MCAT Psych/Soc Class 1: Sociological Theories

Key points about correlation

-0 is the weakest, +/- 1 is the strongest -If value is (+): as one variable increases, the other variable increases -If value is (-): as one variable increases, the other variable decreases

Second-wave feminism

-1960s and 70s -Focused on women's liberation -Gender equality, sexual rights, reproductive rights, and resisting patriarchal culture

Symbolic interactionism

-Analyzes the subjective meanings that people impose on objects, events, and behaviors -Society is socially constructed through human interpretation, and these interpretations form the social bond -Humans ascribe meaning to things, and act toward those things based on their ascribed meaning -Communication via language allows humans to generate meaning through social interaction with each other and society -Humans modify meanings through an interpretive thought process -Micro-level

Experimental research methods

-Control and experimental groups -Random sampling -Random assignment -Control of extraneous variables

Feminist theory

-Encompasses a variety of perspectives on the different experiences and treatment of women vs. men -First, second, and third wave feminism -Intersectionality -Can either be micro- or macro-level

Karl Marx and conflict theory

-Focused on class struggle -Societies progress through class struggle between those who control production and those who provide the manpower for production -Capitalism produces internal tensions which will ultimately destroy capitalist society, to be replaced by socialism

Operational definition

-Formal definition used for research that can be measured by the experimenters -Example: HR, BP, respiration rate to measure sympathetic arousal -Example: IQ, EQ scores to measure intelligence

Social exchange theory

-Individuals assign rewards (benefits) and punishments (costs) to interactions and prefer those with the greatest personal benefit Behavior (profits) = rewards of the interaction - costs of the interaction -Micro-level

Rational choice theory

-Individuals make decisions by comparing the costs and benefits of different courses of action -We try to maximize benefits and reduce costs -People must anticipate the outcomes of alternative courses of action and calculate the outcome that will be best for them -Rational individuals choose the alternative that is likely to give them the greatest satisfaction -Micro-level

Conflict theory

-Views society as a competition for limited resources -In society, individuals and groups compete for social, political, and material resources -Macro-level -Karl Marx and Max Weber

Functionalism

-Views society as a complex system composed of many individual parts working together to maintain solidarity and social stability -Society is like a living organism -Macro-level

First-wave feminism

-Around 1900 -Focused on women's suffrage -Right to vote, to own property, have equal rights within marriage, and work for wages

Third-wave feminism

-Since the 1980s -Focused on areas of concern left untheorized by first and second-wave feminists -Addresses intersectionality: how systems of oppression overlap and can be used to understand how systemic injustice and social inequality occur on a multidimensional basis

Anomie is most likely to occur in societies in which: A. individualism and autonomous decision-making predominate. B. social ties are more pronounced. C. there is a significant level of moral guidance. D. there are firm guidelines regarding norms and values.

A. individualism and autonomous decision-making predominate. A. Anomie is a state of few to no moral or social guidelines; therefore, anomie is most likely to occur in societies in which individualism and autonomous decision-making predominate. Anomie occurs when a society does not provide individuals with firm guidelines in relation to norms and values, and there is little moral guidance or social ethic. Each of the remaining choices describes conditions opposite those related to anomie.

Flaws in non-experimental design

Researchers did too much

Max Weber and conflict theory

-A capitalism system does lead to conflict, but the collapse of capitalism is not inevitable -There could be more than one source of conflict, such as conflict over inequalities in political power and social status -There are factors that moderate people's reaction to inequality

Non-experimental research methods

-Observational studies: researcher does not manipulate variable -Ethnographic studies: observational studies that focus on a specific culture or subculture -Twin/heritability studies: attempt to establish relative effects of nature and nurture on behavior -Archival/biographical studies: use historical record to understand events and people -Phenomenological studies: attempt to understand conscious experiences from a first-person perspective -Case studies: detailed explorations of an individual case of a phenomenon -Longitudinal studies: long-term and take measurements at different time intervals

External validity

-The extent to which the findings can be generalized to the real world -Common threats to external validity: experiment doesn't reflect real world, selection criteria, situational effects, lack of statistical power

Internal validity

-The extent to which we can say that the change in the dependent variable is due to the intervention -Common threats to internal validity: impression management, confounding variables, lack of reliability, sampling bias, attrition effects

Four major sociological theories

1. Functionalism (also known as structural functionalism) 2. Conflict theory 3. Symbolic interactionism 4. Social constructionism

How would a structural functionalist interpret the efficacy of meditation as part of stress management protocol? A. As a manifest function B. As a latent function C. As a generalized other D. As a social construct

A. As a manifest function A. Meditation has been utilized successfully to manage pain, stress, and anxiety disorders. Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) is a protocol commonly used in the medical setting intended to help alleviate stress (choice A is correct). A latent function is an unintended byproduct, and in this case, the meditation is used purposefully to manage the stress (choice B in incorrect). Choices C and D come from different theories, symbolic interactionism, and social constructionism, respectively, and thus are incorrect.

We are most likely to attribute an individual's behavior to external or situational causes when: A. many other people are behaving the same way as the individual. B. the individual displays this behavior fairly frequently. C. the individual displays this behavior in many situations. D. the individual is the only one behaving in this way.

