary - Onlooker - Parallel Play - Sex-Typed Play

Embedded Proteins

Part of a catalytic complex Involved in cellular communication

Pyruvate Dehydrogenase (PDH)

Part of the PDH complex Oxidizes pyruvate Forms CO2 Requires vitamin B1, TPP and Mg2+

Dihydrolipoyl transacetylase

Part of the PDH complex Oxidizes the 2-carbon molecule using lipoic acid Transfers acetyl group to CoA, forming acetyl-CoA

Dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase

Part of the PDH complex Uses FAD to reoxidize lipoic acid Forms FADH2 FADH2 then transfers electrons to NAD+, forming NADH that can be fed into the ETC

Parietal Lobe

Part of the cerebal cortex Spatial processing and manipulation Somatosensory cortex: postcentral gyrus, takes in sensory signals for touch, pressure, temperature and pain

Frontal Lobe

Part of the cerebral cortex Executive function, impulse control, long-term planning, motor function and speech production Contains prefrontal cortex, primary motor cortex, Broca's area

Pineal Gland

Part of the forebrain Coordinates biological rhythms Releases melatonin which regulates circadian rhythm

Basal Ganglia

Part of the forebrain Coordinates muscle movement (smooth and steady posture) Receives information from the cerebral cortex and relays to the brain and spinal cord Extrapyramidal system: gathers info about body position and carries it to CNS without motor neurons

Limbic System

Part of the forebrain Emotion and memory Contains the septal nuclei, amygdala, hippocampus, fornix, hypothalamus, olfactory cortex and thalamus

Cerebral Cortex

Part of the forebrain Gyri and sulci increase the surface area 2 hemispheres - 4 lobes each: frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal Complex perceptual, cognitive and behavioral processes

Hypothalamus

Part of the forebrain Homeostatic functions Arousal, aggression, sexual (emotion), hunger, thirst Connects with the endocrine system using the hypophyseal portal system that connects to the anterior pituitary

Thalamus

Part of the forebrain Relay station for incoming sensory information Sorts and transmits to different parts of the cortex

Prefrontal Cortex

Part of the frontal lobe Association area Executive function Supervises processes associated with perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, planning

Primary Motor Cortex

Part of the frontal lobe Projection area Precentral gyrus Initiates voluntary motor movements (finer motor control = more area)

Broca's Area

Part of the frontal lobe Speech production Dominant hemisphere

Reticular Formation

Part of the hindbrain Arousal and alertness

Cerebellum

Part of the hindbrain Maintains posture and balance Coordinates body movements

Medulla Oblongata

Part of the hindbrain Regulates vital functioning (breathing, HR, BP)

Hippocampus

Part of the limbic system Consolidates information to form long-term memories Redistributes remote memories to the cerebral cortex Communicates with other parts of the limbic system via the fornix

Hippocampus

Part of the limbic system Creates long-term explicit (episodic) memories

Amygdala

Part of the limbic system Defensive and aggressive behaviors Fear and rage

Amygdala

Part of the limbic system Involved in attention and fear Helps interpret facial expressions Part of the intrinsic memory system for emotional memory

Prefrontal Cortex

Part of the limbic system Involved in planning, expressing personality and making decisions Ventral: experiencing emotion Ventromedial: controlling emotional responses from the amygdala and decision-making

Septal Nuclei

Part of the limbic system Primary pleasure center

Hypothalamus

Part of the limbic system Releases neurotransmitters that affect mood and arousal

Thalamus

Part of the limbic system Sensory processing station

Wernicke's Area

Part of the temporal lobe Language reception and comprehension

Auditory Cortex

Part of the temporal lobe Speech, music and sound processing

Enzyme-linked Receptors

Participate in cell signaling through extracellular ligand binding Initiate second messenger cascades

Osmosis

Passive transport Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane

Simple Diffusion

Passive transport Does not require a transporter Small, nonpolar molecules passively move down concentration gradients until they reach equilibrium

Facilitated Diffusion

Passive transport Uses transport proteins to move impermeable solutes across the cell membrane

Nonconservative Forces

Path dependent Cause dissipation of mechanical energy of a system While total energy is conserved, some mechanical energy is lost as thermal or chemical energy W nonconservative = Delta(E) = Delta(U) + Delta(K) Ex. friction, air resistance, viscous drag

Conservative Forces

Path independent Do not dissipate the mechanical energy of a system If there are only conservative forces, the total mechanical energy is conserved Delta(E) = Delta(U) + Delta(K) = 0 Ex. gravity and electrostatic forces

State Functions

Pathway independent Not defined by a process Ex. Pressure, density, temperature, volume, enthalpy, internal energy, Gibbs free energy, and entropy

Mental Set

Pattern of approach for a given problem

Personality Disorders (PD)

Patterns of inflexible, maladaptive behavior that causes distress or impaired functioning in at least 2: cognition, emotions, interpersonal functioning, impulse control Occur in cluster A, B and C

Implicit Personality Theory

People make assumptions about how different types of people, their traits and their behavior are related

Arousal Theory

People perform actions to maintain arousal

Instinct Theory of Motivation

People perform certain behaviors because of evolutionarily programmed instincts

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

Peptide hormone Increases blood calcium concentration Decreases excretion of calcium by kidneys and increases bone reabsorption Activates vitamin D, which is necessary for calcium and phosphate absorption from the gut

Insulin

Peptide hormone Produced by B-cells in pancreas Lowers blood glucose levels Stimulates glucose uptake by cells Promotes anabolic processes like glycogen, fat and protein synthesis

Glucagon

Peptide hormone Produced by a-cells in pancreas Raises blood glucose levels Stimulates protein and fat degradation, glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis

Somatostatin

Peptide hormone Produced by d-cells in pancreas Inhibits insulin and glucagon secretion

Calcitonin

Peptide hormone Produced by parafollicular (C) cells in thyroid TRH - TSH - Calcitonin Decreases plasma calcium concentration Promotes calcium excretion in kidneys, decreases calcium absorption in gut, promotes calcium storage in bone

Oxytocin

Peptide hormone Produced in hypothalamus Travels down neurons into posterior pituitary where it is secreted into bloodstream Secreted during childbirth Promotes uterine contractions and milk ejection and may be involved in bonding behavior Positive feedback loop

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH/Vasopressin)

Peptide hormone Produced in hypothalamus Travels down neurons into posterior pituitary where it is secreted into bloodstream Secreted in response to low blood volume or increased blood osmolarity Increases reabsorption of water in the collecting duct of the nephron Increases blood volume and decreases blood osmolarity

Insulin

Peptide hormone Secreted by B-cells of pancreas Decrease in blood glucose levels by increasing glucose uptake Increases the rate of anabolic metabolism Secretion is regulated by blood glucose levels

Glucagon

Peptide hormone Secreted by a-cells of pancreas Increases blood glucose levels by promoting gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis in the liver Secretion is stimulated by low glucose and high amino acid levels

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Peptide hormone Secreted by anterior pituitary Acts on adrenal cortex Promotes synthesis and release of glucocorticoids CRF - ACTH - Glucocorticoids

Growth Hormone (GH)

Peptide hormone Secreted by anterior pituitary Acts on bone and muscle Promotes growth of bones and muscle and shunts glucose to these tissues Raises blood glucose concentrations GHRH - GH

Prolactin

Peptide hormone Secreted by anterior pituitary Acts on breast tissue (mammary glands) Promotes milk production

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

Peptide hormone Secreted by anterior pituitary Acts on gonads Promotes development of ovarian follicles and spermatogenesis GnRH - FSH/LH - Sex hormones

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

Peptide hormone Secreted by anterior pituitary Acts on gonads Promotes ovulation and testosterone production GnRH - FSH/LH - Sex hormones

Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

Peptide hormone Secreted by anterior pituitary Acts on thyroid Promotes synthesis and release of triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) TRH - TSH - T3/T4

Endorphins

Peptide hormone Secreted by anterior pituitary Decreases perception of pain and produces euphoria

ADH and Blood Pressure

Peptide hormone Synthesized by hypothalamus and released by posterior pituitary Stimulated by low blood volume and high blood osmolarity Increases permeability of collecting duct to water, which increases water reabsorption Increases blood volume/pressure and decreases blood osmolarity

Debranching Enzyme

Glycogenolysis enzyme Moves a block of oligoglcose from one branch and connects it to the chain using an a-1,4 glycosidic linkage Removes the branchpoint which is connected by an a-1,6 glycosidic linkage Releases a free glucose molecule

Glycogen Phosphorylase

Glycogenolysis enzyme Rate-limiting enzyme of glycogenolysis Removes single G1P molecules by breaking a-1,4 glycosidic linkages In the liver: activated by glucagon to prevent low blood sugar In exercising muscle: activated by epinephrine and AMP

3-phosphoglycerate kinase

Glycolytic enzyme Converts 1,3-BPG to 3PG using substrate-level phosphorylation Produces ATP by placing an inorganic phosphate onto ADP

Pyruvate Kinase

Glycolytic enzyme Converts PEP to pyruvate using substrate-level phosphorylation Produces ATP by placing an inorganic phosphate onto ADP

Glucokinase

Glycolytic enzyme Converts glucose to G6P Present in the pancreatic B-cells as part of the glucose sensor Responsive to insulin in the liver

Hexokinase

Glycolytic enzyme Converts glucose to G6P in peripheral tissues

Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase

Glycolytic enzyme Converts glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate into 1,3-BPG using an inorganic phosphate Produces NADH which can feed into the ETC

Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1)

Glycolytic enzyme Phosphorylates F6P to FBP Rate-limiting step of glycolysis Activated by AMP and F26BP Inhibited by ATP and citrate

Phosphofructokinase-2 (PFK-2)

Glycolytic enzyme Produces F26BP which activates PFK-1 Activated by insulin Inhibited by glucagon

Follicular Phase

GnRH secretion stimulates FSH and LH secretion, promoting follicle development Estrogen is released, stimulating vascularization and glandularization of the decidua

Archimedes' Principle

Governs the buoyant force When the object is placed in a fluid, the fluid generates a buoyant force against the object that is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object

Narcissistic PD

Grandiose sense of self-importance Need for admiration

Phase diagram

Graphs the phases and phase equilibria as a function of temperature and pressure

DNA as Genetic Material

Griffith experiment: transforming principle, converting non-virulent bacteria into virulent bacteria by exposure to heat-killed bacteria Avery-MacLeod-McCarty experiment: DNA is the genetic material because degradation of DNA led to a cessation of bacterial transformation Hershey-Chase experiment: DNA is the genetic material because only radiolabeled DNA could be found in bacteriophage-infected bacteria

Motor Development

Gross motor skills progress head to toe Development of motor skills occurs from core to extremities

Family Group

Group in which an individual is born, adopted, or married into

Subcultures

Group of people within a culture that distinguish themselves from the primary culture

Gemeinschaft (Community)

Group unified by feelings of togetherness due to shared beliefs, ancestry or geography

Gesellschaft (Society)

Group unified by mutual self-interests in achieving a goal

Reference Group

Group we compare ourselves to

Intuition

Gut feeling regarding a particular decision Can be attributed to experience with similar situations

7 Universal Emotions

Happiness, sadness, contempt, surprise, fear, disgust and anger

Bladder

Has a muscular lining called the detrusor muscle, which is under parasympathetic control Internal urethral sphincter - smooth muscle, under involuntary (parasympathetic) control External urethral sphincter - skeletal muscle, under voluntary control

Circular Motion

Has radial and tangential dimensions Uniform: the only force is the centripetal force which points radially inward; instantaneous velocity vector always points tangentially

G-Protein-Coupled Receptors

Have a membrane-bound protein associated with a trimeric G protein Initiate second messenger systems Ligand binging engages the G protein GDP is replaced with GTP a subunit dissociates from the B and gamma subunits The activated a subunit alters the activity of adenylate cyclase or phospholipase C GTP is dephosphorylated to GDP The a subunit rebinds to the B and gamma subunits

Spherical Mirrors

Have centers and radii of curvature, and focal points

Traveling Waves

Have continuously shifting points of maximum and minimum displacement

Skewed Distributions

Have differences in their mean, median and mode Skew direction is the direction of the tail Negative: mean < median < mode Positive: mean > median > mode

Steroid hormones

Have high-affinity receptors Work at low concentrations Affect gene expression and metabolism

Bipolar and Related Disorders

Have manic or hypomanic episodes

Bimodal Distributions

Have multiple peaks, but not necessarily multiple modes Can perform data analysis on the 2 groups separately

Saturated Fatty Acids

Have no double bonds

Unsaturated Fatty Acids

Have one or more double bonds between carbons

Motor Proteins

Have one or more heads capable of force generation through a conformational change Have catalytic activity, acting as ATPase to power movement Muscle contraction, vesicle movement within cells, and cell motility Most common are myosin, kinesin and dynein

Transmembrane Proteins

Have one or more hydrophobic domains Function as receptors or channels

Longitudinal Waves

Have oscillations of wave particles parallel to the direction of wave propagation Ex. sound waves

Transverse Waves

Have oscillations of wave particles perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation

Neuromodulators

Have slow and longer effects

B-anomers

Have the -OH on the anomeric carbon cis (equatorial) to the free -CH2OH group

a-anomers

Have the -OH on the anomeric carbon trans (axial) to the free -CH2OH group

Sperm Anatomy

Head: contains genetic material, covered with an acrosome (modified Golgi apparatus that contains enzymes that help the sperm fuse with and penetrate the ovum) Midpiece: Generates ATP from fructose and contains many mitochondria Flagellum: promotes motility

Diastole

Heart is relaxed Semilunar valves are closed

Myoglobin

Heme-containing protein that is a muscular oxygen reserve

Opiates and Opioids

Heroin, morphine, opium, prescription pain medications Can cause death by respiratory depression

Hypophyseal Portal System

Hypothalamus regulates hormonal function of the pituitary gland How the endocrine system is connected to the nervous system

Intensity

I = Power/Area Related to loudness/volume (sound level) B = 10*log(I/I0); I0 = 1*10^-12 W/m^2 Bf =Bi + 10*log(If/Ii) Related to amplitude (square of amplitude) Decreases over distance Some energy is lost to attenuation from frictional forces

Significance Level (a)

If the p value < a: reject the null hypothesis If the p value > a: fail to reject the null hypothesis

Net Ionic Equations

Ignores spectator ions For reactions with no aqueous salts, the net ionic equation is usually the same as the complete equaion For double-displacement reactions that do not form a solid salt, there is no net ionic reaction

Placenta

Immune protection against pathogens Antibodies transferred from mother to child Endocrine functions: secreting estrogen, progesterone, and hCG

Absorption Spectra

Impacted by small changes in molecular structure

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

Impossible to know both an electron's position and its momentum exactly at the same time

Kirchhoff's Loop Rule

In a closed loop, the sum of the voltage sources is always equal to the sum of voltage drops Conservation of energy V source = V drop

Second Law of Thermodynamics

In a closed system, energy will spontaneously and irreversibly go from being localized to dispersed Delta(S) universe = Delta(S) sys + Delta(S) surr > 0

