Media Ethics Test 1

In what ways is loyalty a problematic virtue for media ethics?

1st loyalty incompletely conceived can be bias or prejudice thinly cloaked, 2nd few people maintain merely a single loyalty and if loyalty is to become a guiding ethical principle we need to develop a way to help distinguish among cooperating loyalties 3rd In a mass society the concept of face to face loyalty has lost much of its power 4th is it ethical to be loyal to an unethical cause ex racism or gender discrimination

Basic assumptions about moral development in the Rights-based tradition

Moral development occurs within the individual Moral development parallels intellectual development Moral development occurs in a series of universal, unvarying and hierarchical stages Moral development comes through conflict

What are the two fundamental assumptions about moral development underlying Kohlberg that those who developed the ethics of care disagree with?

-Many scholars have argued that any general theory of moral development should allow people who are not saints or religious leaders to attain the highest stages of moral development. -Some felt that Kohlberg's conception unlike Piaget's was too restrictive. More troubling was that in repeated studies, men consistently scored higher than women on stages of moral development. This gender bias in Kohlberg's work prompted discussion about a different concept of moral development founded on notions of community rather than in the rights- based tradition. It is called the ethics of care.

What is an aesthetic attitude?

-Is one that values close and complete concentration of all the senses. An aesthetic attitude is a frankly sensual one, and one that summons both emotion and logic to its particular ends.

Discuss the link between aesthetics and excellent professional performance.

-Like Plato long ago, those who would restrict the arts do so because they mistrust the power of the artist or even the audience to link emotion and logic in a way that stimulates a new vision of society, culture or individuals.

What are the dimensions of the debate about the role of truth in art?

-Most philosophers seem to agree that artist are not restricted to telling the literal truth. Often artist can reveal a previously hidden or veiled truth, providing a new way of looking at the world or understanding human nature that rings deeply true.

What are the differences between popular and elite art and culture?

-Popular art is consciously adjusted to the median taste by the artist, elite art reflects the individual artist's vision, popular art is neither abstruse, complicated, nor profound: elite art has these characteristics Popular art conforms to majority experience; elite art explores the new. 4. Popular art conforms to less clearly defined standards of excellence, most often linked to commercial success; elite art is much less commercially oriented, and its standards of excellence are consistent and integrated. 5. Popular artists know that the audience expects entertainment and instruction; elite artists seek an aesthetic experience. 6. The popular artist cannot afford to offend its target audience; the elite artist functions as a critic of society, and his or her work challenges and sometimes offends the status quo. 7. Popular art often arises from folk art; elite art more often emerges from a culture's dominant intellectual tradition.

What is the value of storytelling in modern society (as stated by Jacques Ellul)? Thus, where does the entertainment media get its power?

-The value of storytelling stated by Jacques Ellul is that in a modern society, storytelling is inevitable and desirable tool to stabilize the culture. - Aesop's fables and the early McGuffey Readers influenced generations of Americans with subtle (or not) messages that reinforced the social structure. This is precisely where the entertainment media get their power— not in the overt messages but in the underlying assumptions that (if unchallenged) will become widely held societal values. -Entertainment content can reinforce the status quo by constantly depicting certain social groups in an unflattering and unrepresentative way, presenting a distorted picture of reality. Groups as disparate as Muslims and evangelicals have chafed under depictions (or omissions) that reinforce cultural stereotypes despite evidence to the contrary.

What are the three characteristics of aesthetics excellence that also characterize excellence in mass communication?

-an appreciation of the function realized in the product -an appreciation of the resulting quality or form -an appreciation of the technique or skill in the performance

Be able to discuss in relation to various types of storytelling/entertainment genres/media.