A. many other people are behaving the same way as the individual. A. When attributing behavior to internal or external causes, we tend to look at distinctiveness, consistency, and consensus. If there is high consensus (meaning that lots of other people, not just the individual, are demonstrating the same behavior), we tend to assume that some situational or external factor is influencing everyone's behavior (choice A is correct); on the other hand, if the individual is the only one behaving in such a manner (low consensus), then we are more likely to attribute that behavior to internal or dispositional causes (choice D is wrong). If an individual displays this behavior all the time (consistency) and in many different types of situations (distinctiveness), then we are more likely to attribute the behavior to individual disposition than external causes (choice B and C are wrong).

Exploration of the feelings of social disconnection that result from rapidly changing social norms and weak communal bonds is most characteristic of the approach of: A. structural functionalism. B. conflict theory. C. symbolic interactionism. D. social constructionism.

A. structural functionalism.

Which statement about groups is most accurate? A. A primary group is any group you meet with at least once a week while a secondary group is a group you only meet with in your spare time. B. A reference group can be a group you aspire to emulate and/or a group you want to compare against yourself. C. A peer group is any group that pressures an individual to change his or her behavior. D. An assimilated group is a group of native-born people that an immigrant wants to emulate.

B. A reference group can be a group you aspire to emulate and/or a group you want to compare against yourself. B. A reference group is a group that provides one with a model of appropriate beliefs, actions, and values; this is either a group you are currently a member of, or wish to be a member of (choice B is correct). A primary group is relatively permanent with a small group of people, typically family and close friends; a secondary group is larger, more impersonal and goal-oriented (choice A is incorrect). While a peer group may pressure individual group members to conform, this is not the definition of a peer group (choice C is incorrect). Choice D is backwards; an assimilated group is a group of immigrants that have emulated the native-born group (choice D is incorrect).

Which of the following is likely to view the institution of marriage as a means for consolidating power and wealth? A. Functionalism B. Conflict theory C. Symbolic interactionism D. Social constructionism

B. Conflict theory

George Herbert Mead is often considered the pioneer of symbolic interactionism. Which of the following is NOT true of this perspective? A. Interactionism contends that societies are constructed through communication. B. Interactionism is most concerned with macro-level considerations. C. Interactionism argues that language is fundamental in the thought process. D. Interactionism is interested in subjective meanings associated with objects.

B. Interactionism is most concerned with macro-level considerations. B. Interactionism focuses on social interaction - both verbal and non-verbal communication - and the effect of these individual social interactions on the greater social structure (choice A is true and can therefore be eliminated). Thus, interactionism can be said to use a micro-level approach to research not a macro-level approach because it focuses on small-scale interactions not large-scale structures (choice B is not true and is therefore the correct answer). This perspective is interested in subjective meanings created through interactions, also called symbols, and how these symbols then contribute to social beliefs (choice D is true and can therefore be eliminated). For example, a ring is a mere object, but in modern societies, the subjective meaning associated with a ring on the left ring finger is that the person is affianced or married, and even differences between these two relationships can be gleaned (e.g., an engagement ring often has a diamond and a wedding ring is often a plainer band). These small subjective meanings in combination create our impression of our societies. Language is one of the most fundamental symbols (choice C is true and can therefore be eliminated). Humans ascribe meanings to behaviors and objects through interactions and then act based on those subjective meanings; language allows us to generate these meanings and then interpret the subsequent behaviors through complex thought processes.

Which of the following types of theorists is LEAST likely to be concerned with the unfair treatment of women with respect to men in society? A. Feminist theorists B. Social constructionists C. Functionalists D. Conflict theorists

C. Functionalists

Kohlberg's theory of moral identity suggests that an adult with no money who steals a loaf of bread to keep a starving family from dying is demonstrating a: A. preconventional moral identity because stealing is wrong B. conventional moral identity because most adults would do this C. social contract stage of moral identity D. self-interest stage of moral identity because the stolen bread comes at the store owner's expense

C. social contract stage of moral identity C. In the scenario described, the individual is stealing the loaf of bread to keep a family member for dying. Stealing, generally speaking, would be considered against the law, so the individaul is presumably not following the laws of society. As such, the individual is willing to go against social norms in order to prevent death and, given so, is demonstarting that some laws may be unjust; this is consistent with the postconventional level of morality, of which the social contract stage is a part (choice C is correct; choice A is incorrect). While it is true most adults are in the conventional morality stage, rules/laws would be obeyed, not broken (choice B is incorrect). Self-interest is a stage within the preconventional level; at this stage, moral decision making is guided by personal gain. However, this level covers children approximatley 7-10 years old and would not be applicable to an adult's moral decision making process (choice D is incorrect).

Modern societies continue to use hierarchical categories to rank people based on race, socioeconomic status, and other characteristics. This is called: A. social inequality. B. social bureaucracy. C. social stratification. D. social mobility.

C. social stratification. C. Social stratification describes the categorization of people based on different characteristics (choice C is the correct answer). This can contribute to social inequalities because those in top tiers of the stratification have the most resources while those in the bottom tiers have the least resources. It is social stratification that defines differences and therefore reinforces inequalities (choice A is wrong). Bureaucracies are administrative bodies with advanced divisions of labor; this is not as widespread as social stratification (choice B is wrong). People are able to move up or down in some cases of social stratification, like in class societies, which is called social mobility (choice D is wrong).