Growth factors

Peptides that promote differentiation and mitosis in certain tissues

Social Support

Perception or reality that one is cared for by a social network

Obsessive-Compulsive PD

Perfectionism, inflexibility, preoccupation with rules

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Performance is optimal at a medium level of arousal

Systole

Period during ventricular contraction AV valves are closed

Menstrual Cycle

Periodic growth and shedding of endometrial lining Follicular phase, ovulation, luteal phase, menstruation

Ascending limb of the loop of Henle

Permeable only to salt Salt is reabsorbed both passively and actively Diluting segment Filtrate becomes hypotonic compared to the blood

Descending limb of the loop of Henle

Permeable only to water Filtrate moves into the more osmotically concentrated renal medulla, causing water to be reabsorbed from the filtrate Countercurrent multiplier system

Obsessions

Persistent, intrusive thoughts and impulses

Type and Trait Theory

Personality can be described as a number of identifiable traits that carry characteristic behaviors Ex. Greek humors, somatotypes, Type A/B, Myers-Briggs Type Inventory

Psychoanalytic perspective

Personality results from unconscious urges and desires

Myers-Briggs Type Inventory

Personality test Extraversion vs. Introversion Sensing vs. Intuiting Thinking vs. Feeling Judging vs. Perceiving

Paranoid PD

Pervasive distrust and suspicion of others

Microglia

Phagocytic cells that ingest and break down waste products and pathogens in the CNS

Glycerophospholipids

Phospholipids that have a glycerol backbone

Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase

Phosphorylates PDH when ATP or acetyl-CoA levels are high Inhibits PDH

Covalent Modifications of Enzymes

Phosphorylation and glycosylation can alter the activity or selectivity of enzymes

Franz Gall

Phrenology: if a particular trait is well developed, that part of the brain responsible will enlarge Generated research on brain functions

Mechanical digestion

Physical breakdown of large food particles into smaller food particles

Colligative Properties

Physical properties of solutions that depend on the concentration of dissolved particles but not on their chemical identity

Vectors

Physical quantities with both magnitude and direction Include displacement, velocity, acceleration and force

Aggression

Physical, verbal or nonverbal behavior with the intention to cause harm or increase social dominance

Stress

Physiological and cognitive response to challenges or life changes

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological needs (highest priority) > safety and security > love and belonging > self-esteem > self-actualization

Skin Warming Mechanisms

Piloerection (arrector pili muscles contract, causing hairs to stand on end - traps a layer of warmed air around the skin) Shivering Insulation provided by fat

Outer Ear

Pinna (auricle), external auditory canal, tympanic membrane

Viroids

Plant pathogens that are small circles of complementary RNA that can turn off genes Result in metabolic and structural changes and potentially cell death

Phospholipid bilayer

Plasma membrane with proteins embedded Dynamic Lipids are the main component Proteins and carbohydrates move within the membrane too, but are slowed by their relatively large size

Antinodes

Points of maximum oscillation

Nodes

Points where there is no oscillation

Amino Acid Side Chains

Polar or Nonpolar Aromatic or Nonaromatic Charged or Uncharged Long alkyl chains = hydrophobic Charged = hydrophilic The rest fall in between

Cellulose

Polysaccharide B-D-glucose molecules linked by B-1,4 glycosidic bonds Main structural component for plant cell walls Main source of fiber in the human diet

System

Portion of the universe that we are interested in observing

Status

Position in society used to classify individuals

Electronic geometry

Position of all electrons in a molecule, whether bonding or nonbonding

Moelcular Geometry

Position of only the bonding pairs of electrons in a molecule

Proton

Positive charge Mass = 1 amu

Protons

Positive charge q = 1.6*10^-19 C

Unconditional Positive Regard

Therapeutic technique where the therapist accepts the client completely and expresses empathy in order to promote a positive therapeutic environment

Translation Factors

There are factors at every stage of translation that help in each step in recruitment and assembly/disassembly of the ribosome

Exhaustive

There are no other possible outcomes

Vector Addition

Tip to tail method (resultant runs tail/tail and tip/tip) Breaking a vector into its components and using the Pythagorean theorem

Babinski Reflex

Toes spread automatically when the sole of the foot is stimulated

Suppressor (regulatory) T-cells

Tone down the immune response after an infection Promote self-tolerance

Gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT)

Tonsils and adenoids

Hess' Law

Total change in potential energy of a system is equal to the changes of potential energies of the individual steps of the process

Average Speed

Total distance traveled / Total time

Cardinal Traits

Traits around which a person organizes their life Not everyone has a cardinal trait

Passive Immunity

Transfer of antibodies to an individual

Heat

Transfer of energy that results from differences of temperature between 2 substances Heat content of a system undergoing heating, cooling, or phase changes is the sum of all the respective energy changes

Conjugation

Transfer of genetic material from one bacteria to another across a conjugation bridge Plasmid can be transferred from F+ cells to F- cells Portion of the genome can be transferred from an Hfr cell to a recipient

Transduction

Transfer of genetic material from one bacteria to another using a bacteriophage vector

Creatine Phosphate

Transfers a phosphate from ADP to make ATP

Condensation

Transition from gas to liquid phase

Deposition

Transition from gas to solid phase

Vaporization (Evaporation/Boiling)

Transition from liquid to gas phase

Freezing (Crystallization/Solidification)

Transition from liquid to solid phase

Sublimation

Transition from solid to gas phase

Fusion (Melting)

Transition from solid to liquid phase

Membrane Receptors

Transmembrane proteins Bind extracellular ligands Act as channels or enzymes in second messenger pathways

hnRNA

Pre-mRNA Synthesized from the DNA template (antisense) strand

Ionic Charges

Predictable by group number and type of element for representative elements, but unpredictable for nonrepresentative elements Metals form positively charged cations based on group number Nonmetals form negatively charged anions based on the number of electrons needed to achieve an octet

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VESPR) THeory

Predicts the 3D molecular geometry of covalently bonded molecules Electrons arrange themselves to be as far apart as possible from each other in 3D space, leading to characteristic geometries Nonbonding electrons exert more repulsion than bonding electrons because they are closer to the nucleus

Preparedness

Predisposition for leaning behaviors based on natural abilities and instincts

Triacylglycerols (Triglycerides)

Preferred methods of storing energy for long-term use Contain 1 glycerol attached to 3 fatty acids by ester bonds Fatty acids usually vary

Ageism

Prejudice or discrimination on the basis of a person's age

Discrimination

Prejudicial attitudes cause individuals of a particular group to be treated differently from others Individual and Institutional discrimination

Illness Anxiety Disorder

Preoccupation with thoughts about having, or coming down with a serious medical condition

MHC Class I (MHC-I)

Present in all nucleated cells Displays endogenous antigen to cytotoxic T-cells (CD8+)

Cholesterol

Present in large amounts in the membrane Contributes to membrane fluidity and stability

MHC Class II (MHC-II)

Present in professional antigen-presenting cells Displays exogenous antigen to helper T-cells (CD4+)

Waxes

Present in very small amounts in the membrane Most prevalent in plants Function in waterproofing and defense

Pascal's Principle

Pressure applied to an incompressible fluid will be distributed undiminished throughout the entire volume of the fluid P = F1/A1 = F2/A2 F2 = F1*(A2/A1)

Isobaric Processes

Pressure is held constant

Hydrostatic pressure

Pressure of the fluid within the blood vessel Forces fluid out at the arteriolar end of the capillary bed

Tight Junctions

Prevent paracellular transport Do not provide intercellular transport

Osmotic Pressure

Primarily dependent on the molarity of the solution

LDL

Primarily transports cholesterol for use by tissues

Limbic System

Primary nervous system component involved in experiencing emotion

Apoptosis

Programed cell death Formation of apoptotic blebs that can be absorbed and digested by other cells Can be used for sculpting anatomical structures

Polycistronic Genes

Prokaryotic cells Increase the variability of gene products from one transcript Starting transcription in different sites within the gene leads to different gene products

Catecholamines

Promote glycogenolysis Increase basal metabolic rate through sympathetic nervous system activity

Esophagus

Propels food to the stomach using peristalsis Food enters the stomach through the lower esophageal (cardiac) sphincter

Energy

Property of a system that enables it to do something or make something happen Includes the capacity to do work SI units are Joules (J)

Penetrance

Proportion of a population with a given genotype who express the phenotype

Chemical Mechanisms

Propose a series of steps that make up the overall reaction

Glycoprotein Coat

Protective coat formed by carbohydrates Functions in cell recognition

Conjugated Proteins

Proteins with covalently attached molecules (prosthetic group) Prosthetic group can be metal ion, vitamin, lipid, carbohydrate, or nucleic acid

Chemiosmotic Coupling

Proton gradient across the inner membrane stores energy Can be used to form ATP

Schizophrenia

Prototypical disorder with psychosis Positive and negative symptoms

Measures of Central Tendency

Provide a single value representation for the middle of a group of data

ATP Energy

Provides energy through hydrolysis and and coupling to energetically unfavorable reactions

Compact Bone

Provides strength and is dense

Network Support

Providing a sense of belonging to a person

Material Support

Providing physical or monetary resources to aid a person

Informational Support

Providing useful information to a person

Nephron Segments

Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT), descending limb of the loop of Henle, ascending limb of the loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule (DCT), collecting duct

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Range of frequencies and wavelengths found in EM waves Includes radio waves (low energy), microwave, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays, and gamma-rays (high energy)

Confidence Intervals

Range of values about a sample mean that are used to estimate the population mean A wider interval = higher confidence interval

Adaptive Radiation

Rapid emergence of multiple species from a common ancestor Each occupies its own ecological niche

Gap Junctions

Rapid exchange of ions and other small molecules between adjacent cells

Third Trimester

Rapid growth Brain development Transfer of antibodies to the fetus

Exponential Decay

Rate at which radioactive nuclei decay is proportional to the number of nuclei that remain delta(n)/delta(t) = -lambda*n n = n0*e^(-lambda*t) Decay constant: lambda = ln(2)/t 1/2 = 0.693/ t 1/2

Power

Rate at which work is done or energy is transferred SI unit is watt (W) P = W/t = delta(E)/t

Enzyme and Temperature

Rate increases with increasing temperature until the optimal temperature is reached Beyond that, enzymes start to denature

Normality

Ratio of equivalents per liter M = Normality / n

Efficiency

Ratio of the machine's work output to work input when nonconservative forces are taken into account Efficiency = W out / W in = (load)(load distance) / (effort)(effort distance)

Reversible reactions (and equilibrium)

Reach a state where the energy is minimized and entropy is maximized Equilibria are dynamic (reactions are still occurring, just at a constant rate) The concentrations of reactant and products remain constant because the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction

Limiting Reagent

Reactant that will be consumed first in a chemical reaction Other reactants are called excess reagents

Q

Reaction quotient Qc = [C]^c*[D]^d/[A]^a*[B]^b Can be calculated at any concentrations of reactants and products

Collision Theory

Reaction rate is proportional to the number of effective collisions between the reacting molecules Rate = Z x f For a collision to be effective, molecules must be in the proper orientation and have sufficient kinetic energy to exceed the activation energy Arrhenius Equation can be used to represent this theory mathematically: k =Ae^-EA/RT

Reflection

Rebounding of incident light waves at the boundary of a medium

Symbolic ethnicity

Recognition of an ethnic identity that is only relevant on special occasions or in specific circumstances Does not specifically impact everyday life

Top-Down (Conceptually-Driven) Processing

Recognition of an object by memories and expectations Very little attention to detail Faster, more prone to mistakes

Bottom-Up (Data-Driven) Processing

Recognition of objects by parallel processing and feature detection Slower, less prone to mistakes

Cultural Relativism

Recognition that social groups and cultures should be studied on their own terms

Cohort Studies

Record exposures throughout time and then assess the rate of a certain outcome

Panic Disorder

Recurrent panic attacks (intense, overwhelming fear and sympathetic NS activity with no clear stimulus)

Potentiometric titration

Redox titration Voltmeter measures the electromotive force (emf) of a solution No indicator is used, and the equivalence point is determined by a sharp change in voltage

Meritocracy

Refers to a society in which advancement up the social ladder is based on intellectual talent and achievement

Displacement (x) in a Wave

Refers to how far a point is from the equilibrium position Vector quantity

Cultural Lag

Refers to the idea that material culture changes more quickly than symbolic culture

Social Reproduction

Refers to the passing on of social inequality, especially poverty, from one generation to the next

Bond Order

Refers to whether a covalent bond is a single bond, double bond or triple bond As bond order increases, bond strength increases, bond energy increases and bond length decreases

Lenses

Refract light to form images of objects Thin symmetrical lenses have focal points on each side

Dispersion

Refraction of light through a prism

Lens

Refracts incoming light Focuses light on retina Held in place by suspensory ligaments that are connected to the ciliary muscle

Orbital

Region of space around the nucleus defined by the probability of finding an electron in that region of space

Cell-Cell Junctions

Regulate transport intracellularly and intercellularly

Ventilation Control

Regulated by ventilation center Collection of neurons in medulla oblongata Chemoreceptors respond to carbon dioxide concentrations - increase respiratory rate when there is a high concentration of CO2 in the blood (hypercarbia/hypercapnia) Responds to low oxygen concentrations in the blood (hypoxemia) by increasing respiratory rate Controlled consciously through the cerebrum - can be overridden by the medulla oblongata

Autonomic Nervous System

Regulates heart beat, O2, digestion, gland secretion, involuntary muscles with internal organs and glands

Excretory System Functions

Regulation of blood pressure, blood osmolarity, acid-base balance, removal of nitrogenous wastes

Feedback Inhibition

Regulatory mechanism where catalytic activity is inhibited by the presence of high levels of a product later in the pathway

Type 1 Error (a)

Rejecting the null hypothesis when the null hypothesis is true

Dispositional (Internal) Causes

Relate to the features of the person whose behavior is being considered

Situational (External) Causes

Related to features of the surroundings or social context

Pitch

Related to frequency

Gravitational Potential Energy

Related to the mass of an object and its height above a zero-point (datum) U = mgh

Elastic Potential Energy

Related to the spring constant (measure of the stiffness of a spring) and the degree of stretch or compression of a spring squared U = 1/2*kx^2

Family Studies

Relative frequency of a trait within a family in comparison to the general population

Birth Rate

Relative to a population size over time Usually measured as the number of births per 1000 people per year

Exergonic reactions

Release energy Delta(G) is negative

Parathyroid glands

Release parathyroid hormone (PTH)

DNA Topoisomerases

Release torsional strain by introducing negative supercoils Create nicks in the DNA molecule

Release of Neurotransmitters

Released by nerve terminal at the synapse Action potential arrives at nerve terminal, causing voltage-gated calcium channels to open Influx of calcium causes fusion of vesicles filled with neurotransmitters with the presynaptic membrane Results in exocytosis of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic cell (Can be ligand-gated ion channels or G protein-coupled receptors)

Neurotransmitters

Released by neurons to carry a signal to another neuron or effector (muscle fiber or gland)