-infotainment = pseudo-news, pseudo-cop, pseudo-court shows; Audiences love it because such programming provides relief from reruns of situation comedies and the sameness of game shows. When produced by syndicators, the shows are prepackaged with ads embedded in them, making them attractive to station owners -Reality based films and tv shows = are alike in invoking the license allowed entertainment programming while retaining the authority of fact— a risky combination -Documentary = links facts to beliefs and opinions in important ways. Documentarians also wrestle with how deeply involved they should become with the subjects of their films

Three Ethical Decision Frame works -BOK

1. How do you feel about the action? 2.Is there another professionally acceptable way to achieve the same goal that will not raise ethical. Issues? 3. How will others respond to proposed act?

5 W's and H

1. What's your problem? (Is it moral or non-moral problem) 2.Why not follow the rules (laws, codes of ethics, culture of media and culture of society) 3. Who wins, who lose? (Who's important to you, how can you respect people even when they don't rate as high) 4. What's it worth? (Values- which ideas, things, ideals are important) 5. Who's whispering in your ear? (What do great thinkers say) 6. How's your decision going to look? (Being able to defend your decision)

As listed in text, describe the ethical news values that would be emphasized by both journalists and organizations.

1.Accuracy- using the correct facts and write words and putting things in context; involves eliminating biases (for journalists) as well as learned professional norms 2.Confirmation- writing articles that are able to withstand scrutiny inside and outside the classroom 3.Tenacity- knowing when a story is important enough to require additional effort, both personal and instutional 4.Dignity- leaving the subject of a story as much self-respect as possible 5.Reciprocity- treating others as you wish to be treated; in journalism, demands respect for the reader. 6.Sufficiency- allocating adequate resources to important issues. Individual level- sufficiency (i.e,, checking both people and documents for every scrap of fact before beginning to write). On organizational level, means allocating adequate resources to the news gathering process 7.Equity- seeking justice for all involved in controversial issues and treating all sources and subjects equally; telling ALL sides of the story 8.Community- valuing social cohesion. Organizational level means that media outlets and corporations need to consider themselves as citizens and not simply profit centers. Individual level means evaluating stories with eye first to social good 9.Diversity- covering all segments of the audience fairly and adequately.

ethical dilemma

A situation in which a difficult choice has to be made between two courses of action, either of which entails transgressing a moral principle. An ethical dilemma, ethical paradox, or moral dilemma is a decision-making problem between two possible moral imperatives, neither of which is unambiguously acceptable or preferable. The complexity arises out of the situational conflict in which obeying would result in transgressing another

What are the benefits of professionalism?

Advocates of professionalism assert that professionalism among journalists will provide them with greater autonomy, prestige, and financial rewards

Define/Describe truth through the ages: Ancient Greeks to postmodern.

Ancient Greeks: The concept of truth has evolved through history. Ancient Greeks defined truth (or Alethea) as what humans remember, thus equating truth with remembrance. Information that was memorized and repeated was kept alive or "true" for subsequent generations. Plato: Plato was the first to link truth to human rationality and intellect. In Republic, Plato visioned ruth as a world of pure form, to which human beings only had indirect access. To Plato, truth was knowable only to the human intellect; it couldn't be touched or verified. Essentially, truth defined the "perfect form"; this perfect form however did not exist in the external world in which physical objects exist. Medieval: Centuries later, Medieval theologians believed truth was revealed only by God or by the Church. The Reformation was central to this definition of truth. Milton: About 200 years later, Milton challenged the fact that there existed "one" notion of truth. According to Milton, competing notions of truth should be allowed to coexist, with the ultimate truth eventually emerging. Enlightenment: The Enlightenment then developed a "correspondence theory" of truth that is still held today. This correspondence theory should correspond to external facts or observations. Truth evolved to be that which is written down, what can be empirically verified and tested, and what can be perceived by the human senses. This way of thinking should sound familiar to you; it mirrors that of the scientific method, thus linking what is written with what is factual and accurate. The concept of truth that developed from the Enlightenment has become the basis for the journalistic ideal of objectivity. Objectivity requires that journalists separate fact from opinion. This means that journalists must not allow individual bias to influence what they report or how they cover it. An objective news account lacks any individual sense of mission or opinion. That changed when the 20th-century pragmatists—most notably Americans John Dewey, George Herbert Mead, Charles Sanders Pierce, and William James—challenged the Enlightenment view of truth. They held that the perception of truth depended on how it was investigated and on who was doing the investigating. Further, they rejected the notion that there was only one proper method of investigation—that is, the scientific method. Postmodern philosophy has taken these questions to their logical extension, suggesting that the concept of truth is devoid of meaning. Postmodernism asserts that context is literally everything, and that meaning cannot exist apart from context, which is directly opposed to fact-based journalism.