Which concept describes the self as an emergent from the way in which an individual perceives how others view him or her? A. Self-fullfiling prophecy B. Self-concept C. Self-schema D. Looking-glass self

D. Looking-glass self

Learned-helplessness is more likely to occur in all of the following situations, EXCEPT: A. when an organism is repeatedly subjected to an aversive stimulus it cannot escape. B. when a human feels they have no control over the outcome of a situation. C. when an individual has a strong external locus of control. D. when an individual has a strong internal locus of control

D. when an individual has a strong internal locus of control D. A strong internal locus of control can be empowering and lead to proactivity; an individual with an internal locus of control feels they are able to influence the outcome of a situation, a disposition that is not likely to lead to learned helplessness (choice D is correct). An external locus of control, on the other hand, means that an individual feels like outside factors or forces will determine the outcome of a situation (in other words, they feel they have no control over the outcome of a situation), and is much more likely to lead to passivity and learned helplessness (choices B and C are wrong). Learned helplessness is also more likely to occur when an organism is repeatedly subjected to an aversive stimulus it cannot escape (choice A is wrong).

Three founding fathers of sociology

Karl Marx, Max Weber, Emile Durkheim

Flaws in experimental design

Researchers didn't do enough

Independent variable

Treatment/intervention in a study that is manipulated by the researcher

Manifest function vs. latent function

-Manifest function: the intended and recognized functions of an institution -Latent function: the unintended, unforeseen consequences of an institution

Emile Durkheim and functionalism

-Modern societies are complex and require different types of people working together to make society function -Dynamic equilibrium occurs when multiple interdependent parts in a society work together toward societal stability -The individual is only significant in terms of their status, position in patterns of social relations, and associated behaviors -Social structure is a network of statuses connected by associated facts

Social constructionism

-We actively shape our society through social interactions -Social institutions and knowledge are created by individuals interacting within the system rather than having any inherent truth of their own -Social construct: concept or practice created by a group where everybody in society agrees to treat a certain aspect a certain way regardless of its inherent value, and that therefore determines its value -Dynamic, ongoing process that must be maintained, reaffirmed, and passed along to future generations -Micro-level

Which of the following is NOT true regarding macro and micro sociological perspectives? A. Both perspectives emphasize individual interactions. B. Macrosociology focuses on society as a whole, as something that is prior to, and greater than, the sum of individual people. C. Macrosociology looks at large-scale social structures and how these affect individuals. D. Microsociology looks at the smallest building blocks of society and works up to larger social structures.

A. Both perspectives emphasize individual interactions. A. Start by writing "A B C D" on your noteboard, then analyze each answer choice, assigning a "T" if it is true and an "F" if it is not. Microsociology focuses on individual interactions while macrosociology focuses on larger social structures; they do not both emphasize individual interactions (write "F" next to "A" on the noteboard). Macrosociology focuses on society as a whole, as something that is prior to, and greater than, the sum of individual people (write "T" next to "B" on the noteboard). Macrosociology looks at large-scale social structures and how these affect individuals (writhe "T" next to "C" on the noteboard), while microsociology looks at the smallest building blocks of society and works up to larger social structures (write "T" next to "D" on the noteboard). Since choice A stands out with an "F" instead of a "T", it is the correct answer choice.

Which theory/theories is/are associated with the macro-level of analysis? I. Conflict theory II. Social constructionism III. Symbolic interactionism A. I and II only B. I only C. III only D. II only

A. I and II only A. Start by analyzing Item I, since it appears in exactly two answer choices, and whether it is true or false you can eliminate half the answers. Item I is true: conflict theory does approach the study of society from the macro level (choices C and D can be eliminated). Since neither of the remaining choices includes Item III, it must be false and you can focus on Item II. Item II is true: social constructionism also approaches the study of society utilizing the macro-level (as well as the micro; choice B can be eliminated and choice A is correct. Note that Item III is in fact false: symbolic interactionism exclusively studies society from the micro-level perspective (III is incorrect).

Which of the following sociological theories would argue that religion promotes social solidarity and a collective consciousness? A. Structrual functionalism B. Conflict theory C. Feminist theory D. Symbolic interactionism

A. Structrual functionalism A. Structural functionalism would argue that religion promotes social solidarity as well as a collective consciousness, making individuals feel a part of an entity greater than themselves (choice A is correct). Conflict theory would suggest that religion is associated with conflict in society, rather than with solidarity (choice B is wrong). Feminist theory would not argue that religion leads to social stability (choice C is wrong). Symbolic interactionism (a micro-level theory) would not argue that religion promotes social stability (a macro-level phenomenon; choice D is wrong).

A patient in an urgent care facility feels as though the attending physician is not providing the patient with their full attention, likely due to the health care facility being overwhelmed with patients that day. The patient exhibits signs of anxiety and frustration, which the attending physician mistakes to be signs of antagonism. Which sociological theory would most likely account for this situation? A. Symbolic interactionism B. Social constructionism C. Exchange-rational theory D. Functionalism

A. Symbolic interactionism A. The situation in the question stem is a micro-level interaction between individuals, including the misinterpretation of symbols, making symbolic interactionism the best option (choice A is correct). Social constructionism, while it can provide a micro-level perspective, is more interested in how concepts are constructed rather than interpreting an interaction between two individuals (choice B is wrong). Exchange-rational theory concerns cost-benefit analyses which are not present in the question stem (choice C is wrong). Functionalism is a macro-level theory and, as such, does not apply to individual interactions (choice D is wrong).