Melatonin

Released by the pineal gland due to changes in light in the evening Results in sleepiness

Prolactin-inhibiting factor (PIF/Dopamine)

Released from hypothalamus into anterior pituitary INHIBITS the release of prolactin

Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF)

Released from hypothalamus into anterior pituitary Promotes release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) CRF - ACTH - Glucocorticoids

Gonadotropin-releasing Hormone (GnRH)

Released from hypothalamus into anterior pituitary Promotes release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) GnRH - FSH/LH - Sex hormones

Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)

Released from hypothalamus into anterior pituitary Promotes release of growth hormone (GH) GHRH - GH

Thyroid-releasing Hormone (TRH)

Released from hypothalamus into anterior pituitary Promotes release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) TRH - TSH - T3/T4

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

Released from the hypothalamus Stimulates the release of FSH and LH

Cortisol

Released in the early morning Promotes wakefulness

Anterior Pituitary

Releases hormones in response to stimulation from the hypothalamus Tropic hormones: FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH Direct hormones: Prolactin, endorphins, GH

Posterior Pituitary Gland

Releases hypothalamic hormones (ADH and oxytocin) Comprised of axonal projections

Pineal Gland

Releases melatonin (Peptide hormone) Regulates circadian rhythms

Size-Exclusion Chromatography

Relies on porous beads Larger molecules elute first because they do not get trapped in the small pores

Electrolytic Conduction

Relies on the ion concentration of a solution

Metallic Conduction

Relies on uniform movement of free movement of free electrons in metallic bonds

DNA Polymerase I / RNase H

Remove RNA primers

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repetition of a piece of information to keep it within working memory or store it in short-term and eventually long-term memory

Compulsions

Repetitive tasks that relieve tension but cause significant impairment in a person's life

Glycerophospholipids

Replace one fatty acid with a phosphate group Linked to other hydrophilic groups

Resonance Structures

Represent all the possible configurations of electrons (both stable and unstable) that contribute to the overall structure

Field Lines

Represent electric field vectors Radiate outward from positive source charges Radiate inward to negative source charges Positive test charges move in the direction of the field lines Negative test charges move in the direction opposite the field lines

Central Traits

Represent major characteristics of the personality

Haworth Projection

Represent the 3D structure of carbohydrates

Free Body Diagrams

Representations of the forces acting on an object Useful for equilibrium and dynamics problems

Michaelis-Menten Plot

Represents the relationship between Km and Vmax using a hyperbola

Lineweaver-Burk Plot

Represents the relationship between Km and Vmax using a line

Jacob-Monod Model

Repressors and activators explain how operons work

Secure Attachment

Requires a consistent caregiver so the child can go out and explore Child knows they have a secure base they can return to Child shows a strong preference for the caregiver

Active Transport

Requires energy in the form of ATP or an existing favorable ion gradient to move molecules against their concentration gradient

Lagging Strand

Requires many RNA primers Synthesized in discrete section called Okazaki fragments

Leading Strand

Requires only one RNA primer Can be synthesized continuously

Working Memory

Requires short-term memory, attention and executive function to manipulate information

Dishabituation

Resensitization to the original stimulus Can occur when a second stimulus intervenes

Insulators

Resist the movement of charge Have localized areas of charge that do not distribute over the surface of the material

Osteoclasts

Resorb bone

Prestige

Respect and importance tied to specific occupations or associations

Belmont Report

Respect for persons (autonomy, informed consent, confidentiality) Justice (dictates which study questions are worth pursuing and which subjects to use) Beneficence (do the most good with the least harm, cannot perform an intervention without equipoise (lack of knowledge about which arm of the research study is better))

Smooth Muscle

Respiratory, reproductive, cardiovascular, and digestive systems Nonstriated Under involuntary (autonomic) control Uninucleated Displays myogenic activity (contraction without neural input)

Nociceptors

Responsible for pain perception

Long-Term Potentiation

Responsible for the conversion of short-term to long-term memory Strengthening of neuronal connections from increased neurotransmitter release and addition of receptor sites

Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)

Responsive to aldosterone Site of salt reabsorption and waste product excretion

Collecting Duct

Responsive to aldosterone and ADH Has variable permeability Allows reabsorption of the right amount of water depending on the body's needs

Surface Tension

Result of cohesive forces Molecules at the surface can only interact with the molecules below them

Disaccharides

Result of glycosidic bonding between two monosaccharides Sucrose (glucose-a-1,2-fructose) Lactose (galactose-B-1,4-glucose) Maltose (glucose-a-1,4-glucose)

Sigma Bonds

Result of head-to-head overlap in molecular bonds

Senescence

Result of multiple molecular and metabolic processes (shortening of telomeres during cell division)

Pi Bonds

Result of the overlap of 2 parallel electron cloud densities in molecular bonds

Coordinate Covalent Bonds

Result when a single atom procides both bonding electrons, while the other atom does not contribute any Most often found in Lewis acid-base chemistry

Founder Effect

Results from bottlenecks that suddenly isolate a small population Leads to inbreeding and increased prevalence of certain homozygous genotypes

Identical (monozygotic) twins

Results from the splitting of a zygote in two Can be classified by the placental structures they share (mono/di amniotic/chorionic)

Interference

Retrieval error caused by the existence of other, usually similar information

HDL

Reverse transport of cholesterol

Density of a gas

Rho = m/V = PM/RT

RNA vs. DNA

Ribose vs. Deoxyribose Uracil vs. Thymine Single-Stranded vs. Double-Stranded

Pathway of Blood

Right atrium - tricuspid valve - right ventricle - pulmonary valve - pulmonary artery - lungs - pulmonary veins - left atrium - mitral valve - left ventricle - aortic valve - aorta - arteries - arterioles - capillaries - venules - veins - vena cavae - right atrium

Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve

Rightward shift: high partial pressure of carbon dioxide, high hydrogen ion concentration, high temperature, high concentration of 2,3-BPG Decreases affinity for oxygen Left Shift: dissociation curve for fetal hemoglobin compared to adult hemoglobin

Cyclization

Ring formation of carbohydrates from their straight-chain forms Form hemiacetals or hemiketals

Retinal Cells

Rods and cones synapse on bipolar cells which synapse on ganglion cells Integration and edge-sharpening is performed by the horizontal and amacrine cells

Self-Determination Theory

Role of the 3 universal needs: autonomy, competence and relatedness

Avoidance Learning

Role of the behavior is to prevent the unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen

Escape Learning

Role of the behavior is to reduce the unpleasantness of something that already exists

Ion Nomenclature

Roman numerals are used for nonrepresentative elements to denote ionic charge -ous: indicate lesser charge, -ic: indicate greater charge All monatomic anions end in -ide Oxyanions: hypoo-: least amount of oxygen, -ite: lesser amount of oxygen, -ate: greater amount of oxygen, per-: most amount of oxygen Polyatomic ions with hydrogen denote the number of hydrogens

Turbulent Flow

Rough and disorderly

Periods

Rows Based on the same principal energy level (n)

Syntax

Rules dictating word order

Visible Spectrum

Runs from approximately 400 nm (violet) to 700 nm (red)

Specific Gravity

SG = density / 1 g/cm^3 Related to the ratio of volume of an object submerged in a fluid

Charge

SI unit is the coulomb

Accessory organs of digestion

Salivary glands, pancreas, liver, gall bladder

Soaps

Salts of free fatty acids Can be made in saponification Surfactants Form micelles

Molecular Formula

Same as or a multiple of the empirical formula Gives the exact number of atoms of each element in a compound

Selection Bias

Sample differs from the population Most common in human subjects research

Muscle Structure

Sarcomeres attach end-to-end to become myofibrils Each myocyte (muscle cell/muscle fiber) contains many myofibrils Myofibrils are surrounded by the sarcoplasmic reticulum (calcium-containing modified ER) Cell membrane that surrounds the myocyte is called the sarcolemma Transverse tubules (T-tubules) connect to the sarcolemma and are oriented perpendicularly to the myofibrils (allow the action potential to reach all parts of the muscle)

Saturation

Saturation of the fatty acid tails determines the fluidity of the membrane Saturated fatty acids are less fluid than unsaturated ones Saturated fatty acids form most of the structural thickness of the phospholipid bilayer

Distance

Scalar quantity Reflects path traveled

Temperature

Scaled measure of the average kinetic energy of a substance

Transcription Factors

Search for promoter and enhancer regions in the DNA Contain DNA-binding domain and activation domain (binding of other transcription factors and regulatory proteins)

Foraging

Searching for and exploiting food resources

Colon

Second part of the large intestine Divided into ascending, transverse, descending and sigmoid portions

Jejunum

Second part of the small intestine Primarily involved in absorption

A-helices

Secondary structure Clockwise coils around a central axis

B-Pleated Sheets

Secondary structure Rippled strands Can be parallel or antiparallel

Ovaries

Secrete estrogen and progesterone (Steroid hormones)

Testes

Secrete testosterone (Steroid hormone)

Erythropoietin

Secreted by kidneys Stimulates bone marrow to produce red blood cells Stimulated in response to low oxygen levels in the blood

Synovial Fluid

Secreted by synovium Aids in motion by lubricating the joint

Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)

Secreted by the atria of the heart Promotes excretion of salt and water in the kidneys Stimulated in response to stretching of the atria (high blood volume)

Ghrelin

Secreted by the stomach In response to signals of an impending meal Increases appetite Stimulates secretion of orexin

Thymosin

Secreted by thymus Important for proper T-cell development and differentiation

Zymogens

Secreted in an inactive form Activated by cleavage

Stomach and Intestinal Hormones

Secretin, gastrin, cholecystokinin

Endocrine Signaling

Secretion of hormones directly into the blood stream. Hormones travel to distant target tissues, binding to receptors and inducing changes in gene expression and cell function.

Mucous cells

Secretory cells in the stomach Produce bicarbonate-rich mucus to protect the stomach

G-cells

Secretory cells in the stomach Secrete gastrin (peptide hormone that increases HCl secretion and gastric motility)

Parietal cells

Secretory cells in the stomach Secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor (needed for vitamin B12 absorption)

Chief cells

Secretory cells in the stomach Secrete pepsinogen (protease activated by the acidic environment of the stomach)

Duplication Mutations

Segment of DNA is copied multiple times

Insertion Mutations

Segment of DNA is moved from one chromosome to another

Inversion Mutations

Segment of DNA is reversed

Translocation Mutations

Segment of DNA is swapped with a segment of DNA from another chromosome

Mate Choice / Intersexual Selection

Selection of a mate based on attraction and traits

Kidney Regulation of pH

Selective reabsorption or secretion of bicarbonate or hydrogen ions

Autoimmune

Self-antigen is identified as foreign Immune system attacks body's own cells

Locus of Control

Self-evaluation that refers to the way we characterize the influences in our lives Internal: successes and failures are a result of a person's own characteristics and actions External: outside factors have more of an influence

Peer Group

Self-selected group formed around similar interests, ages and statuses

Social Exclusion

Sense of powerlessness when individuals feel alienated from society

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete operational Formal operational

Types of Memory

Sensory Memory (<1 sec) Short-Term Memory (< 1 min) --- Working Memory Long-Term Memory (lifetime) --- Implicit Memory (unconscious) ------ Procedural Memory (skills, tasks) ---Explicit Memory (conscious) ------Declarative Memory (facts, events) ---------Episodic Memory (events, experiences) ---------Semantic Memory (facts, concepts)

Somatic Nervous System

Sensory and motor neurons throughout skin, joints, and muscles

Monosynaptic reflex arc

Sensory neuron fires directly onto the motor neuron

Polysynaptic reflex arc

Sensory neuron may fire onto a motor neuron as well as interneurons that fire onto other motor neurons

Half-Reaction Method (Ion-Electron Method)

Separate 2 half-reactions Balance the atoms of each half-reaction Start with all elements besides H and O In acidic solutions, balance H and O using H2O and H+ In basic solutions, balance H and O using H2O and OH- Balance the charges by adding electrons Multiply the half-reactions to obtain the same number of electrons on both sides Add the half-reactions Confirm mass and charge are balanced

Ventricles

Separated from the vasculature by the semilunar valves Pulmonary valve on the right Aortic valve on the left

Atria

Separated from the ventricles by the atrioventricular valves Tricuspid valve on the right side Bicuspid (mitral) valve on the left side

Chromatography

Separates protein mixtures on the basis of their affinity for a stationary phase or a mobile phase

Isoelectric Focusing

Separates proteins by the isoelectric point (pI) Protein migrates toward an electrode until it reaches a region of the gel where pH=pI of the protein

Polar Amino Acids

Serine (Ser) (S) Threonine (Thr) (T) Asparagine (Asn) (N) Glutamine (Gln) (Q) Cysteine (Cys) (C)

Gender

Set of behavioral, cultural or psychological traits typically associated with a biological sex

Role

Set of beliefs, values and norms that define the expectations of a certain status in a social situation

Fluid Dynamics

Set of principles regarding actively flowing fluids

Replisome (Replication Complex)

Set of specialized proteins that assist DNA polymerases

Anterior Hypothalamus

Sexual behavior Sleep and temperature

Long Bone Anatomy

Shafts (diaphysis) Flare to form (metaphyses) Terminate in (epiphyses) Epiphyses contain a epiphyseal (growth) plate that causes linear growth of bones Surrounded by a layer of connective tissue called periosteum Attached to muscles by tendons and to other bones by ligaments

Self-Disclosure

Sharing fears, thoughts and goals with another person Met with empathy and nonjudgement

Doppler Effect

Shift in the perceived frequency of a sound compared to the actual frequency of the emitted sound when the source of the sound and its detector are moving relative to each other f' = f (v +- vD)/(v -+ vS) f' > f when the source and detector are moving towards each other f' < f when the source and detector are moving away from each other f' can be >, < or = f when the source and detector are moving in the same direction, depending on v

Insertions/Deletions

Shift in the reading frame Changes for all downstream amino acids

Mutarotation

Shifting from one anomeric form to another with the straight-chain form as an intermediate

Freezing Point Depression and Boiling Point Elevation

Shifts in the phase equilibria that is dependent on the molality of the solution

Metals

Shiny (lustrous) Conduct electricity Malleable and ductile Left side and middle of the periodic table

Heuristics

Shortcuts or rules of thumb used to make decisions

Cell Diagrams

Shorthand notation Represent the reactions taking place in an electrochemical cell Written from anode to cathode with electrolyes in between Vertical line represents a phase boundary, and double vertical line represents a salt bridge or other boundary

Young's Double-Slit Experiment

Shows the constructive and destructive interference of waves that occur as light passes through parallel slits Result in minima (dark fringes) and maxima (bright fringes) of intensity

Cooperative Enzymes

Sigmoidal curve due to the change in activity with substrate binding

Reflex Arcs

Signal transmitted by sensory neurons Interneurons relay to CNS but also send signals directly to muscles without waiting for the brain to react

Polar Bonds

Significant difference in electronegativity (0.5 < EN < 1.7) but not enough to transfer elecctrons and form an ionic bond More electronegative element takes on a partial negative charge, and the less electronegative element takes on a partial positive charge