-How much truth should the audience expect from entertainment?

At one point on the continuum is the argument that there is no truth requirement at all in art. At another point on the continuum is the belief that there must be one accepted truth for all. Compounding the problem is that often the audience doesn't care when the lines of truth and entertainment are blurred.

What is Bok's definition of a lie?

Bok defines lying in the following way: the lie must be stated, the liar must knowingly provide information that she/he is aware is incorrect or wrong, and the lie must be told in order to gain power over the person who is being lied to.

What is meant by "free rider" status in regards to lying?

Bok suggests that most of the time, when we lie we want "free rider" status—gaining the benefits of lying without incurring the risks of being lied to. In other words, some journalists may believe it's acceptable to lie to a crook to get a story, but they professionally resent being lied to by any source, regardless of motive.

What is the criticism of the process of professionalism?

Critics see the process of professionalization as one that distances readers and viewers from the institutions that journalists often represent.

What are the pros/cons of ethics codes? Choose one organization's code of ethics and discuss its emphasis and any concerns with it?

Ethics codes are controversial among professionals and scholars. Others insist codes can be helpful to beginning journalists, photographers, and public relations practitioners; they provide some guidance in the form of rules that can be internalized as professional expertise and experience deepen. And still others see codes as a manifestation of the ideology of an era— more about power and politics than ethics. Pros: good for the organization (often aligns ideals with stakeholders); studies have shown that improves good reputation of business and performance; can be adapted to a company's needs; can increase profitability and financial gains Cons: recent corporate scandals (Enron); some backlash to people adopting codes of conduct b/c businesses face pressure to attain corporate social responsibility (like a trend); not binding in natrue, just rules employees must follow -The new Times code linked its creation to the public perception of the "professional reputations of its staff member(s)." The code was directed to "all members of the news and editorial departments whose work directly affects the content of the paper." The code focused primarily on conflict of interest. In fact, the code did not mention accuracy and fairness and devoted only a single sentence to privacy. However, when addressing conflict of interest, the code was both specific and detailed. The Times code considered the impact that spousal relationships might have on news coverage. It also addressed whether journalists working abroad should abide by the ethics and mores of the countries in which they are stationed, most of which do not provide the equivalent of First Amendment protections.

Complete definition of ethics

Ethics takes us out of the world of "This is the way I do it" or "This is the way it has always been done into the realm of "This is what I should do" or "This is the action that can be rationally justified." Ethics in this sense is "ought talk" Ethics is a rational process founded on certain agreed upon principles Ethics is less about the conflict between right and wrong than it is about the conflict between equally compelling or equally unattractive alternatives and the choices that must be made between them. Ethics is just as often about the choices between good and between or poor or worse. Ethics involves the philosophical investigation of principles governing human actions in terms of goodness, badness, rightness, and wrongness.

Text suggests that even in a time of shifting loyalties, there are some loyalties that should only be reluctantly abandoned. What are they?

Even in a time of shifting loyalties, there are some loyalties that should only be reluctantly abandoned such as loyalty to humanity and loyalty to truth. Virtually no situation in media ethics calls for inhumane treatment or withholding the truth.

According to text, if you were to carve stages of moral development /ethics of care from Carol Gilligan's work, what would they resemble?

First- an ethic of care where the moral responsibility is for care of others before self; Second- an acknowledgment of the ethic of rights, including the rights of self to be considered in ethical decision-making and Third- a movement from concerns about goodness (women are taught to believe that care for others is "good" while men are taught that "taking care of oneself" is good to concerns about truth.