Discrimination is best defined as: A. acting in a biased manner towards a certain individual or group based on actual or perceived membership in a certain social group or category. B. thoughts, attitudes or feelings towards a certain individual or group based on actual or perceived membership in a certain social group or category. C. an over-simplified and often fixed image or idea about a particular type of person or social group. D. policies to benefit traditionally underrepresented and oppressed social groups.

A. acting in a biased manner towards a certain individual or group based on actual or perceived membership in a certain social group or category. A. Discrimination is best defined as acting in a biased manner towards a certain individual or group based on actual or perceived membership in a certain social group or category (choice A is correct). While discrimination, by definition, involves action, prejudice is defined as thoughts, attitudes or feelings towards a certain individual or group based on actual or perceived membership in a certain social group or category (choice B is wrong). Stereotypes are over-simplified and often fixed images or ideas about a particular type of person or social group (choice C is wrong). Affirmative action involves policies to benefit traditionally underrepresented and oppressed social groups (choice D is wrong).

Rational choice and social exchange theories: A. assume that individuals weigh the costs and benefits of potential actions, and always behave according to whichever outcome will be most favorable. B. are exclusively macro-level sociological perspectives. C. view society as striving toward dynamic equilibrium. D. are sociological theories because they are the most accurate

A. assume that individuals weigh the costs and benefits of potential actions, and always behave according to whichever outcome will be most favorable. A. Rational choice and social exchange theories assume that individuals weigh the costs and benefits of potential actions, and always behave according to whichever outcome will be most favorable (choice A is correct). Both theories can be either macro- or micro-level, thus neither is exclusively macro-level (choice B is wrong). Structural functionalism, not rational choice and social exchange, views society as striving toward dynamic equilibrium (choice C is wrong). None of the sociological theories are considered "the best" because each has its own shortcomings. Sociologists prefer to use different theories for different perspectives on society (choice D is wrong).

According to the Elaboration Likelihood Model of persuasion, the source characteristics: A. include the person or organization delivering the message; messages from individuals or organizations of high repute are more likely to be persuasive than messages from less credible sources. B. include the route of processing of the message; if the message is processed via the central route, it is more likely to lead to lasting change than if it is processed via the peripheral route. C. include the features of the message itself, including length, complexity, and logic. D. include the features of the audience receiving the message, such as self-esteem, motivation, mood, and intelligence.

A. include the person or organization delivering the message; messages from individuals or organizations of high repute are more likely to be persuasive than messages from less credible sources. A. According to the Elaboration Likelihood Model of persuasion, the source characteristics include the person or organization delivering the message; messages from individuals or organizations that are highly reputed (such as experts or well-known organization) are more likely to be persuasive than messages from less credible sources (choice A is correct). The source characteristics influence the route of processing, but are not synonymous with the route of processing, which includes either the central or peripheral routes (choice B is wrong). The message characteristics (not the source characteristics) include the features of the message itself, including length, complexity, and logic (choice C is wrong). The target characteristics (not the source characteristics) include the features of the person receiving the message, such as self-esteem, motivation, mood, and intelligence (choice D is wrong).

The process by which an individual acquires the norms, values, customs, ideologies, and behaviors of his or her society is known as: A. socialization. B. indoctrination. C. social facilitation. D. social learning.

A. socialization. A. Socialization is a term used to describe the lifelong process of inheriting and disseminating the norms, values, customs, ideologies, and behaviors of one's society, providing an individual with the skills and habits necessary for participating effectively with others within his or her own society. In other words, socialization is the means by which social and cultural continuity are attained; individuals are socialized through normal, everyday interactions with others (choice A is correct). Indoctrination, on the other hand, involves the teaching of a specific doctrine or ideology to an individual who is not supposed to question this point of view; while indoctrination is closely linked to socialization, it is often associated with negative connotations (as a coercive form of learning), while socialization refers to a more natural and unforced process of cultural learning (choice B is wrong). Social facilitation occurs when an individual is able to perform a simple task or skill somehow better in front of others than when alone; this term does not describe the process by which an individual acquires the norms, values, customs, ideologies, and behaviors of his or her society (choice C is wrong). Social learning is the process of learning vicariously through observation of a model; though social learning is an important element of socialization, social learning itself does not fully describe the process of acquiring the norms, values, customs, ideologies, and behaviors of society (choice D is wrong).

Which of the following concepts is most closely related to Max Weber's ideas about the continually increasing rationalization of modern societies? A. Generalized other B. McDonaldization C. Charismatic authority D. Labeling theory

B. McDonaldization B. Weber believed that the fundamental trend of modern society was to become increasingly rational; in other words, soceity was increasingly concerned with efficicency. McDonalization takes the concept of the bureaucracy (which ideally should be predictable, uniform, efficient, and automated) and applies it to chain stores, consumerism, chain stores, and society as a whole. This is analogous to Weber's conception of rationalization (choice B is correct). The generalized other is a symbolic interactionist term which refers to when a person tries to imagine what is expected of them from society; this does not clearly applie (choice A is incorrect). While charismatic authority is another concept from Weber, it is concerned with a type of leadership in which authority stems from the charisma of the leader; it does not clearly relate to the question stem (choice C is incorrect). Labeling theory suggests that deviance is the result of soceity's response to a person rather than something inherent in the person's actions; in other words, behaviors come to be considered deviant through a social process (the act itself is not inherently deviant), as in the behavior becomes labled as deviant. This does not clearly relate to the scenario in the question stem (choice D is incorrect).