Memory T-Cells

Similar to memory B-cells

Amino Acid Composition Determination

Simple hydrolysis Edman degradation: determination of amino acid sequence via sequential degradation

Tetanus

Simple twitches that occur so frequently that the muscle cannot relax, resulting in a more prolonged and stronger contraction

Epithelia Classification

Simple: one layer Stratified: many layers Pseudostratified: appear to have multiple layers due to differences in cell heights but actually only have one layer Cuboidal: cube-shaped Columnar: long and narrow Squamous: flat and scalelike

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

Simultaneous arousal of the nervous system and cognitive response lead to action Physiological + Cognitive ---> Behavioral

Monosaccharides

Single carbohydrate units Glucose is the most common Can undergo oxidation-reduction, esterification, and glycoside formation

Electrical conduction of the heart

Sinoatrial (SA) node - Atrioventricular (AV) node - bundle of His - Purkinje fibers

Anaphase

Sister chromatids are separated and pulled to opposite poles

Meiosis II

Sister chromatids are separated from each other Very similar to mitosis

Stratum Spinosum

Site of Langerhans cells Keratinocytes become connected to each other

Thymus

Site of T-cell maturation

Active Site

Site of catalysis

Anode

Site of oxidation Attracts anions

Cathode

Site of reduction Attracts cations

Spleen and Lymph Nodes

Sites where immune responses can be mounted B-cells are activated

Ionic Radius

Size of a charged species Largest nonmetallic ionic radii and the smallest metallic ionic radii exist at the metalloid boundary Cations are generally smaller than the corresponding neutral atom Anions are generally larger than the corresponding neutral atom

Types of Muscle

Skeletal Smooth Cardiac

Peer Pressure

Social influence placed on individuals by others they consider equals

Norms

Social rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behavior

Poverty

Socioeconomic conditioned Poverty line is determined by the government's calculation of the minimum income requirements

Morula

Solid mass of cells seen in early development

PNS Divisions

Somatic (Voluntary) AND Autonomic (Automatic)

Belief

Something a person considers to be true

Temporal Lobe

Sound processing, speech perception, memory and emotion Contains the auditory cortex and Wernicke's Area

Ultrasound

Sound waves Imaging and treatment purposes

Shock Waves

Source is moving at or above the speed of sound Sonic booms

Langerhans Cells

Special macrophages Antigen-presenting cells in the skin

Concentration cells

Specialized form of a galvanic cell in which both electrodes are made of the same material Concentration gradient between the two solutions cause movement of charge

Hydrogen Bonds

Specialized subset of dipole-dipole interactions involved in intra and intermolecular attraction Occurs when a hydrogen is bonded to a very electronegative atom (F, O, N)

Fluorescence

Species absorbs high-frequency light and then returns to the ground state in multiple steps Each step has less energy than the absorbed light and is within the visible range of the EM spectrum

Bronsted-Lowry Bases

Species that can accept hydrogen ions

Amphoteric species

Species that can behave as an acid or base

Bronsted-Lowry Acids

Species that can donate hydrogen ions

Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)

Specifies the particular orbital within a subshell where an electron is likely to be found at a given moment in time

Ejaculation

Sperm travel through the vas deferens to the ejaculatory duct, then through the urethra and out through the penis

Glycosphingolipids

Sphingosine backbones with sugar head groups Bonded by glycosidic linkages Cerebrosides: one sugar connected to sphingosine Globosides: 2+ sugars connected to sphingosine

Galvanic (Voltaic) Cells

Spontaneous reactions Positive electromotive force Anode is negatively charged Cathode is positively charged

Diffusion

Spreading out of particles from high to low concentration

Cytoskeleton

Stability and rigidity to the overall structure of the cell Provides transport pathways for molecules in the cell

ATP Stabilization

Stabilized upon hydrolysis by resonance, ionization and loss of charge repulsion

GABA

Stabilizes brain activity Produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials

Glycine

Stabilizes brain activity Produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials Increases chloride influx

Golgi Apparatus

Stacked membrane-bound sacs Cellular products are modified, packaged, and directed to specific locations

Alertness

State of being awake Being able to think, perceive, process, and express information Beta and alpha waves predominate

Arousal

State of being awake and reactive to stimuli, at an optimal level

Hypnosis

State of consciousness in which individuals appear to be in control of their normal faculties but are in a highly suggestible state Pain control, psychological therapy, memory enhancement, weight loss, smoking cessation

Emotion

State of mind, or feeling, that is subjectively experienced based on circumstances, mood and relationships

Anomie

State of normlessness Erode social solidarity by excessive individualism, social inequality, and isolation

First Law of Thermodynamics

Statement of conservation of energy The total energy in the universe can never decrease or increase Delta(U) = Q - W

Continuity Equation

Statement of the conservation of mass as applied to fluid dynamics Q = v1A1 = v2A2

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

States that objects are in thermal equilibrium when they are at the same temperature Objects in thermal equilibrium experience no net exchange of heat energy

Demographics

Statistics of populations Mathematical applications of sociology Age, gender, race and ethnicity, sexual orientation, immigration status

Master Status

Status by which an individual is primarily identified

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

Stem from conflicts that occur throughout the life Conflicts are the result of decisions we are forced to make about ourselves and the environment at each phase of our lives Trust vs. mistrust Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt Initiative vs. guilt Industry vs. inferiority Identity vs. role confusion Intimacy vs. isolation Generativity vs. stagnation Integrity vs. Despair

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Stereotypes can lead to expectations of certain groups Create conditions that lead to confirmation of the stereotype

Cholesterol

Steroid Affects membrane fluidity and stability Precursor to many other molecules

Mineralcorticoids

Steroid hormone Aldosterone Released by adrenal cortex Promote sodium reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct, increasing water reabsorption Increases potassium and hydrogen excretion Regulated by renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system

Aldosterone and Blood Pressure

Steroid hormone Regulated by renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system Increases sodium reabsorption in the DCT and collecting duct, increasing water reabsorption Increases blood volume/pressure but no change in osmolarity

Glucocorticoids

Steroid hormones Cortisol and cortisone Released by adrenal cortex Increase blood glucose concentration, reduce protein synthesis, inhibit immune system and participate in the stress response CRF - ACTH - Glucocorticoids

Terpenes

Steroid precursors made from isoprene (5 carbon molecule) Usually odorous 1 terpene unit contains 2 isoprene units

Ovulation

Stimulated by surge in LH Surge is triggered when estrogen levels reach a threshold and switch from + to - feedback effects

Cholecystokinin

Stimulates bile release from gall bladder Stimulates release of pancreatic juice Promotes satiety

Secretin

Stimulates the release of pancreatic juices into the digestive tract Slows motility

Capacitors

Store and discharge electrical potential energy

Gall Bladder

Stores and concentrates bile

Adipose Tissue Metabolism

Stores lipids in response to insulin Releases lipids in response to epinephrine

Alter-Casting

Strategy of impression management Imposing an identity on another person

Self-Disclosure

Strategy of impression management Sharing factual information

Aligning Actions

Strategy of impression management Use of excuses to account for questionable behavior

Ingratiation

Strategy of impression management Using flattery or conformity to win over someone else

Managing Appearances

Strategy of impression management Using props, appearance, emotional expression, or associations to create a positive image

Electrodes

Strips of metal or other conductive materials placed in an electrolyte solution

Four Fundamental Forces of Nature

Strong nuclear force Weak nuclear force (both contribute to the stability of the nucleus) Electrostatic forces Gravitation

Axial Skeleton

Structures in the midline Skull, vertebral column, ribcage, and hyoid bone

Pierre Flourens

Studied functions of the sections of the brain Extirpation of animal brains

John Dewey

Studied organism as a whole as it functioned to adapt to the environment in comparison to discrete parts

Symbolic Interactionalism

Study of the ways individuals interact through a shared understanding of words, gestures and other symbols

Flavoproteins

Subclass of electon carriers Derived from riboflavin (vitamin B2)

Nucleolus

Subsection of the nucleus Synthesizes rRNA

Samples

Subset of a population that are used to estimate population data Statistics: sample data

Hund's Rule

Subshells with multiple orbitals (p, d, and f) fill electrons so that every orbital in a subshell gets one electron before any of them get a second

Compounds

Substances composed of two or more elements in a fixed proportion

Fluids

Substances that have the ability to flow Conform to the shape of their containers Exert perpendicular forces, but cannot exert shear forces Liquids and gases

Teratogens

Substances that interfere with development Cause defects or death in the developing embryo Alcohol, drugs, viruses, bacteria, environmental chemicals

Point Mutations

Substituting one nucleotide for another

Nonsense Mutation

Substitution of a stop codon for an amino acid

Missense Mutation

Substitution of one amino acid for another

Epimers

Subtype of diastereomers Differ at exactly one chiral carbon

Anomers

Subtype of epimers Differ at the anomeric carbon

Osmotic pressure

Sucking pressure drawing water towards solutes Draws fluid back in at the venule out

Esterification of Carbohydrates

Sugars react with carboxylic acids and their derivatives to form esters Phosphorylation is similar in that a phosphate ester is formed by transferring a phosphate group from ATP onto a sugar

Deoxy Sugars

Sugars with a -H replacing an -OH group

Absolute Pressure

Sum of all pressures at a certain point within a fluid Equal to the pressure at the surface of the fluid (usually atmospheric pressure) plus the pressure due to the fluid itself P = P0 + density*g*z

Mass number

Sum of an element's protons and neutrons

Kirchhoff's Junction Rule

Sum of currents directed into a point within a circuit equals the sum of the currents directed away from that point Conservation of charge I into junction = I leaving junction

Mechanical Energy

Sum of kinetic and potential energies E = U + K

Lorentz Force

Sum of the electrostatic and magnetic forces acting on a body

Self-Concept

Sum of the ways in which we describe ourselves Present, who we used to be, and who we might be in the future

Capacitors in Parallel

Sum together to create a larger equivalent capacitance Cp = C1 = C2 = ...

Skeletal Muscle

Support and movement Propulsion of blood in the venous system Thermoregulation Appears striated Under voluntary (somatic) control Polynucleated Divided into red (slow-twitch) fibers that carry out oxidative phosphorylation and white (fast-twitch) fibers that rely on anaerobic metabolism

Hill's Criteria

Support causality Temporality, strength, dose-response relationships, consistency, plausibility, consideration of alternative explanations, experiments, specificity, coherence

String

Support standing waves Nodes on both ends lambda = 2L/n n = harmonic (number of antinodes) f = nv/2L

Connective Tissues

Support the body Provide framework for epithelial cells Form the stroma (supportive structure) by secreting materials to form an ECM Bone, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, adipose, blood

Yolk Sac

Supports the embryo before the placenta is established

Oocyte Anatomy

Surrounded by zona pellucida (acellular mixture of glycoproteins that protect and contain compounds necessary for sperm binding) Corona Radiata (layer of cells that adhere to the oocyte during ovulation)

Cytosol

Suspends organelles Allows diffusion of molecules throughout the cell

Skin Cooling Mechanisms

Sweating (draws heat from the body through evaporation of water from sweat) Vasodilation Sweat glands innervated by postganglionic cholinergic sympathetic neurons

Preoperational Stage

Symbolic thinking, egocentrism, centration

Normal Distribution

Symmetrical Mean = median = mode

Nervous System and Circulatory System

Sympathetic: Increases heart rate and contractility Parasympathetic: Decreases heart rate

Perceptual Organization

Synthesis of stimuli to make sense of the world Integration of depth, form, motion and constancy

DNA Polymerase III / DNA Polymerases a, delta, E

Synthesize a new strand of DNA in the 5' to 3' direction Read the template DNA 3' to 5'

Bile

Synthesized in liver Stored in gall bladder Secreted into duodenum directly Emulsifies fats, making them soluble and increasing their surface area Main components: bile salts, pigments (bilirubin - breakdown of hemoglobin), cholesterol

Primase

Synthesizes a small RNA primer because DNA cannot be synthesized without an adjacent nucleotide to hook onto

Bias

Systematic error Results from a problem during data collection

Citrate Synthase

TCA cycle enzyme Couples acetyl-CoA to oxaloacetate Hydrolyzes, forming citrate and CoA Inhibited by ATP, NADH, succinyl-CoA and citrate

Aconitase

TCA cycle enzyme Isomerizes citrate to isocitrate

Isocitrate Dehydrogenase

TCA cycle enzyme Oxidizes and decarboxylates isocitrate to form a-ketoglutarate Generates the first CO2 and NADH of the cycle Rate-limiting step of the TCA cycle Inhibited by ATP and NADH Activated by ADP and NAD+

a-Ketoglutarate Dehydrogenase Complex

TCA cycle enzyme Similar to PDH complex Metabolizes a-ketoglutarate to form succinyl-CoA Generates the second CO2 and NADH of the cycle Inhibited by ATP, NADH and succinyl-CoA Activated by ADP and Ca2+

Transition Metals

Take on multiple oxidation states Formation of colorful complexes with nonmetals Utility in biological systems

Biomedical Approach to Psychological Disorders

Takes into account only the physical and medical causes Treatments are of a biomedical nature

Citric Acid Cycle

Takes place in the mitochondrial matrix Oxidizes carbons in intermediates to CO2 Generates high-energy electron carriers (NADH and FADH2) and GTP

Electron Transport Chain

Takes place on the matrix-facing surface of the inner mitochondrial membrane NADH donates electrons, passing them from one complex to the next As the ETC progresses, reduction potentials increase Oxygen, the final acceptor, has the highest reduction potential

Antibody Structure

Target a particular antigen Contain 2 heavy chains and 2 light chains Have a constant region and a variable region Tip of the variable region is the antigen-binding region

Torque

Tau = r x F = rF*sin(theta)

Isothermal Processes

Temperature is constant Change in internal energy is 0

Attitudes

Tendencies toward expression of positive or negative feelings or evaluations of something Affective, behavioral, and cognitive components

Reduction Potential

Tendency for a species to gain electrons and be reduced

Groupthink

Tendency for groups to make decisions based on ideas and solutions that arise within the group Do not consider outside ideas Ethics can be disturbed as pressure is created to conform and remain loyal to the group

Attribution Theory

Tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other people's behavior Dispositional vs. Situational

Just-World Hypothesis

Tendency of individuals to believe that good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people

Social Facilitation

Tendency of people to perform at a different level based on the fact other people are around

Reliance on Central Traits

Tendency to organize the perception of others based on traits and personal characteristics that matter to the perceiver

Response Bias

Tendency to respond to a stimulus in a particular way due to nonsensory factors Stimulus may or may not be given Subject is asked whether or not stimulus is present Hits, misses, false alarms, correct negatives

Functional Fixedness

Tendency to use objects only in the way they are normally utilized

Group Polarization

Tendency toward making decisions in a group that are more extreme than the thoughts of the individual group members

Motor Neurons (Efferent)

Transmit motor info from CNS to muscles and glands

Sensory Neurons (Afferent)

Transmit sensory info from receptors to the CNS

Chylomicrons

Transport mechanism for dietary triacylglycerol molecules Packaged in the intestine Transported via the lymphatic system