Are there ethically based justifications for lying according to Bok?

For Bok and many other ethicists, lying as an act—like murder—starts out in the "moral deficit" column. The human default is "truth"; lying must be justified to be ethical, and satisfactory justification is rare. Is it ethical to lie to liars? Is withholding information the same thing as lying? If not, under what circumstances might it be appropriate? If it is, are there ethically based justifications for such an act? Sissela Bok (1978) argues that such an act raises two questions. Will the lie serve a larger social good, and does the act of lying mean that we as professionals are willing to be lied to in return? Even lying to liars can have its downside as Bok points out in her book Lying: In the end, the participants in deception they take to be mutually understood may end up with coarsened judgment and diminished credibility. But if, finally, the liar to whom one wishes to lie is also in a position to do one harm, then the balance may shift; not because he is a liar, but because of the threat he poses.

Potter Box- Ralph Potter

Four steps in order 1. Understanding the fact of the case 2. Outlining the values inherent in the decision 3.applying relevant philosophical principles 4.Articulating a loyalty Begin with the factual situation and end with loyalties

Explain Tolstoy's rationale for art.

Good art had one dominant characteristic: it communicated the feelings of the artist to the masses in the way that artist to the masses in the way that the artist intended.

Popular art

Gradually, artists discovered that if they could find a way to get more than one person to "pay" for the creation of art, artistic control returned to the artist. The concept of "popular art" was born

What are the six cultural values reflected in news stories as outlined by Herbert Gans (p. 31)?

Herbert Gans (1979) studied how stories became news at Newsweek and CBS and found that almost all news stories reflected these six cultural values: (1) ethnocentrism (i.e., evaluation of other cultures according to preconceptions originating in the standards and customs of one's own culture; idea your culture is superior to others), (2) altruistic democracy (politicians should serve the public good, not just their own personal interests), (3) responsible capitalism (the idea that business competition is good and prosperous, but has to be responsible), (4) individualism (principle of being self-reliant and independent), (5) an emphasis on the need for and maintenance of social order, and (6) leadership. These dominant values helped to shape which stories were printed and what they said, what communication scholars call "framing."

In what ways did Pragmatists provide a challenge to objectivity?

However, there were some 20th century pragmatists that challenged the Enlightenment view of truth. Central to the pragmatists' way of thinking was the idea that the perception of truth depended on how it was investigated and who was doing the reporting. Pragmatists argued that truth was relative, thus rejecting the scientific method as the only method of investigation. Pragmatists hold a view that truth/reality depends on the context, not simply relying on facts and accuracy. Pragmatism thus provided a challenge to journalism's previous definition of objectivity. Rather than challenging the outcome of what was reported, pragmatism challenges the factors that contribute to this outcome: the individual news story and the media ecosystem in which it emerged. Pragmatism provided a challenge to objectivity. No sooner had the journalistic community embraced objectivity than the culture adopted more pragmatic notions of truth. That clash fueled criticism of objectivity. Pragmatism challenged the journalistic product: the individual news story and the media ecosystem in which it emerged. However, if objectivity is defined as a method of information collection—a systematic approach to gathering "facts" from many points of view—then this philosophical development provides support for defining objectivity as a process rather than as a result.

What is loyalty?

In the context of ethics is the idea that every time a person makes a decision in life, he or she is answering the question," To whom or what will I be loyal?" Loyalty has limits. A willingness to die for a cause. Loyalty promotes self-realization. Not a fixed point but a range within a continuum.

What can reporters do to help ensure their stories are objective?

Journalists view objectivity as refusing to allow individual bias to influence what they report or how they cover it. Reporters can ensure that their stories are objective by refusing to allow individual bias to influence what they report or how they cover it. Thus, to achieve objective stories, reporters must leave culture, individual sense of mission, and individual feelings and views out of the stories that they cover.