A school district is aiming to improve high schoolers' health by encouraging them to make better nutritional choices. If the school district follows the social-exchange theory, which of the following options would most likely result in the desired effect? A. Implement a regulation requiring schools to only offer nutritional choices during the school day B. Reduce the prices on nutritional options while increasing prices on the less nutritional options. C. Introduce a policy that high school students are all required to take a physical education course each semester D. Send detailed information to parents regarding the nutritional and non-nutritional food options available at school, in order to assist in decision-making

B. Reduce the prices on nutritional options while increasing prices on the less nutritional options.

How might a conflict theorist view religion? A. Religion promotes social unity. B. Religion is a method of social control. C. Religion allows individuals to interact in religious settings. D. Religious systems become more developed only as societies become more developed.

B. Religion is a method of social control. B. Conflict theorists would be most interested in social control and social inequality at the macro-level and would therefore view religion from that perspective. Choice B, which directly mentions social control, fits perfectly within the conflict theory paradigm (choice B is correct). Social unity would be a structural functionalist perspective (choice A is wrong). If individuals are interacting, this better fits with the symbolic interactionist point of view, a micro-level theory (choice C is wrong). Choice D suggests that religion changes after society changes, suggesting it is neither static nor universal; this fits within the perspective of social constructionism (choice D is wrong).

Which of the following best explains why an individual's performance on simple tasks might improve when performing them in front of an audience? A. The bystander effect B. The social facilitation effect C. Group polarization D. Social loafing

B. The social facilitation effect B. The social facilitation effect occurs when an individual's performance on simple, well-practiced tasks is enhanced or improved when in the presence of others (choice B is correct). The bystander effect occurs when an individual is in need of help and many other people are around, but no one stops to help because everyone assumes that someone else will help (choice A is wrong). Group polarization occurs when the average group member's opinion becomes more extreme after group interaction; individual attitudes strengthen and intensify after group discussion (choice C is wrong). Social loafing occurs when individuals exert less effort in a group setting than they would if their performance was based solely on their personal effort (choice D is wrong).

The modern sociological perspective is concerned with both micro- and macro-level considerations. Which of the following statements LEAST applies to those considered macrosociologists? A. These sociologists might also be described as functionalists or conflict theorists but not interactionists. B. These sociologists are interested in how social interactions shape meanings in our societies. C. These sociologists are most concerned with studies of large-scale social factors. D. These sociologists have been criticized for focusing too much on the broad features of social structure.

B. These sociologists are interested in how social interactions shape meanings in our societies. B. Both functionalists and conflict theorists use a macro-level approach to understanding societies while interactionists use a micro-level approach, focusing instead on more small-scale factors such as individual interactions (thus, choice A applies to these sociologists and can be eliminated). Macrosociologists are interested in the effects of large-scale social structures, such as the role of social institutions in socialization and thus the process of defining and re-defining normative expectations (thus, choice C applies to these sociologists and can be eliminated). This has lead to some criticism, such as the fact that the focus on the more broad features of social structure neglects the fact that individuals can have an active role in shaping their realities as agents of social change (thus, choice D applies to these sociologists and can be eliminated). Therefore, it is not expected that macrosociologists focus on the role of social interactions in creating important meanings in societies; this is the focus of microsociologists not macrosociologists (choice B is the correct answer as it LEAST applies to those considered macrosociologists).

A social constructionist would most likely view the family as an example of: A. intersectionality. B. an agent of socialization. C. a generalized other. D. a manifest function.

B. an agent of socialization. B. A key concept in social constructionism is socialization, or the way in which social constructs are maintained, reaffirmed, and passed along to future generations. Agents of socialization include things like popular culture, religion, schools, and the family (choice B is correct). The other options are terms from other sociological theories: intersectionality is from feminist theory (choice A is wrong), the generalized other is from symbolic interactionism (choice C is wrong), and manifest functions are from structural functionalism (choice D is wrong).

What is social constructionism? I. A micro-level theory of society that is interested in how individuals and groups participate in the construction of society and social reality. II. A macro-level theory of society that looks at how humans learn sets of associations for specific concepts through socialization. III. A macro-level theory of society that looks at how various individuals and groups compete for resources within society. A. I only B. II only C. I and II only D. I, II, and III

C. I and II only C. Since none of the items appear in exactly two answer choices, you can start analyzing any of them. Item I is true: social constructionism can be either a micro-level or macro-level theory of society, depending on the context. It is interested in the construction of social reality (choice B can be eliminated). Item II is true: social constructionism can also be macro-level, and it looks at how people form associations with concepts (constructs) through socialization (choice A can be eliminated). Item III is false: although social constructionism can be macro-level, the rest of the item describes conflict theory (choice D can be eliminated and choice C is correct).