Proteins in the Membrane

Transporters, cell adhesion molecules and enzymes

VLDL

Transports newly made triacylglycerol molecules Transports from the liver to the peripheral tissues in the bloodstream

Electromagnetic Waves

Transverse waves that consist of an oscillating electric field and an oscillating magnetic field Waves are perpendicular to each other and the direction of propagation of the wave

Second Trimester

Tremendous growth, movement begins, the face becomes more human, digits elongate

Repressible Systems

Trp Operon Transcribed under normal conditions (On) Can be turned off by a corepressor coupling with the repressor protein This complex binds to the operator site, inhibiting transcription

Aromatic Amino Acids

Tryptophan (Trp) (W) Phenylalanine (Phe) (F) Tyrosine (Tyr) (Y)

Gram-negative bacteria

Turn pink-red during Gram staining Thin cell wall with peptidoglycan Outer membrane with phospholipids and lipopolysaccharides

Gram-positive bacteria

Turn purple during Gram staining with a crystal violet stain Thick cell wall with peptidoglycan and lipoteichoic acid

Electric Dipole

Two charges of opposite sign separated by a fixed distance (d) Dipole moment: p = q*d Electric field on the perpendicular bisector of a dipole: E = 1/4*pi*E0 x p/r^3 In an external electric field, a dipole experiences a torque until it is aligned with the electric field vector Torque: Tau = pE*sin(theta) An electric field does not induce translational motion in the dipole Electric potential near a dipole: V = kqd*cos(theta)/r^2

Combination Reactions

Two or more reactants combine to form one product

Convergent Evolution

Two species not sharing a recent ancestor become more similar due to analogous selection pressures

Divergent Evolution

Two species sharing a common ancestor become more different

Parallel Evolution

Two species sharing a common ancestor evolve in similar ways due to analogous selection pressures

Reciprocal induction

Two tissues both induce further differentiation in each other

cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases

Two types of regulatory proteins that rise and fall during the cycle Cyclins bind to CDKs, phosphorylating and activating transcription factors for the next stage of the cell cycle

Hawthorne Effect

Type of bias Results from changes in behavior that occur as a result of the knowledge that the subject is being observed

Sphingophospholipids

Type of phospholipid Contains a phosphodiester bond Have phosphatidylcholine or phosphatidylethanolamine as a head group

Disproportionation (Dismutation) Reactions

Type of redox reaction in which one element is both oxidized and reduced Forms at least 2 molecules containing the element with different oxidation states

Alkali Metals

Typically have an oxidation state of +1 Prefer to lose an electron

Actual Yield

Typically lower than theoretical yield

Potential Energy of a Capacitor

U = 1/2*CV^2

Electrical Potential Energy

U = kQq/r Amount of work required to bring the test charge from infinitely far away to a given position in the vicinity of a source charge Increases when two like charges move towards each other or two opposite charges move further apart Decreases when two opposite charges move towards each other and when two like charges move further apart Test charges move in a direction that decreases the electrical potential energy

Stop Codon

UAA, UGA, UAG

Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned stimulus that produces an instinctive, unconditioned response is paired with a neutral stimulus After repetition, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus producing a conditioned response (acquisition)

Concrete Operational Stage

Understanding the feelings of others Manipulating physical objects

Equilibrium

Undesirable state for most biochemical reactions Organisms need to harness free energy to survive

Environmental Injustice

Uneven distribution of environmental hazards in communities

Latent Functions

Unexpected, unintended and unrecognized positive consequences of manifest functions

Conversion Disorder

Unexplained symptoms affecting motor or sensory functions Associated with prior trauma

Atomic absorption spectrum

Unique Electron jumps from a lower energy level to a higher one Absorbs an amount of energy equal to the energy difference between the two levels

Basic Model of Emotional Expression

Universal emotions with corresponding expressions that can be understood across cultures

Titrand

Unknown concentration but a known volume

Grey matter

Unmyelinated cell bodies and dendrites Deeper than white matter in the spinal cord

Paramagnetic

Unpaired electrons that align with magnetic fields Attract the material to a magnet

Body Dysmorphic Disorder

Unrealistic negative evaluation of one's appearance or a specific body part Individual often takes extreme measures to correct the perceived imperfection

Display Rules

Unspoken rules that govern the expression of emotion

Helicase

Unwinds the DNA double-helix

Hypothesis Tests

Use a known distribution to determine whether a hypothesis of no difference (the null hypothesis) can be rejected

Reflex Arcs

Use interneurons in the spinal cord to relay information to the source of a stimulus while simultaneously routing it to the brain

Ketolysis

Use of ketone bodies as an energy source Regenerates acetyl-CoA Brain can adapt to use ketone bodies during prolonged starvation

Kinetic Energy from Photoelectric Effect

The energy of the incident photon that is above the work function K max = h*f - W

Critical Angle

The minimum incident angle at which total internal reflection occurs theta c = sin^-1(n2/n1)

Beta-positive (B+) decay

Positron emission Decay of a proton into a neutron Emission of a positron ((0)(+1) B+) and a neutrino AZ X ----> A(Z-1) Y + B+

Metalloids

Possess characteristics of both metals and nonmetals Stair-step pattern starting with Boron (B)

Diamagnetic Materials

Possess no unpaired electrons Slightly repelled by a magnet

Ferromagnetic Materials

Possess some unpaired electrons Become strongly magnetic in an external magnetic field Have a north and south pole, wit field lines pointing from north to south

Paramagnetic Materials

Possess some unpaired electrons Become weakly magnetic in an external magnetic field

Trends in Health Profiles

Poverty is associated with worse health outcomes African Americans have worse health outcomes Men have worse health profiles than women Women have higher rates of chronic diseases and higher morbidity rates

Antibodies (Immunoglobulins)

Used by the immune system to target a specific antigen Contain a constant region and a variable region (responsible for antigen binding) Contain 2 identical heavy chains and 2 identical light chains that are held together by disulfide linkages and noncovalent interactions

Ion Channels

Used for regulating ion flow into or out of a cell Ungated: always open Voltage-gated: open within a range of membrane potentials Ligand-gated: open in the presence of a specific binding substrate (hormone/transmitter)

Basophils

Used in allergic reactions Mast cells - related cells found in the skin

van't Hoff factor (i)

Used in: Freezing point depression (Delta(Tf) = i*Kf*m) Boiling point elevation (Delta(Tb) = i*Kb*m) Osmotic pressure calculations (pi = i*MRT) For solutes that dissociate

Titrations

Used to determine the concentration of a known reactant in a solution

Action Potential

Used to propogate signals down the axon When enough excitatory stimulation occurs, cell is depolarized to the threshold voltage and voltage-gated sodium channels open (sodium flows in along electrochemical gradient, further depolarizing the neuron) Peak of the action potential (+35 mV), sodium channels are inactivated and potassium channels open Potassium flows out of the neuron due to strong electrochemical gradient (repolarizes the cell) Potassium channels stay open, overshooing the resting membrane potential, causing hyperpolarization Potassium channels close Na+/K+ ATPase brings the neuron back to the resting potential and restores gradients

Lensmakers' Equation

Used when lenses have non negligible thickness 1/f = (n-1)(1/r1 - 1/r2)

Clinical Significance

Usefulness or importance of experimental findings to patient care or patient outcomes

Primary Active Transport

Uses ATP or another high energy molecule to transport a molecule up its concentration gradient

Affinity Chromatography

Uses a bound receptor or ligand and an eluent with free ligand or a receptor for the protein of interest

Ion-Exchange Chromatography

Uses a charged column and a variably saline eluent

Electrophoresis

Uses a gel matrix to observe the migration of proteins in response to an electric field

Divided Attention

Uses automatic processing to pay attention to multiple activities at one time

Column Chromatography

Uses beads of a polar compound (silica or alumina) as the stationary phase with a nonpolar solvent (mobile phase)

Complex IV (Cytochrome c Oxidase)

Uses cytochromes and Cu2+ to transfer electrons in the form of hydride ions (H-) from cytochrome c to oxygen, forming water 2 protons are translocated to the intermembrane space

DNA Sequencing

Uses dideoxyribonucleotides Terminate the DNA chain because they lack the 3' -OH group Resulting fragments can be separated by gel electrophoresis Sequence can be read directly from the gel

Cardiac Muscle Metabolism

Uses fatty acid oxidation in both the well-fed and fasting states

Electron Configuration

Uses spectroscopic notation (combination of the n and l values as a number and a letter) to designate the location of electrons

Secondary Active Transport

Uses the energy released by a different molecule moving down its concentration gradient to move a molecule up its concentration gradient Symport: molecules move in the same direction Antiport: molecules move in the opposite direction

Rate Orders

Usually do not match the stoichiometric coefficients Rate order of a reaction is the sum of all individual rate orders in the rate law

Movable Joints

Usually strengthened by ligaments and contain a synovial capsule

Formal Charge

V - N nonbonding - 1/2 N bonding

Migration Velocity

V = E*z/f

Electrical Potential

V = U/q = kQ/r Different points in the space of an electric field surrounding a source charge will have different electric potential values SI units are in volts (V) Positive charges move from high potential to low potential Negative charges move from low potential to high potential

Michaelis-Menten Equation

V = Vmax*[S]/Km + [S]

Average Velocity

V av = delta(x)/delta(t)

Charles' Law

V/T = k V1/T1 = V2/T2 Special case of the ideal gas law for which pressure and number of moles are held constant Direct relationship between temperature and volume

IDL

VLDL remnant In transition between triacylglycerol and cholesterol transport Picks up cholesteryl esters from HDL

Median

Value that lies in the middle of the data set 50% of the data points are above and below the median Median position = (n+1)/2

Expressivity

Varying phenotypic manifestations of a given genotype

Countercurrent multiplier system

Vasa recta and nephron flow in opposite directions Allows maximal reabsorption of water

Displacement

Vector representation of a change in position Path independent Equivalent to the straight line distance between the start and end locations

Velocity

Vector representation of the change in displacement with respect to time

Acceleration

Vector representation of the change in velocity over time

Prophase I

Very similar to mitosis prophase Homologues come together and intertwine in synapsis Crossing over of genetic material

Bacteriophages

Viruses that target bacteria Contain a tail sheath (injects genetic material into bacteria) and tail fibers (which allow bacteriophage to attach to the host cell)

Occipital Lobe

Visual cortex Visual processing

Punnett Squares

Visually represent the crossing of gametes from parents to show relative genotypic and phenotypic frequencies Parent (P) generation. Filial offspring (F1, F2) generations Monohybrid cross: accounts for one gene Dihybrid cross: accounts for two genes Sex-linked cross: sex chromosomes are used to indicate sex and genotype

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

Vitamins A, D, E and K

Turnover Number (kcat)

Vmax = [E]*kcat

Isovolumetric (Isochoric) Processes

Volume is held constant Work done by or on the system is 0

Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)

Volume of additional air that can be forcibly exhaled after a normal exhalation

Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)

Volume of additional air that can be forcibly inhaled after a normal inhalation

Tidal Volume (TV)

Volume of air inhaled or exhaled in a normal breath

Residual Volume (RV)

Volume of air remaining in the lungs when one exhales completely

Achieved Status

Voluntarily earned by an individual

Memory B-cells

Wait for second exposure to a pathogen Mounts a more rapid and vigorous immune response (secondary response)

Capillaries

Walls that are one cell thick Red blood cells have to travel through single-file Sites of gas and solute exchange

Small Intestine Absorption

Water-soluble compounds (monosaccharides, amino acids, water-soluble vitamins, small fatty acids, and water) enter the capillary bed Fat-soluble compounds (fats, cholesterol and fat-soluble vitamins) enter the lacteal

Constructive Interference

Waves are exactly in phase with each other Amplitude of the resultant wave is equal to the sum of the amplitudes of the 2 interfering waves

Partially Constructive/Destructive Interference

Waves are not quite perfectly in or out of phase with each other Displacement of the resultant wave is equal to the sum of the displacements of the 2 interfering waves

Learning

Way in which we acquire new behaviors

Associative Learning

Way of pairing together stimuli and responses or behaviors and consequences

Body Mass Index (BMI)

Way to measure and track body mass BMI = mass / height^2

Social Perception / Social Cognition

Way we generate impressions about people in our social environment Perceiver, target and the situation

Gestalt Principles

Ways brain can infer missing parts of a picture when it is incomplete

Reciprocity

We like people who we think like us

Indicators

Weak acids and bases that display different colors in their protonated and deprotonated forms Should have a pKa close to the pH of the expected equivalence point

London Dispersion Forces

Weakest interactions Present in all atoms and molecules As the size of the atom/structure increases, so does the London dispersion force

Atomic Weigh

Weighted average of all the naturally occurring isotopes

Social Institutions

Well-established social structures Dictate certain patterns of behavior or relationships Accepted as a fundamental part of culture

Value

What a person deems important in life

Norms

What determine the boundaries of acceptable behavior within society

Interpersonal Attraction

What makes people like each other Influenced by: physical attractiveness, similarity, self-disclosure, proximity, reciprocity

Le Chatelier's Principle

When a chemical system experiences stress, it will react so as to restore equilibrium

Work-energy theorem

When net work is done on or by a system, the system's kinetic energy will change by the same amount The work done on or by a system can be transferred to other forms of energy W net = Delta(K) = Kf - Ki

Displacement Reactions

When one or more atoms or ions of one compound are replaced with one or more atoms or ions of another compound

Absolute Poverty

When people do not have enough resources to acquire basic life necessities, such as shelter, food, clothing, and water

Endpoint

When the indicator reaches its final color

Bone Marrow

Where all immune cells come from

Closed System

Where energy can be exchanged with the environment but not matter delta(H) = delta(U)

Projection Areas

Where sensory stimuli are transmitted to Further analyze the sensory input

Refractory Period

While the axon is hyperpolarized Causes the action potential to only travel in one direction (influx of sodium in one segment of the axon brings the subsequent segement of the axon to threshold. Preceding segment is in refractory period)

Leukocytes

White blood cells Immune defenses

Promoters

Within 25 base pairs of the transcription start site

Protein Structure Determination

X-ray crystallography: Determines protein structure after protein isolation NMR can be used

Mole Fraction

XA = moles of A/total moles of all species Moles of solute per total moles Used for calculating vapor pressure depression and pratial pressures of gases

Exponent Identities

X^0 = 1 X^A * X^B = X^(A + B) X^A/X^B = X^(A - B) (X^A)^B = X^(A x B) (X/Y)^A = X^A/Y^A X^-A = 1/X^A X^(A/B) = Bsqrt(A)

Z-DNA

Zigzag shape High GC content High salt concentration

Henry's Law

[A] = kH x PA [A]1/P1 = [A]2/P2 = kH Amount of gas dissolved in solution is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas at the surface of a solution

Radioactive Decay

[A]t = [A]0*e^-kt

Instantaneous Acceleration

a = lim(delta(v)/delta(t)) as delta(t) ---> 0

Quality checkpoint

between G2 and M makes sure the cell is ready to enter mitosis

Diploid (2n)

contain 2 copies of each chromosome

Beat Frequency

f beat = f1 - f2

Logarithmic Rules

log(1) = 0 log(A) = 1 log(A x B) = log(A) + log(B) log(A/B) = log(A) - log(B) log(A^B) = B*log(A) log(1/A) = -log(A)