Stages of moral development as described by Kohlberg

LEVEL 1: PRECONVENTIONAL Stage 1: Heteronymous morality -Is the display of simple obedience Stage 2: Individualism -Is the emergence of self-interest. Rules are only followed when they are deemed to be in one's self-interest and others are allowed the same freedom. LEVEL 2: CONVENTIONAL Stage 3: Interpersonal conformity -Is living up to what others expect, given one's role ex. Brother, neighbor Stage 4: Social System -Is the recognition that one must fulfill the duties to which one has agreed. Doing one's duty, respect for authority, and maintaining social order are all goals in this level. LEVEL 3: POSTCONVENTIONAL Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights -Is becoming aware that one is obligated by whatever laws are agreed to by due process. The social contract demands that we uphold the laws even if they are contrary to our best interest because they exist to provide the greatest good for the greatest number. Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles -Self-selected by each individual guide this person. These principles are to be followed even if laws violate those principles. The principles that guide this individual include the equality of human rights and respect for the dignity of humans as individual beings regardless of race, age, socioeconomic status, or even contribution to society.

How do law and ethics differ?

Law is about "must" or "must not" while ethics is about "ought" or "ought not" Ethics are a set of moral values an individual establishes for one's self and your own personal behavior. Laws are structured rules utilized to govern all of society.

Know the problems of having loyalty as a single guide.

Loyalty as a single ethical guide has problems. First, loyalty, incompletely conceived, can be bias or prejudice thinly cloaked. Second, few people maintain merely a single loyalty and if loyalty is to become a guiding ethical principle, we need to develop a way to help distinguish among competing loyalties. Third, in a mass society, the concept of face-to-face loyalty has lost much of its power. Finally, the most troubling question: whether it is ethical to be loyal to an unethical cause, for example, racism or gender discrimination.

What does loyalty to the profession mean? What does Aristotle add to this meaning?

Loyalty to the profession means loyalty to the ideals of the profession, or the principles that the profession aims for as a whole. To Aristotle, loyalty to a profession also would mean maintaining high professional standards. The Aristotelian notion of virtue means being the best television producer or advertising executive you can be in the belief that you are being loyal to the profession and its ideals.

What two factors have undermined objectivity according to text discussion? Explain how those two factors have done so.

Objectivity has been deeply undermined by both philosophical shift and technological innovation. Philosophical shift: The Pragmatist's way of thinking has challenged the nature of objectivity, as the perception of truth depended on how it was investigated and who was doing the reporting. Pragmatists argued that truth was relative, thus rejecting the scientific method as the only method of investigation. Pragmatists hold a view that truth/reality depends on the context, not simply relying on facts and accuracy. Technological innovation: the information explosion. Facts and truth come to us quickly from all over the globe. Thus, truth is discovered not through any single method of investigation but by determining which set of facts form a coherent mental picture of events and ideas investigated through a variety of methods. Convergence journalism—which uses sounds, images, and words to cover stories.

Who is Sissela Bok?

Philosopher and an ethicist that grapples with hard truths as well as its hard untruths. Her writings explore the psychology of lying, the consequences of deception and the perils of keeping secrets. Sissela Bok stresses the following framework in order to describe how working professionals can learn to make good ethical decisions.

Who is Potter?

Ralph B. Potter, Jr. was a professor of social ethics at Harvard University between 1965 and 2003. During 1999, Potter realized an atypical predicament concerning the build-up of nuclear weapons. He was going to use this subject for his doctoral paper by establishing a Christian standpoint on the view of the nuclear arms policy. This was the theoretical groundwork for his contribution to ethics, The Potter Box.

What is meant by representation in the media?

Representation is how media texts deal with and present gender, age, ethnicity , national and regional identity, social issues and events to an audience.

Know Royce's definition of loyalty. (What is Royce's position on loyalty/ pros/cons)?