A city government is looking to improve the health of the citizen population while also combating the prevalence of food deserts in the area. If the city officials were to craft a plan utilizing the perspective of the exchange-rational theory, which tactic would be most appropriate? A. Implement a city ordinance requiring healthier lunch options in public schools B. Plan for publicly funded exercise and yoga classes at the city park C. Increase taxes on processed foods like soda and potato chips and decrease the cost of fresh vegetables and fruits D. Run a public marketing campaign encouraging citizens to have "gym buddies" to increase the likelihood of going to the gym

C. Increase taxes on processed foods like soda and potato chips and decrease the cost of fresh vegetables and fruits C. The exchange-rational theory assumes that individuals will make rational decisions - choosing the options that bring the most benefit and the least cost. Only choice C provides such a cost/benefit analysis; the fresh food becomes cheaper, while the less healthy food becomes more expensive, which could potentially result in citizens making cost/benefit analyses (choice C is correct). While the other options are all potentially beneficial to public health, they do not clearly align with exchange-rational theory (choices A, B, and D are wrong).

Mental health disorders vary in classification across the globe. Which sociological theory would best explain the global differences in the understanding of mental health? A. Feminist theory B. Symbolic interactionism C. Social constructionism D. Structural functionalism

C. Social constructionism C. Social constructionism argues that nothing is inherently real and that each culture defines reality for itself, including variations in mental health diagnosis and classification. As such, a social constructionist would expect global variation in the understanding of what is or is not a mental health disorder (choice C is correct). Feminist theory examines the social inequities of gender and does not apply in this case (choice A is wrong). Symbolic interactionism is a micro-level theory and does not apply to variations in the understanding of mental health disorders (choice B is wrong). Structural functionalism is concerned with social stability and is not relevant in this scenario (choice D is wrong).

Which of the follow concepts is most aligned with the notion that the gender scripts and gender schemas that are currently considered appropriate in a certain culture are merely the arbitrary result of cultural consensus and are forced on individuals by agents of socialization such as mass media, family, schools, and peers? A. Exchange theory. B. The feminist concepts of the glass ceiling and the glass escalator. C. Social constructionism. D. Mead's concept of the "I" and the "me".

C. Social constructionism. C. Social constructionism is a theory that argues that reality is constructed, not inherent. If gender scripts and schemas are an arbitrary result of culture, that indicates they are socially constructed and not inherent to humans (choice C is the correct answer). Exchange theory, also referred to as social exchange theory, suggests that individuals seek to maximize rewards and reduce punishments in their social interactions; this does not clearly apply (choice A is incorrect). The "glass escalator" concept from sociology suggests that men in occuptations with higher proporitions of women (such as nursing or teaching) will be promoted more quickly than his female counterparts; the "glass ceiling," a related term, is used to represent an invisible barrier that prevents a certain demographic (often minorities), from reaching a certain level within a heirachy; neither term directly applies to the scenario in the question stem (choice B is incorrect). Mead thought that there were two aspects of the social self: the "I" and the "me," which do not clearly correlate with the question stem (choice D is incorrect).

Suppose that when an individual succeeds he takes the credit for his success, but when he fails he tends to blame others for his failure. What error is this person committing? A. The fundamental attribution error B. The actor-observer bias C. The self-serving bias D. The optimism bias

C. The self-serving bias C. The self-serving bias is the tendency to attribute our successes to ourselves (e.g. "I worked hard and deserved a good grade") and our failures to others (e.g. "the teacher failed me because he hates me"); this best describes the error committed by the individual in the question stem (choice C is correct). The fundamental attribution error occurs when we tend to blame dispositional factors for others' behavior (e.g. "she yelled at me because she's a jerk"; choice A is wrong) and the actor-observer bias occurs when we tend to blame situational factors for our own behavior (e.g. "I yelled at her because work is really stressing me out"; choice B is wrong). The optimism bias is the belief that bad things happen to others but not to ourselves (choice D is wrong).

What is intersectionality? A. A theory suggesting a positive correlation between socioeconomic status and health outcomes. B. A suggested continuum of sexuality. C. The study of how various oppressive institutions (like racism, sexism, homophobia, xenophobia, classism, etc.) are interconnected and cannot be examined separately from one another. D. A law that suggests that all organizations, regardless of how democratic they may intend to remain, will eventually and inevitably develop into oligarchies.

C. The study of how various oppressive institutions (like racism, sexism, homophobia, xenophobia, classism, etc.) are interconnected and cannot be examined separately from one another.

Which of the following scenarios is the best example of stereotype threat? A. A group of African American males is told that, on average, African American males jump higher than white males, and subsequently jump significantly higher than their white counterparts in a physical assessment. B. A group of Asian American males is given a standardized math test and performs significantly better than their white male counterparts. C. A group of Asian American males is told that, on average, Asian American males do not jump as high as white males, but there is no significant difference between the Asian American males and their white counterparts in a physical assessment that measures jumping. D. A group of African American males is told that a standardized test is meant to measure "intelligence and ability to succeed in college" and performs worse on the test than white males.