Estimating Logarithms

log(n x 10^m) = m + log(n) = m + 0.n

Common vs. Natural Logarithms

log(x) = ln(x)/2.303

Magnification

m = -i/o

Molality

m = moles of solute/kg of solvent Moles of solute per kilograms of solvent Used for boiling point elevation and freezing point depression

Heat Transfer (during phase change)

q = m*L

Heat Transfer (No phase change)

q = m*c*delta(T)

Graham's Law

r1/r2 = sqrt(M2/M1) Describes the behavior of gas diffusion or effusion Gases with lower molar masses will diffuse or effuse faster than gases with higher molar masses at the same temperature

Rate Laws

rate = k*[A]^x*[B]^y Must be determined from experimental data

Square Roots

sqrt(2) = 1.4 sqrt(3) = 1.7

Instantaneous Velocity

v = lim(delta(x)/delta(t)) as delta(t) ---> 0

Speed of Sound

v = sqrt(B/density)

Kinematics (no displacement)

v = v0 + at

Wave Speed

v = wavelength*frequency

Kinematics (no time)

v^2 = v0^2 + 2ax

Critical Speed

vc = R*n/density*D

States of Consciousness

Alertness, sleep, dreaming, altered states of consciousness

Inclined Planes

2D movement Consider the dimensions as being parallel and perpendicular to the surface of the plane

Stereoisomer Number

2^n; n = number of chiral carbons

TCA Cycle Energy Yield

3 NADH 1 FADH2 1 GTP per molecule of pyruvate Net 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 2 GTP per molecule of glucose

Triple Point

All 3 phases of matter exist in equilibrium

Normality

Concentration of acid or base equivalents in solution

Triacylglycerols

3 free fatty acids Glycerol backbone Phospholipid precursors Found in low levels in the membrane

Stereotype Threat

Concern or anxiety about confirming a negative stereotype about one's social group

Amino Acid Stereochemistry

All AA are chiral except glycine L for all chiral AA in eukaryotes D AA exist in prokaryotes All chiral AA except cysteine have S configuration

Lysosome

Contain hydrolytic enzymes that can break down substances ingested by endocytosis and waste products Can cause autolysis of the cell

Maximum number of electrons within a shell

2*n^2

Capacitors in Series

Decrease in the equivalent capacitance of a circuit 1/Cs = 1/C1 + 1/C2 +...

Resting membrane potential

-70 mV Maintained using selective permeabiltiy of ions and Na+/K+ ATPase

4 Ethical Tenets of American Medicine

1. Beneficence (acting in the patient's best interest) 2. Nonmaleficence (avoiding treatments for which risk is larger than benefit) 3. Respect for autonomy (respecting patient's tights to make decisions about their own healthcare) 4. Justice (treating similar patient similarly and distributing healthcare resources fairly)

e

2.718

Standard temperature and pressure (STP)

273 K and 1 atm 1 mole = 22.4 L

Standard Conditions

298K, 1 atm, 1 M concentrations

Pressure Conversions

1.013*10^5 Pa = 760 mmHg = 760 torr = 1 atm

Multiple Lens Systems

1/f = 1/f1 + 1/f2 + 1/f3 +.... P = P1 + P2 + P3 +... m = m1 x m2 x m3...

Optics Equation

1/f = 1/o + 1/i = 2/r

Squares

13^2 = 169 14^2 = 196 15^2 = 225 16^2 = 256 17^2 = 289 18^2 = 324 19^2 = 361 20^2 = 400

Glycolysis Energy Yield

2 NADH 2 ATP

Disulfide Bonds

2 cysteine molecules are oxidized Create a covalent bond to form cystine

Dermis

2 layers: Papillary (loose connective tissue) and Reticular (dense)

Cultural Syndrome

A shared set of beliefs, norms, values and behaviors organized around a central theme Found among people sharing the same language and geography

Hormones and Feeding Behavior

ADH and aldosterone: promote thirst Glucagon and ghrelin: promote hunger Leptin and cholecystokinin: promote satiety

Start Codon

AUG (Met)

Buffering Capacity

Ability of a buffer to resist changes in pH Maximal buffering capacity is seen within 1 pH point of the pKa of the acid in the buffer solution

External Validity

Ability of a study to be generalized to the population it describes

Regenerative Capacity

Ability of an organism to regrow certain parts of the body

Reversible Inhibition

Ability to replace the inhibitor with a compound of greater affinity or removal with treatment

Parallel Processing

Ability to simultaneously analyze and combine information regarding shape, color, and motion

Kinesthetic Sense (Proprioception)

Ability to tell where one's body is in 3D space

Reducing Sugar

Able to be oxidized into aldonic acids or lactones Can be detected using Tollens' reagents (silvery mirror) or Benedict's reagents (red precipitate)

Pluripotent Cells

Able to differentiate into all 3 germ layers and derivatives

Totipotent Cells

Able to differentiate into all cell types, including 3 germ layers and placental structures

Multipotent Cells

Able to differentiate only into a specific subset of cell types

Critical Point

Above this temperature, the liquid and gas phase are indistinguishable

Surge Current

Above-average current transiently released at the beginning of the discharge phase Wanes rapidly until a stable current is achieved

Large Intestine

Absorbs water and salts Forms semisolid feces

Electron Capture

Absorbtion of an electron from the inner shell that combines with a proton in the nucleus to form a neutron AZ X ----> e- ----> A(Z-1) Y

Pathway of Breathing

Air is drawn in through the nares - through the nasal cavity and pharynx (warmed and humidified) - Filtered by nasal hairs and mucous membranes - Enters larynx and then trachea - Trachea divides into 2 mainstem bronchi - Divide into bronchioles - Divide into continuously smaller passages until they reach the alveoli

General Adaption Syndrome

Alarm Resistance Exhaustion

Depressants

Alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines Promote or mimic GABA activity in the brain

Oxidation-Reduction of Carbohydrates

Aldoses can be oxidized to aldonic acids when in straight-chain form (carboxylic acids) Aldoses can be oxidized to lactones when in cyclic form (cyclic esters with carbonyl on anomeric carbon) Aldoses can be reduced to alditols (alcohols)

Kidney Hormones and Blood Pressure

Aldosterone ADH/Vasopressin

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine

Alertness and wakefulness Mediate fight or flight responses Epinephrine acts like a hormone while norepinephrine acts like a neurotransmitter

Saturation Kinetics

As substrate concentration increases, the reaction rate does as well This occurs until a maximum value is reached

Negatively Charged (Acidic) Amino Acids

Aspartate (Asp) (D) Glutamate (Glu) (E)

Cross-Sectional Studies

Assess both exposure and outcome at the same point in time

Case-Control Studies

Assess outcome status and then assess for exposure history

FINER Method

Assesses the value of a research question on the basis of: feasibility, interesting, novel, ethical, relevant

Ideal Gases

Assume negligible mass and volume of gas molecules Equimolar amounts of gases will occupy the same volume at the same temperature and pressure

Sarcomere

Basic contractile unit of striated muscle Made of thick (myosin) and thin (actin) filaments Troponin and tropomyosin are found on the thin (actin) filaments and regulate actin-myosin interactions

Histone Proteins

Basic proteins DNA is wound around H2A, H2B, H3, H4 to form nucleosomes H1 stabilizes DNA before and after the nucleosome

Glycoside Formation

Basis of building complex carbohydrates Hemiacetals react with alcohols to form acetals (both a and B) (glycosides) Anomeric hydroxyl group is transformed into an alkoxy group Resulting C-O bonds are glycosidic bonds

Ectoderm

Becomes epidermis, hair, nails, and the epithelia of the nose, mouth and anal canal Forms the nervous system and lens of the eye

Endoderm

Becomes much of the epithelial linings of the respiratory and digestive tracts and parts of the pancreas, thyroid, bladder and distal urinary tracts

Mesoderm

Becomes much of the musculoskeletal, circulatory, and excretory systems Gives rise to the gonads and muscular/connective tissue layers of the digestive and respiratory systems and adrenal cortex

Muscle Contraction

Begins at the neuromuscular junction (motor neuron releases acetylcholine that binds to receptors in the sarcolemma, causing depolarization) Depolarization spreads down the sarcolemma to the T-tubules Triggers release of calcium ion from the SR Calcium binds to troponin, causing a shift in tropomyosin and exposure of the myosin-binding sites on the thin (actin) filament Shortening of the sarcomere occurs when the myosin heads bind to the exposed sites on actin, forming cross-bridges and pulling the actin filament along the thick filament, resulting in contraction (sliding filament model) Muscle relaxes when acetylcholine is degraded by acetylcholinesterase, ends the signal and allows calcium to be brought back into the SR ATP binds to the myosin head, allowing it to dissociate from actin

Biological Theorists of Personality

Behavior can be explained as a result of genetic expression

Operant Conditioning

Behavior is changed through the use of consequences Reinforcement vs. Punishment Positive vs. Negative

Paul Broca

Behavioral deficits of people with brain damage Broca's Area: unable to speak

Proximity

Being physically close to someone

Culture

Beliefs, ideas, behaviors, actions and characteristics of a group or society of people

Diffraction

Bending and spreading out of light waves as they pass through a narrow slit May produce a large central light fringe surrounded by alternating light and dark fringes with the addition of a lens Interference supports the wave theory of light

Refraction

Bending of light as it passes from one medium to another Speed of light changes depending on the index of refraction of the medium (speed change causes refraction) n = c/v Amount of refraction depends on the wavelength of light

4 Principles of Medical Ethics

Beneficence, nonmaleficence, respect for patient autonomy, justice

Disaccharides

Brush-border enzymes in the duodenum Break down maltose, isomaltose, lactose and sucrose into monosaccharides

Peptidases

Brush-border enzymes in the duodenum Include aminopeptidase and dipeptidases

Osteoblasts

Build bone

Morphology

Building blocks of words Rules for pluralization, past tense, etc.

Eye Support

Bulk of the eye is supported by the vitreous on the inside of the eye and the sclera and choroid on the outside

Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)

Bulk reabsorption of glucose, amino acids, soluble vitamins, salt and water Site of secretion of hydrogen ions, potassium ions, ammonia and urea

Morbidity

Burden or degree of illness associated with a given disease

Interquartile Range (IQR)

Can be used to determine outliers (if greater than 1.5*IQR) IQR = Q3 - Q1 Q1 = n/4 (whole number: mean of the number at this position and the next number; decimal: round up, and take the number at this position) Q2 = median Q3 = 3*n/4

Nerves

Can carry multiple types of information (sensory, motor or mixed)

Heart

Cardiac muscle that supports the pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation Each side of the heart consists of an atrium and a ventricle Left side of the heart contains more muscle than the right side because the systemic circulation has a much higher resistance and pressure

Selectins

CAM molecules Allow cells to adhere to carbohydrates on the surfaces of other cells Most commonly used in the immune system

Cadherins

CAM molecules Calcium-dependent glycoproteins that hold similar cells together

Integrins

CAM molecules Have 2 membrane-spanning chains Permit cells to adhere to proteins in the ECM Some have signaling capabilities

Helper T-Cells

CD4+ Respond to antigen on MHC-II Coordinate rest of the immune system Secretes lymphokines to activate immune defense Type 1: secrete interferon gamma, activating macrophages Type 2: activate B-cells

Cytotoxic T-cells

CD8+ Respond to antigen on MHC-I Kill virally infected cells

Standard Reduction Potentials (E red0)

Calculatd by comparison to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) under standard conditions

Nernst Equation

Calculates the electrical potential created by one ion E = 61.5/z *log ([ion] inside/[ion] outside)

Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Voltage Equation

Calculates the resting potential of a membrane at physiological temperature Vm = 61.5*log(P Na * [Na]o + P K * [K]o + P Cl * [Cl]i)/(P Na * [Na]i + P K * [K]i + P Cl * [Cl]o)

Metabolic Rate Measurement

Calorimetry Respirometry Consumption tracking Measurement of blood concentrations of substrates and hormones

Biological Oxidation and Reduction Reactions

Can be broken down into component half-reactions Give information about stoichiometry and thermodynamics Most involve an electron carrier that transport high-energy electrons

Viral genomes

Can be composed of RNA/DNA and single/double stranded Postive sense: single stranded RNA viruses that can be translated by the host cell Negative sense: single stranded RNA viruses that require a complementary strand to be synthesized by RNA replicase before translation

Sexual Orientation

Can be defined by one's sexual interest toward members of the same, opposite or both sexes

Genetic maps

Can be made using recombination frequency as the scale in genetic units (centimorgans)

Cholesterol Sources

Can be obtained from dietary sources or through de novo synthesis in the liver

Allosteric Sites

Can be occupied by activators Increase the affinity or enzymatic turnover

Exhalation

Can be passive or active Passive: relaxation of the muscles of inspiration, elastic recoil of the lungs allows the chest cavity to decrease in volume, reversing the pressure differentials seen in inhalation Active: Internal intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles can be used to forcibly decrease the volume of the thoracic cavity, pushing out air

Electron Carriers

Can be soluble or membrane bound

Outliers

Can be the result of true population variability, measurement error, or a non normal distribution

Polyvalent Acids and Bases

Can donate or accept multiple electrons Normality containing a polyvalent species is the molarity of teh acid/base times the number of protons it can donate/accept

Open Systems

Can exchange both energy and matter with the environment

Absorption of Lipids

Can form micelles or be absorbed directly Short-chain fatty acids are absorbed across the intestine into the blood Long-chain fatty acids are absorbed as micelles and assembled into chylomicrons

Bacteria movement

Can have 1, 2, or many flagella Chemotaxis: movement in response to a chemical stimuli Flagella contain a filament made of flagellin, a basal body that anchors and rotates the flagellum, and a hook that connects the two

Proline and Secondary Structure

Can interrupt structure because of its rigid cyclic structure

Agarose Gel Electrophoresis

Can separate DNA molecules by size

Mutually Exclusive Outcomes

Cannot occur simultaneously

Stem Cells

Capable of developing into various cell types Classified by potency

Power

Capacity to influence people through real or perceived rewards and punishments Depends on unequal distribution of valued resources Power differentials create social inequality

Glycogen vs. Triacylglycerols

Carbon atoms are more reduced in fats than carbohydrates (gives more energy per gram during oxidation) Fats are very hydrophobic, so they are not hydrated by body water and do not carry additional water weight

Pyruvate Dehydrogenase

Complex of enzymes that converts pyruvate to acetyl-CoA Stimulated by insulin Inhibited by acetyl-CoA

Complex III (CoQH2-Cytochrome c Oxidoreductase)

Complex of the ETC Uses an Fe-S cluster to transfer electrons from CoQH2 to heme Forms cytochrome c as part of the Q cycle 4 electrons translocated to the intermembrane space

Complex I (NADH-CoQ Oxidoreductase)