Royce believed that loyalty could become the single guiding ethical principle. Royce defined loyalty as a social act: "The willing and practical and thoroughgoing devotion of a person to a cause." To Royce, loyalty was an act of choice. A loyal person will make decisions and it can be learned. Important: when making ethical choices, it is important to consider what your loyalties are and how you arrived at those loyalties. According to Rouce, as a person continued to exercise loyalty, he or she would develop habits of character that would result in systematic ethical action. For Royce, a worthy cause should harmonize with the loyalties of others within the community. The loyalty of the journalist should be in harmony with the loyalty of the reader. Pros: First, Royce speaks to the development of ethical habits. Second, Royce reminds us that the basis of loyalty is social and loyalty requires we put others on an equal footing with ourselves. Most important is the overriding message of Royce's work: when making ethical choices, it is important to consider what your loyalties are and how you arrived at those loyalties Cons: see below. 1) Also, philosophers assert that Royce's concept of loyalty is simplistic and that the adoption of loyalty as a moral principle may lead to allegiance to troubling causes. 2) Royce provides no way to balance among conflicting loyalties. 3) Unclear how Royce's ethical thinking would balance majority notions against minority views.

Explain Sissela Bok's viewpoint about the complicated nature of telling the truth.

Sissela Bok's viewpoint about the complicated nature of telling the truth is as follows: Telling the "truth" therefore is not solely a matter of moral character; it is also a matter of correct appreciation of real situations and of serious reflection upon them. . . . Telling the truth, therefore, is something which must be learnt. This will sound very shocking to anyone who thinks that it must all depend on moral character and that if this is blameless the rest is child's play. But the simple fact is that the ethics cannot be detached from reality, and consequently continual progress in learning to appreciate reality is a necessary ingredient in ethical action. What Sissela Bok means is that "telling the truth" isn't simply possessing good moral character, but also actively relaying and knowing the correct information (such as discerning fake news or fabricated stories and thus not spreading them). Telling the truth is something that must be learned; research is required to learn this information and it isn't simply just moral character,

Distinguish between philosophers and philosophies/ moral principles

Socrates- founder of ethical philosophy and discover ethical guidelines by personal reflection Aristotle Golden Mean -Correct behavior can be found between 2 extremes, virtue ethics Kant Categorical Imperative -decisions should be made because they are right, not considering consequences, motives for ethical decision based on duty Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill- Utilitarianism, creating the greatest good for the greatest #, harm principle, minimizing harm as much as possible, popular among media gatekeepers John Rawls - 20th century philosopher, refined utilitarianism, advocated a decision that minimized harm to weakest groups, veil of ignorance, disregard age, sex, wealth, etc W.D. Ross- The right and the good (1930), 6 prima facie duties: 1. promise, 2.Gratitude, 3.Justice, 4. beneficence, 5. Self-improvement, 6.Do no harm Situationalist- believe that decisions should be made ad hoc on a case by case basis, argued against studying ethical standards

Difference between ethics and taste

Taste resides with personal opinions where ethics are universally agreed upon and shared universally

Two types of loyalty identified by George P. Fletcher.

The first is minimal loyalty: "Do not betray me."The second is maximal loyalty: "Be one with me." Between these two poles is a range of possibilities for allegiance and for corresponding media behavior.

How has the packaging the story led to news as a manufactured product? What has been the result of the drive to package a story?

The goal of telling a "good story" also raises other ethical questions, specifically those that focus on packaging to highlight drama and human interest. These questions have intensified as all media channels—from newspapers to documentary film to entertainment programming—have focused on coherent storytelling and the need for a powerful story to capture audience interest. Current research suggests that narratives are memorable, but news narratives are not always neat and the facts from which they emerge can be both chaotic and contradictory. Few consumers realize it, but news is "manufactured" daily, just as surely as furniture, cars, or the meal at your favorite fast-food restaurant—and often the process can be messy. Journalists start the day with a blank computer screen and with press time or broadcast time looming. On deadline—often a deadline of minutes—they produce a print story, a video package, a tweet, or a multimedia report—or often all four. And adding to the built-in tension of deadlines is the challenge to be fair, complete, accurate, and, above all, interesting. This drive to package has led to a profession that values finding an "event" to report and to be there first. . Whole industries—particularly public relations or "strategic communications"—have emerged to help journalists package their daily stories on deadline.