D. A group of African American males is told that a standardized test is meant to measure "intelligence and ability to succeed in college" and performs worse on the test than white males. D. Stereotype threat is a phenomenon whereby the performance of individuals who belong to negatively stereotyped groups is reduced because these individuals experience anxiety in situations in which an individual has the potential to confirm a negative stereotype about his or her social group. In other words, if negative stereotypes are present regarding a specific group, group members are likely to become anxious about their performance, which may hinder their ability to perform at their maximum level. Therefore, if a group of African American males is told that a standardized test is meant to measure "intelligence and ability to succeed in college," and then these males perform worse on the test than white males, then this scenario most accurately exemplifies stereotype threat, since there is a negative stereotype that African American males have lower intelligence and are less likely to succeed in college (choice D is correct). Stereotype threat does not apply to positive stereotypes, and does not describe situations where performance is enhanced; therefore, if African American males jump higher than white males after being told that on average African Americans jump higher, this is not an example of stereotype threat (choice A is wrong). Similarly, if a group of Asian American males performs better than white males on a math assessment, even though there is a stereotype that Asians are "good at math," this positive performance is not an example of stereotype threat (choice B is wrong). If a group of Asian American males performs about that same as their white counterparts, even after being told that they should perform worse, then stereotype threat has also not occurred (choice D is wrong).

Which of the following is NOT a macro-level theory of sociology? I. Symbolic interactionism II. Conflict theory III. Functionalism A. I and II only B. III only C. II only D. I only

D. I only D. Start by analyzing Item I. Since it is found in exactly two answer choices, you can eliminate half the answers whether it is true or false. Item I is true: symbolic interactionism is a micro-level theory of sociology. Symbolic interactionism concerns interactions between individuals rather than interactions between groups or institutions; therefore, it is NOT a macro-level theory, which would focus on the larger elements that shape society as a whole (choices B and C can be eliminated). Since neither of the remaining choices include Item III it must be false and you can focus on Item II. Item II is false: conflict theory explains revolutions and other aspects of socio-political systems, focusing on the competition for limited resources, which makes it a macro-level theory (choice A can be eliminated and choice D is correct). Note that Item II is in fact false: functionalism explains how social processes work on a broad scale, focusing on the distinct purposes of individual structures and their contribution to society at large, and is therefore a macro-level theory.

Which of the following correctly defines the type of conformity that occurs in each situation? A. Intersectionality occurs when individuals conform to the standards of their peer groups. B. Social reproduction occurs when children conform to their parents' wishes. C. Deindividuation occurs when individuals conform to promote group tranquility. D. Assimilation occurs when immigrants conform to the norms of their new culture.

D. Assimilation occurs when immigrants conform to the norms of their new culture. D. Assmilation refers to when individuals try to enter a new in-group by taking on the in-group's culture in order to fit in better; this would be an example of conformity, which is the modification of one's beliefs and/or behaviors to better align with group norms (choice D is correct). Intersectionality refers to individuals who hold multiple social identities, and the effects and nature of these overlapping identities; the term does not apply to conforming to the standards of one's peer groups (choice A is incorrect). Social reproduction refers to the phenomenon of social inequality being transmitted from one generation to the next; it is not concerned with children conforming to a parent's desires (choice B is incorrect). Deindividuation refers to the loss of one's sense of self, typically when in a large crowd and/or during an emotionally arousing event; however, individuals are not conforming for the sake of tranquility (choice C is incorrect).

Feminist theory is one of the modern sociological theories, and is used to understand the societal differences between men and women, as well as the sources of these differences. This aligns with the purposes of sociologists following which theories of social understanding? A. Structural functionalist theories B. Social constructionist theories C. Symbolic interactionist theories D. Conflict theories

D. Conflict theories D. Based on the description provided, feminist theories are interested in societal differences between men and women. Theorists of this perspective attempt to explain these differences through an understanding of gender differences, gender inequalities, gender oppression, and structural oppression. Feminist theories, similar to conflict theories, are focused on structured social inequalities (choice D is correct). Conflict theories are interested in social, political, and material inequalities. This is often focused on inequalities as a result of socioeconomic differences, as the founding theorist, Karl Marx, was invested in studies of economics; however, modern conflict theorists are also interested in inequalities based on race and gender. Structural functionalist theories are interested in the contributions of individual social structures, each with a distinct purpose, to the function of the whole society (choice A is wrong). While a functionalist approach could be used to understand the social structures contributing to gender inequalities (e.g., forms of structural oppression), this is not relevant to the information stressed in the question stem. Social constructionist theories are interested in the construction of perceived social realities through social interactions (choice B is wrong). Finally, symbolic interactionist theories are interested in the relationship between individuals and greater social structures, with a focus on communication (choice C is wrong). Again, constructionist and/or interactionist approaches could be used to understand the social processes contributing to gender inequalities, but this is not relevant here.

Boris Lusniak is the current acting Surgeon General of the United States. This might be described as his master status, but Dr. Lusniak also has other statuses. All of the following are ascribed statuses, EXCEPT: A. Dr. Lusniak is Ukrainian. B. Dr. Lusniak is a man. C. Dr. Lusniak is a Chicago native. D. Dr. Lusniak is a rear admiral.

D. Dr. Lusniak is a rear admiral. D. Boris Lusniak has multiple defined social positions, called statuses, which is true of people in general. These statuses can be described as ascribed, those assigned regardless of a person's own efforts, or achieved, those considered to be the result of a person's own efforts. Examples of ascribed statuses include a person's gender, race, and ethnic background, as well as their geographic origins, because people tend to be assigned these statuses at birth (choices A, B, and C are ascribed statues and can be eliminated). Dr. Lusniak is also a rear admiral, which describes his earned naval commissioned officer rank; this is an achieved status NOT an ascribed status (choice D is the correct answer).