Complex of the ETC Uses an Fe-S cluster to transfer electrons from NADH to FMN, forming NAD+ and FMNH2 FMNH2 transfers electrons to CoQ, forming FMN and CoQH2 4 electrons translocated to the intermembrane space

Complex II (Succinate-CoQ Oxidoreductase)

Complex of the ETC Uses an Fe-S cluster to transfer electrons from succinate to FAD, forming FADH2 FADH2 transfers electrons to CoQ, forming FAD and CoQH2 No proton pumping occurs

Complex Ions (Coordination Compounds)

Composed of metallic ions bonded to various neutral compounds and anions (ligands) Formation of complex ions increases the solubility of otherwise insoluble ions Formation involves electron pair donors/acceptors as seen in coordinate covalent bonding

Microtubules

Composed of tubulin Create pathways for motor proteins (kinesin and dyenin) to carry vesicles Contribute to the structure of cilia and flagella, organized in a 9+2 structure (9 pairs of microtubules in a ring with 2 microtubules in the center) Centrioles in centrosomes organize microtubules in the mitotic spindle

Respiratory Quotient

Composition of fuel that is actively consumed by the body Fats (0.7) Glucose (1.0) RQ = CO2 produced / O2 consumed

Genetic drift

Composition of the gene pool changes as a result of chance

Thoracic Duct

Connects the lymphatic system to the cardiovascular system in the posterior chest

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Conserve energy Rest and digest Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter Constricts pupil, increases saliva, constricts bronchi, decreases heart beat, increases peristalsis, increases bile release, contracts bladder

Inclusive Fitness

Considers an organism's success to be based on the number of offspring, success in supporting offspring, and the ability of offspring to then support others Survival of offspring or relatives (altruism) ensures appearance of genes in subsequent generations

Biopsychological Approach to Psychological Disorders

Considers the contributions of biological, psychological and social components Treatments fall in all 3 areas

Nickel-Cadmium Batteries (Ni-Cd)

Consist of a Cd anode and NiO(OH) cathode in concentrated KOH solution Ni(OH)2 and Cd(OH)2 plated electrodes are dissociated to restore the original Cd and NiO(OH) electrodes and concentrate the electrolyte Higher energy density than lead-acid batteries

Lead-Acid Batteries

Consist of a Pb anode and a PbO2 cathode in concentrated H2SO4 solution When charging, the plated electrodes are dissociated to restore the original electrodes and concentrate the electrolyte Cells have low energy density

Buffer Solutions

Consist of a mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate salt or a weak base and its conjugate salt Resist large fluctuations in pH

H-zone

Consists of only thick filaments

Language

Consists of spoken or written symbols combined into a system and governed by rules

Histrionic PD

Constant attention-seeking behavior

Zero-Order Reactions

Constant rate that does not depend on the concentration of the reactant Rate can only be affected by changing the temperature or adding a catalyst Concentration vs. time curve is a straight line (slope = -k)

Brain Metabolism

Consume glucose in all metabolic states In prolonged fasts, 2/3 of fuel comes from ketone bodies

Steroids

Contain 3 cyclohexane rings and 1 cyclopentane ting Oxidation state and functional groups vary

Nucleosides

Contain a 5-carbon sugar bonded to a nitrogenous base

Retroviruses

Contain a single-stranded RNA genome, where a complementary DNA strand is made using reverse transcriptase DNA strand can then be integrated into the genome

Vectors

Contain an origin of replication, the fragment of interest, and at least one gene for antibiotic resistance

Electrolytes

Contain equivalents of ions from molecules that dissociate in solution Strength depends on its degree of dissociation/solvation

Chromosome

Contain genes in a linear sequence

Viruses

Contain genetic material, a protein coat (capsid), and sometimes a lipid-containing envelope Cannot survive or replicate outside of a host cell (obligate intracellular parasites) Individual viruses are called virions

Peroxisomes

Contain hydrogen peroxide Breaks down very long-chain fatty acids via B-oxidation Phospholipid synthesis and the PPP

Brain Hemispheres

Contralaterally: communicate with opposite sides of the body Ipsilaterally: communicate with the same side of the body Dominant: more heavily stimulated during language reception and production, analytic, usually the left side Nondominant: intuition, creativity, music, spatial processing

Seminal vesicles

Contribute fructose to nourish sperm and produce alkaline fluid

Apoproteins

Control interactions between lipoproteins

Wernicke's Area

Controls language comprehension Damage results in Wernicke's aphasia (difficulty in comprehending words)

Broca's Area

Controls the motor function of speech Damage results in Broca's aphasia (difficulty in generating words)

Convex Lenses

Converging Produce real, inverted images or virtual, upright images

Concave mirrors

Converging Produce real, inverted images or virtual, upright images depending on the placement of the object relative to the focal point

Glycolysis

Conversion of glucose to pyruvate Occurs in the cytoplasm of all cells Does not require oxygen Yields 2 ATP per molecule of glucose Done when the cell needs energy

Translation

Conversion of nucleic acids to amino acids tRNA translates the codons into the correct amino acid Ribosomes are the factories where protein synthesis occurs

Sensation

Conversion of physical, electromagnetic, auditory and other information from the internal and external environment into electrical signals in the nervous system

Nonverbal Communication

Conveyance of information by means other than the use of words Body language, prosody, facial expressions, gestures

Verbal Communication

Conveyance of information through spoken, written, or signed words

Sister chromatids

Copies of the same DNA held together at the centromere

Confidence

Correctly failing to reject the null hypothesis

Power (1-B)

Correctly rejecting the null hypothesis

Kidney Anatomy

Cortex, medulla Hilum with renal artery, renal vein and ureter Portal system (2 capillary beds in series)

Epithelial Tissues

Cover the body Line cavities Protect against pathogen invasion and dessication Some absorb or secrete substances Some participate in sensation

Recombinant DNA

DNA made of nucleotides from 2 different sources

DNA methylation

DNA methylases add methyl groups to cytosine and adenine nucleotides Often linked with silencing of gene expression Heterochromatin is often heavily methylated

Proofreading

DNA polymerase proofreads during replication Excises incorrectly matched bases Daughter strand identified by lack of methylation

Reannealing

DNA strands are brought back together Removal of denaturing conditions

Denaturation

DNA strands are pulled apart Heat, alkaline pH, and chemicals

Mode

Data point that appears most often May be multiple (or 0) modes

Mortality

Deaths caused by a given disease

Nature vs. Nurture

Debate about te contributions of genetics (nature) and the environment (nurture) to an individual's trait

Beta-negative (B-) decay

Decay of a neutron into a proton Emission of an electron ((0)(-1) B-) and an antineutrino AZ X ----> A(Z+1) Y + B-

Damping

Decrease in amplitude caused by an applied or nonconservative force

Adaption

Decrease in response to a stimulus over time

Terpenoids

Derived from terpenes via oxygenation or backbone rearrangement Also very odorous

Process Functions

Describe the pathway from one equilibrium state to another Ex. Work and heat

State Functions

Describe the physical properties of an equilibrium state Pathway independent Pressure, density, temperature, volume, enthalpy, internal energy, Gibbs free energy, and entropy

Electrochemical cell

Describes any cell in which oxidation-reduction reactions take place Electrons flow from anode to cathode Current flows from cathode to anode

Thermal Expansion

Describes how a substance changes in length or volume as a function of the change in temperature Delta(L) = a*L*delta(T) Delta(V) = B*V*delta(T)

Principal Quantum Number (n)

Describes the average energy of a shell

Azimuthal Quantum Number (l)

Describes the subshells within a given principal energy level (s, p, d, and f)

Mating System

Describes the way in which a group is organized in terms of sexual behavior

Interference

Describes the ways in which waves interact in space to form a resultant wave

Equipotential Lines

Designate the set of points around a source charge that have the same electric potential Always perpendicular to electric field lines Work is done when a charge is moved from one equipotential lines to another (independent of path) No work is done when a charge moves on an equipotential line

Schizoid PD

Detachment from social relationships Limited emotion

Magnocellular Cells

Detect motion Low spatial resolution and high temporal resolution

Parvocellular cells

Detect shape High spatial resolution and low temporal resolution

Taste

Detection of dissolved compounds by the taste buds in papillae Comes in 5 modalities: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami (savory)

Southern Blotting

Detects the presence and quantity of various DNA strands in a sample After electrophoresis, the sample is transferred to a membrane Probed with single-stranded DNA molecules to look for a sequence of interest

Ventromedial Hypothalamus

Detects when full

Lateral Hypothalamus

Detects when hungry

Concentration Gradients

Determine appropriate membrane transport mechanisms in cells

Biological Sex

Determined by 23rd pair of chromosomes XX = female XY = male

R group

Determines chemistry and function of the amino acid

Keq Magnitude

Determines the balance of a reaction Keq > 1; the products are present in greater concentration at equilibrium Keq = 1; products and reactants are both present at equilibrium at reasonably similar levels Keq < 1; the reactants are present in greater concentration at equilibrium Keq <<< 1; the amount of reactants that have been converted to products can be considered negligible in comparison to the initial concentration of reactants

Gibbs Free Energy

Determines whether or not a reaction is spontaneous

Oncogenes

Develop from mutations of proto-oncogenes Promote cell cycling Can lead to cancer (unchecked cell proliferation, ability to spread by local invasion or metastasize)

Sperm

Develop in the semineferous tubules in the testes Nourished by the Sertoli cells

Real Gases

Deviate from ideal behavior under high pressure (low volume) and low temperature conditions At moderately high pressures, low volumes or low temperatures, real gases occupy less volume than predicted by the ideal gas law because the particles have intermolecular attractions At extremely high pressures, real gases occupy more volume than predicted by the ideal gas law because the particles occupy physical space

Maternal Conditions on Development

Diabetes (increased fetal size and hypoglycemia after birth) and folic acid deficiency (neural tube defects)

Oxygen Debt

Difference between the amount of oxygen needed and the amount present Cells have additional energy reserves to reduce this and forestall fatigue (creatine phosphate, myoglobin)

Range

Difference between the largest and smallest values in a data set Range = X max - X min

Mass Defect

Difference between the mass of the unbonded nucleons and the mass of the bonded nucleons within the nucleus Unbonded constituents have more energy and more mass than bonded constituents Amount of mass converted to energy during nuclear fusions E = m*c^2

Vital Capacity (VC)

Difference between the minimum and maximum volume of air in the lungs

Standard electromotive force (E cell0)

Difference in standard reduction potential between the two half-cells E cell0 = E red, cathode - E red, anode For galvanic cells: the difference is positive For electrolytic cells: the difference is negative

Skeletal Muscle Metabolism

Differs based on the activity level and fiber type Resting muscle: conserves carbohydrates in glycogen stores, uses free fatty acids from the bloodstream Active muscle: anaerobic metabolism, oxidative phosphorylation, direct phosphorylation from creatine phosphate, fatty acid oxidation

Instinctive Drift

Difficulty in overcoming instinctual behaviors

Gas Exchange

Diffusion across concentration gradients Deoxygenated blood with high carbon dioxide concentration is brought to the lungs via pulmonary arteries Oxygenated blood with a low carbon dioxide concentration leaves the lungs via the pulmonary veins

Buoyant Force

Equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object F buoy = density fluid*V fluid displaced*g = density fluid*V submerged*g Direction is always opposite to the direction of gravity Is the maximum force is larger than the force of gravity on the object, the object will float (object is less dense than the fluid) If the maximum force is smaller than the force of gravity, the object will sink (object is more dense than the fluid)

Functions of the Lymphatic System

Equalizes fluid distribution Transports fats and fat-soluble compounds in chylomicrons Provides sites for mounting immune responses

Formation/Stability Constant (Kf)

Equilbrium constant for complex formation Usually much greater than Ksp Formation of a complex increases the solubility of other salts containing the same ions because it uses up the products of those dissolution reactions, shifting the equilibrium to the right

Keq

Equilibrium constant Keq = [C]^c*[D]^d/[A]^a*[B]^b Ratio of products to reactants at equilibrium Each species raised to its stochiometric coefficient Constant at a constant temperature

Confounding

Error in data analysis Results from a common connection of both the dependent and independent variables to a third variable

Atomic mass

Essentially equal to the mass number (sum of element's protons and neutrons)

Saponification

Ester hydrolysis of triacylglycerols Use of a strong base (NaOH/KOH)

Alternative Splicing

Eukaryotic cells Increase variability of gene products Combine different exons in a modular fashion to acquire different gene products

Secondary Appraisal of Stress

Evaluating if the organism can cope with the stress, based on harm, threat and challenge

Natural and Irreversible Processes

Every natural process is irreversible Under highly controlled conditions, equilibrium processes can be treated as essentially reversible

Punctuated Equilibrium

Evolution is a slow process with intermittent rapid bursts of evolutionary activity

Second Sickness

Exacerbation of health outcomes caused by social injustice

Open Systems

Exchange both energy and matter with their surroundings

Closed Systems

Exchange energy but not matter with the environment

Closed Systems

Exchange energy but not matter with their surroundings

Isolated Systems

Exchange neither matter nor energy with the environment

Adiabatic Processes

Exchange no heat with the environment

Crossing Over

Exchanges genetic material between one chromatid and the chromatid of the homologous chromosome Accounts for Mendel's second law (of independent assortment)

Glutamate

Excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS

Monogamy

Exclusive mating relationships

Simple Twitch

Exhibit an all-or-nothing response

Primitive Reflexes

Exist in infants and disappear with age Most serve a protective role Can reappear in certain disorders

Biases

Exist when a decision maker is unable to objectively evaluate information

Sir Charles Sherrington

Existence of synapses

Electrical Potential Energy

Exists between charged particles

Kinetic Friction

Exists between two objects that are in motion relative to each other Constant value fk = Uk*N (Uk*m*g)

Basis of Depression

High levels of glucocorticoids Low levels of norepinephrine, serotonin and dopamine

Basis of Bipolar Disorders

High levels of norepinephrine and serotonin Highly heritable

Fetal Hemoglobin (HbF)

Higher affinity for oxygen than adult hemoglobin Affinity assists in the transfer and retention of oxygen in the fetal circulatory system

Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH)

Higher energy density, more cost effective and are less toxic

Kinetic Products

Higher in free energy than thermodynamic products Can form at lower temperatures Sometimes termed fast products because they can form more quickly

Neurons

Highly specialized cells responsible for the conduction of impulses

Solutions

Homogeneous mixtures composed of two or more substances Combine to form a single phase, generally the liquid phase Solvent particles surround solute particles via electrostatic interactions in a process called solvation/dissolution Most dissolutions are endothermic but dissolution of gas into liquid is exothermic

Anaphase I

Homologous chromosomes are pulled to opposite sides of the cell Accounts for Mendel's first law (of segregation)

Metaphase I

Homologous chromosomes line up on opposite sides of the metaphase plate

Meiosis I

Homologous pairs of chromosomes are separated from each other

Fischer Projection

Horizontal lines are wedges (out of the page) Vertical lines are dashes (into the page)