What are the two different moral languages that Gilligan observed is necessary to have a complete sense of moral development?

The two different moral languages include, the language of rights that protects separations and the language of responsibilities that sustains connection.

Why is the articulation of loyalties important in professional ethics?

The ultimate destination of the Potter Box is to arrive at a loyalty. Potter viewed loyalty as a social commitment and the results of using the Potter Box reflect that ethic. In the fourth step, you articulate your possible loyalties and decide whether they are in conflict. In the case above, you have a loyalty to the truth, to the community, to the victim, and to your job— just for starters. Loyalty highlights the importance of ethical principles, bringing people's attention to the fact that behaving ethically is the right course of action.

Connect Bamboozled to Tolstoy's rationale for art, to the characteristics of aesthetics excellence and to the value of storytelling in modern society.

Tolstoy's standard was so demanding that he rejected the works of both Shakespear and Beethoven as being incapable of being understood by the masses. Tolstoy's rationale is particularly pertinent to photographers and videographers who, through their visual images, seek to arouse emotion as well as inform. In using this rational in the movie Bamboozled the satirical show was met to inform the audiences about the injustices of race in play while gaining an emotional response from society. This can be also connected to the value of storytelling in modern society because it is an inevitable and desirable tool to stabilize culture and the use of the show in Bamboozled represented a tool that was meant to stabilize culture by confronting it with the racial issues in place today.

In discussion of loyalty, what is recognized as the two central responsibilities of journalists that are distinct in modern society?

We sense that journalists have two central responsibilities that are distinct in modern society. First, they have a greater responsibility to tell the truth than members of most professions. Second, journalists also seem to carry a greater obligation to foster political involvement than the average person.

Discuss the parallels between Bok's definition of a lie and a definition of fake news.

We think the parallels between Bok's definition of lying and any definition of fake news are strong. First, fake news is "stated"—that is, publication on the internet, including the dark web, is the equivalent of saying something to a friend. Second, those who produce fake news—or set its production in motion through the use of bots or other technological tools—are aware that it is wrong or inaccurate. This sets fake news apart from a mistake (discussed later in this chapter) or a hoax. Third, fake news is developed and distributed to gain power, in this context the economic power that comes from internet clicks linked to advertising content. Goal is to gain power through wealth.

What is objectivity? What view of truth is the basis for the journalistic ideal of objectivity?

While objectivity has many definitions, minimally it is the requirement that journalists divorce fact from opinion. Objectivity is a way of knowing that connects human perception with facts and then knowledge. Journalists view objectivity as refusing to allow individual bias to influence what they report or how they cover it. Culture, an individual sense of mission, and individual and organizational feelings and views do not belong in objective news accounts. The view of truth that is the basis for the journalistic ideal of objectivity is the Enlightenment view of truth.

Know the four types/layers of loyalty outlined by William F. May.

William F. May outlined these layers of loyalties, and they are adaptable to those who work in the media. 1. Loyalties arising from shared humanity: Demonstrate respect for each person as an individual. Communicate honestly and truthfully with all persons. Build a fair and compassionate environment that promotes the common good. 2. Loyalties arising from professional practice: Fulfill the informational and entertainment mission of the media. Understand your audience's needs. Strive to enhance professional development of self and others. Avoid the abuse of power and position. Conduct professional activities in ways that uphold or surpass the ideals of virtue and competence. 3. Loyalties arising from employment: Keep agreements and promises, operate within the framework of the law, and extend due process to all persons. Do not squander your organization's resources or your public trust. Promote compassionate and humane professional relationships. Foster policies that build a community of ethnic, gender, and socioeconomic diversity. Promote the right of all to be heard. 4. Loyalties arising from the media's role in public life: Serve as examples of open institutions where truth is required. Foster open discussion and debate. Interpret your professional actions to readers and viewers. Serve as a voice for the voiceless. Serve as a mirror of society.

High art/elite art

provided society with a new way to look at itself