In some societies, it is a strict social norm that men do not express their emotions while women are freer to do so. Which sociological theory would be most likely interested in studying such a phenomenon? A. Symbolic interactionism B. Social constructionism C. Conflict theory D. Feminist theory

D. Feminist theory D. Feminist theory, often considered a sub-type of conflict theory, is interested in all forms of gender and sex inequality, especially in how different sexes and/or genders are treated/behave differently. In the scenario of the question stem, men are expected to not express their emotions, while women are freer to do so, suggesting it is more "feminine" to expression emotion (choice D is correct). Symbolic interactionism would be interested in how individuals' interaction either one-on-one or in small groups based on symbols, which is not described directly in the scenario (choice A is wrong). Social constructionism might be interested in how the social norms regarding emotion were constructed in the first place, and how they are passed on/socialized, but the scenario of the question stem does not address the construction of the social norm (choice B is wrong). Conflict theory examines society at the macro-level in terms of social inequalities. While the stem does describe an inequality in the emotional expectations of men and women, this would still most clearly fall under the paradigm of feminist theory (choice C is wrong).

Patrick will be attending kindergarten this September. Which of the following is/are latent functions of Patrick's attending school: I. Patrick's mother will no longer have to worry about childcare during the day. II. Patrick will learn to conform to social norms. III. Patrick will learn basic reading skills. A. III only B. I, II, and III C. I only D. I and II only

D. I and II only D. Start by analyzing Item III since it is found in exactly two answer choices, and whether it is true or false you can eliminate half the answers (note that this is the case for Item II as well, but Item III is shorter). Item III is false: manifest functions of education are the objectives of education. Therefore, learning basic reading skills would be considered a manifest function of a kindergarten education, not a latent function (eliminate choices A and B). Since both remaning choices include Item I, it must be true and you can focus on Item II. Item II is true: latent functions of education would be those consequences of education that were not initially intended. As teaching children to conform to social norms is not a primary goal of education, Patrick's socialization surrounding social norms would be a latent function (choice C can be eliminated and choice D is correct). Note that Item I is in fact true: the fact that Patrick's mother will not longer have to worry about childcare during the day is a latent function, not the primary goal of education.

There is a significant amount of evidence supporting the fact that minorities are at a greater risk for chronic diseases, such as heart disease. The persistence of such racial inequalities in health is a consequence of the fact that minorities often experience: I. less access to health care facilities based on their geographic locations. II. less access to health insurance based on their socioeconomic statuses. III. more subjection to dangerous environmental exposures based on their communities. A. I only B. II only C. I and III only D. I, II, and III

D. I, II, and III D. It is an unfortunate truth that race is often connected to the social construct of socioeconomic status (SES) as a large proportion of minorities in the United States are also SES disadvantaged. This has important implications for health and health care disparities: minorities often experience worse health and health care outcomes compared to whites, including the increased risk for serious chronic illnesses. Item I is true: Health and health care disparities result from differences in access to health care resources, such as health care facilities, that have more negative consequences for minorities as lower SES individuals (choice B can be eliminated). There are larger proportions of minorities than whites in lower-income geographical areas with less relevant infrastructure as the result of enduring social patterns. This separation of social groups into different neighborhoods, most often due to racial, ethnic, or socioeconomic differences, is sometimes called residential segregation. Item II is true: Health and health care disparities result from differences in access to health insurance that have more negative consequences for minorities as lower SES individuals (choices A and C can be eliminated). The lack of health insurance means that it is more difficult to access regular or preventative health care, meaning that the uninsured often do not access health care until issues have progressed to a much worse stage, contributing to marked disparities. Item III is true: Health and health care disparities result from differences in subjection to dangerous environments, such as pollution, that have more negative consequences for minorities as lower SES individuals. These differences and the subsequent differences in the negative impacts of these exposures are sometimes referred to an example of environmental injustice (choice D is the correct answer).

According to Mead, which behavior is an expression of the I component of the Self? A. Agnes is very attentive to the needs of her friend, who is going through a difficult time. B. Santiago decides to study for the MCAT instead of going out with his friends. C. Anika dresses and speaks professionally at her medical school interview. D. Rafi calls in sick to work because he wants to go shopping.

D. Rafi calls in sick to work because he wants to go shopping.

The greatest proportion of the world's population is concentrated in: A. developed countries, which are the countries that are most industrialized. B. developing countries, which are the countries that are most industrialized. C. developed countries, which are the countries that are least industrialized. D. developing countries, which are the countries that are least industrialized.

D. developing countries, which are the countries that are least industrialized. D. This question can be answered with an understanding of the process of demographic transition in two steps. (1) This process suggests that birth rates are highest in the least developed regions and lowest in the most developed regions. Thus, developing countries are responsible for the greatest contributions to the global population (choices A and C can be eliminated). In fact, population projections suggest that less than ten countries, most of which are underdeveloped, will be responsible for half of the predicted increases in population. (2) This process also suggests that birth rates decrease as an area becomes more and more industrial as a result of both economic and social changes. (This explains the reason developed countries are further along in the transition.) Thus, developing countries are some of the least industrialized regions and developed countries are some of the most industrialized regions (choice D is the correct answer and choice B is wrong).

Dependent variable

Outcome variable that is measured and not directly manipulated by the researcher