Leptin

Hormone secreted by fat cells Decreases appetite Suppresses orexin production

Epididymis

House sperm until ejaculation Sperm gain motility there

Short-Term Memory

Housed primarily in the hippocampus Limited in capacity Transient Based on neurotransmitter activity

Scrotum

Houses the testes Hangs outside the abdominal cavity Has a temperature that is slightly lower than the rest of the body

Semantic Networks

How facts are stored

Fumarase

Hydrolyzes the alkene bond of fumarate to form malate

Succinyl-CoA Synthetase

Hydrolyzes the thioester bond in succinyl-CoA to form succinate and CoA Generates 1 GTP

Starling Forces

Hydrostatic pressure and osmotic pressure

Ion Product (IP)

IP = [A^n+]^m * [B^m-]^n Can compare to Ksp to determine the level of saturation and behavior of the solution: IP < Ksp: solution is unsaturated, and if more solute is added, it will dissolve IP = Ksp: solution is saturated (at equilibrium), no change in concentrations IP > Ksp: solution is supersaturated, and a precipitate will form

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Quotient

IQ = mental age / chronological age * 100

Sensory Memory

Iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) memory Lasts a very short time Based on neurotransmitter activity

Freud's Theories

Id: base urges of survival and reproduction Superego: idealist and perfectionist Ego: mediator between the two, conscious mind, uses defense mechanisms to reduce stress caused by the urges of the id and superego

Schizotypal PD

Ideas of reference, magical thinking, and eccentricity

Problem Solving

Identification and understanding of the problem, generation of potential solutions, testing of potential solutions, evaluation of results Trial-and-error, algorithms, deductive reasoning (deriving solutions from general rules), inductive reasoning (deriving generalizations from evidence)

Internal Validity

Identification of causality in a study

Recognition

Identifying a piece of information previously learned Stronger than recall

Hardy-Weinberg Principle

If a population meets certain criteria, aimed at a lack of evolution, then allele frequencies will remain constant (equilibrium)

Amnion

Lies inside the chorion and produces amniotic fluid

Total Internal Reflection

Light cannot be refracted out of a medium and is instead reflected back inside the medium Happens when light moves from medium with a higher index of refraction to a medium with a lower index of refraction with a high incident angle

Stage 1 Sleep

Light sleep Dominated by theta waves

Recombination Frequency (theta)

Likelihood of two alleles being separated during crossing over in meiosis (prophase I)

Cognitive Development

Limited by brain maturation Ability to think abstractly develops over the life span Influenced by culture, genes, and environment

Villi

Line the small intestine Covered with microvilli (increases surface area available for absorption) Contain a capillary bed and a lacteal (vessel of the lymphatic system)

Ependymal Cells

Line the ventricles of the brain Produce cerebrospinal fluid, which physically supports the brain and serves as a shock absorber

Primary Structure

Linear sequence of amino acids Stabilized by peptide bonds

Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal

Collective Unconscious

Links all humans together Considered to be a residue of the experiences of our early ancestors Personality is influenced by archetypes

Smooth ER

Lipid synthesis Detoxification

Lipid Rafts

Lipids that move freely in the plane of the membrane that are assembled into groups of lipids

Fluid Mosaic Model

Lipids, proteins and carbohyrates that are in a dynamic, semisolid plasma membrane that surrounds cells

Mitosis

Produces two genetically identical diploid daughter cells Occurs in somatic cells

Cardiac Output

Product of heart rate and stroke volume HR * SV = CO

Equivalence Point

NaVa = NbVb Indicated by the steepest slope in a titration curve Reached when the number of acid equivalents in the original solution equals the number of base equivalents added, and vice-versa Strong acid and strong base titrations (pH = 7) Weak acid and strong base titrations (pH > 7) Weak base and strong acid titrations (pH < 7) Weak acid and weak base titrations have varying pH equivalence points, depending on the relative strength of the acid and base Multiple buffering regions and equivalence points are observed in polyvalent acid and base titrations

Immune Response

Nasal hairs, mucous membranes, mucociliary escalator all help to filter incoming air and trap particulate manner Lysozyme in the nasal cavity and saliva attack peptidoglycan cell walls in gram-positive bacteria Macrophages engulf and digest pathogens and signal to the rest of the immune system there is an invader Mucosal surfaces are covered with antibodies Mast cells have antibodies on their surface, when triggered can promote inflammatory chemicals, involved in allergic reactions

Electron

Negative charge Negligible mass

Electrons

Negative charge q = - 1.6*10^-19 C

Synapse

Nerve terminal of presynaptic neuron, the membrane of the postsynaptic cell, and the synaptic cleft (space between the two)

Sensory Receptors

Nerves that respond to stimuli and trigger electrical signals Photoreceptors, hair cells, nociceptors, thermoreceptors, osmoreceptors, olfactory receptors, and taste receptors

Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion

Nervous system arousal and interpretation of context leads to a cognitive response

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

Nervous system arousal leads to a cognitive response in which the emotion is labeled Physiological -----> Cognitive

Effective nuclear charge (Zeff)

Net positive charge experienced by electrons in the valence shell Foundation of periodic trends Increases from left to right across a period Little change from top to bottom in a group Valence electrons become more separated from the nucleus as the principal energy level increases

Mirror Neurons

Neurons in the frontal and parietal lobes Fire when a person performs an action and when an individual observes someone else performing that action

Granulocytes

Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils

Anomeric Carbon

New chiral center formed in ring closure Was the carbon containing the carbonyl in the straight-chain form

Retroactive Interference

New information causes forgetting of old information

Independent Events

Probability of one event does not change based on the outcomes of other events P(A and B) = P(A) x P(B) P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - ((P(A)*P(B))

Dependent Event

Probability of the event changes depending on the outcomes of other events

Assimilation

Process by which a group or individual's culture begins to melt into another culture

Work

Process by which energy is transferred from one system to another Can be expressed as the dot product of force and displacement W = F*d = Fd*cos(theta) Or the area under a pressure-volume curve W = P*delta(V)

Habituation

Process of becoming used to a stimulus

Urbanization

Process of dense areas of population creating a pull for migration Creating cities

Socialization

Process of developing and spreading norms, customs and beliefs Family, peers, school, religious affiliation, and other groups are agents of socialization

Heat

Process of energy transfer between 2 objects at different temperatures that occurs until the 2 objects come into thermal equilibrium (reach the same temperature) q = m*c*delta(T)

Globalization

Process of integrating a global economy with free trade and tapping of foreign labor markets

Observational Learning

Process of learning a new behavior or gaining information by watching others

Encoding

Process of putting new information into memory Automatic vs. Effortful Visual < Acoustic < Semantic

Shaping

Process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors

Liver

Processes nutrients (glycogenolysis and glycogenesis, storage and mobilization of fats, and gluconeogenesis) Produces urea Detoxifies chemicals Activates or inactivates medications Produces bile Synthesizes albumin and clotting factors

Perception

Processing of sensory information to make sense of its significance

Bulbourethral glands

Produce a clear viscous fluid that cleans out remnants of urine and lubricates urethra during sexual arousal

Missense mutations

Produce a codon that codes for a different amino acid

Gonads

Produce hormones involved in the development and maintenance of reproductive systems and secondary sex characteristics

Melanocytes

Produce melanin Protects the skin from DNA damage caused by UV radiation Melanin is passed to keratinocytes

Gut Bacteria

Produce vitamin K and biotin (vitamin B7)

Sound

Produced by mechanical disturbance of a material that creates an oscillation of the molecules in the material Propagates through all forms of matter (fastest in solids, as density increases, speed of sound decreases)

Standing Waves

Produced by the constructive and destructive interference of 2 waves of the same frequency traveling in opposite directions in the same space

Ova (Eggs)

Produced in follicles in the ovaries

Prostate gland

Produces alkaline fluid

Ciliary Body

Produces aqueous humor, which drains through the canal of Schlemm

Pancreas

Produces hormones that regulate glucose homeostasis

Adrenal Cortex

Produces steroid hormones On top of kidneys

3 Traits of Personality

Psychoticism (non-conformity) Extraversion Neuroticism (Arousal in stressful situations)

Na+/K+ ATPase

Pumps 3 sodium ions out of the cell for every 2 potassium ions pumped in

Chargaff's Rules

Purines and pyrimidines are equal in number in a DNA molecule Because of base pairing, A = T and G = C

Motivation

Purpose, or driving force, behind our actions Extrinsic: external circumstances Intrinsic: internal drive or perception

Hydrophobic Interactions

Push hydrophobic R groups to the interior of the protein Increases entropy of the surrounding water molecules Creates a spontaneous process

Force

Push or pull that has the potential to result in an acceleration

Gluconeogenesis Pathway

Pyruvate (pyruvate carboxylase) -> OAA (malate-aspartate shuttle) -> OAA (PEP carboxykinase) -> PEP -> 2PG -> 3PG -> 1,3 BPG -> Glyceraldehyde 3P -> FBP (FBPhosphatase) -> F6P -> G6P (G6Phosphatase) -> Glucose

PDH Complex Reaction

Pyruvate + CoA + NAD+ ---> Acetyl-CoA + CO2 + NADH

Citric Acid Cycle Intermediates

Pyruvate -> Citrate -> Isocitrate -> a-Ketoglutarate -> Succinyl-CoA -> Succinate -> Fumarate -> Malate -> Oxaloacetate

Q and Keq

Q < Keq; delta(G) < 0 - reaction proceeds in the forward direction Q = Keq; delta(G) = 0 - reaction is in dynamic equilibrium Q > Keq; delta(G) > 0 - reaction proceeds in the reverse direction

Poiseuille's Law

Q = pi*r^4*delta(P) / 8*n*L

Temperature

Qualitative measure of how hot or cold an object is Related to the average kinetic energy of the particles that make up a substance

Accuracy (Validity)

Quality of approximating the true value

Precision (Reliability)

Quality of being consistent in approximations

Henderson-Hasselbalch equation

Quantifies the relationship between pH and pKa for weak acids and the relationship between pOH and pKb for weak bases When buffered, pH = pKa and pOH = pKb pH = pKa + log [A-]/[HA] pOH = pKb + log [B+]/[BOH]

Scalars

Quantities without direction Can be the magnitude of vectors (speed) or dimensionless (coefficients of friction)

Meditation

Quieting of the mind Used for relief of anxiety

Zone of Proximal Development

Skills a child has not yet mastered require a more knowledgeable other to accomplish

Stage 2 Sleep

Slightly deeper sleep Includes theta waves, sleep spindles and K complexes

Locations of Dark Fringes

Slit-lens: a*sin(theta) = n*lambda Double-slit: d*sin(theta) = (n + 1/2)*lambda

Rate-determining Step

Slowest step Limits the maximum rate at which the reaction can proceed

Chemical Digestion of Lipids

Small intestine Bile, pancreatic lipase, colipase, cholesterol esterase

Protein Catabolism

Small intestine (dietary digestion) Cellular proteins are only catabolized under conditions of starvation Carbon skeletons: gluconeogenesis and ketone body formation Amino groups: urea cycle

Fusion

Small nuclei combine into larger nuclei Energy released because the nuclei formed are more stable

Coenzymes

Small organic molecules that interact with enzymes and activate them

Alveoli

Small sacs that interface with the pulmonary capillaries Allow gases to diffuse across a one-cell thick membrane

Empirical Formula

Smallest whole-number ratio of the elements in a compound

Laminar Flow

Smooth and orderly Rate of flow is determined by Poiseuille's Law Incompressible fluids

Dopamine

Smooth movements and steady posture Association with schizophrenia and Parkinson's

Race

Social construct based on phenotypic differences between groups of people Can be real or perceived differences

Ethnicity

Social construct that sorts people by cultural factors including language, nationality, and religion

Cultural Barrier

Social difference that impedes interaction

Heterochromatin

Tightly coiled DNA that is inaccessible for transcrpition Genes are inactive

Arteries

Thick, highly muscular structures with elastic quality Bring blood away from the heart Allows for recoil and helps propel blood forward Small muscular arteries are called arterioles, which control flow into capillary beds

Diaphragm

Thin skeletal muscle Helps create the pressure differential required for breathing

Wobble

Third base in the codon Allows mutations to occur without effects in the protein

Ileum

Third part of small intestine Primarily involved in absorption

Rectum

Third part of the large intestine Stores feces, which are excreted through the anus

Mixed-Order Reactions

Those with a rate order that changes over time

Broken-Order Reactions

Those with noninteger rate orders

Speed of Light

c = f*lambda

Cancer

cell cycle control gets deranged, allowing damaged cells to undergo mitosis without regard to quality of cells produced Cancer cells can produce factors that allow them to delocalize and metastasize

G0 stage

cell performs its function without any preparation for division

G1 Stage: Presynthetic Gap

cells create organelles for energy and protein production, while also increasing their size

Haploid (n)

cells that only have one copy of each chromosome

G2 Stage: Postsynthetic Gap

further cell growth and replication of organelles in preparation for mitosis

Quantum number

n, l, ml, ms Completely describe any electron in an atom

Eukaryotes

membrane-bound organelles nucleus may form multicellular organisms

Avogadro's Principle

n/V = k n1/V1 = n2/V2 Special gas of the ideal gas law where the pressure and temperature are held constant Direct relationship between the number of moles of gas and volume

Snell's Law

n1*sin(theta 1) = n2*sin(theta 2)

M Stage: Mitosis

mitosis and cytokinesis

Electrodeposition equation

mol M = I*t/n*F

Converging Systems for Mirrors and Lenses

o > 2f: real, inverted, reduced o = 2f: real, inverted, same 2f > o > f: real, inverted, magnified o = f: no image o < f: virtual, upright, magnified

Hardy-Weinberg Equations

p + q = 1 p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1

Dipole Moment

p = q*d

p scale value approximation

p value = m - 0.n

pH and pOH

pH = -log[H+] = log 1/[H+] pOH = -log[OH-] = log 1/[OH-] pH + pOH = 14 at 298K Can be calculated given the concentrations of H3O+ and OH- ions

Enzyme and pH

pH affects ionization of the active site Optimal pH of most enzymes: 7.4 Different types of enzymes have different optimal pH values

pKa

pH at which half of the species are deprotonated [HA] = [A-]

Isoelectric Point (pI)

pH where the AA is in a neutral form (= 6) Can be calculated by averaging the 2 pKa values (if a charged AA, calculated by averaging the 2 pKa values that correspond to protonation/deprotonation of the zwitterion) pI neutral = pKa amino + pKa carboxyl / 2 pI acidic = pKa R + pKa carboxyl / 2 pI basic = pKa amino + pKa R / 2 If acidic, pI < 6; If basic, pI > 6

p53

protein that plays a role in the two major checkpoints of the cell cycle (G1 to S and G2 to M)

restriction point

point between G1 and S where the DNA is checked for quality

Center of Mass

x = m1x1 + m2x2 + m3x3... / m1 + m2 + m3... y = m1y1 + m2y2 + m3y3... / m1 + m2 + m3... z = m1z1 + m2z2 + m3z3... / m1 + m2 + m3...

Kinematics (no final velocity)

x = v0t + at^2/2

Kinematics (no acceleration)

x = V av*t