Memory 4320 Exam CH 4-6

Figure 4.2 (p 69 in the book) shows that the accuracy of the reasoning task is not affected by the length of the concurrent digit load, but the RT is affected. Why does this result support the time-based sharing (as opposed to resource-based sharing) mechanism about the relation between the retaining and processing components of WM?

This is evidence of a time-based sharing. If the attention is divided between the two tasks, then when the list of items to be retained gets longer, the performance accuracy should go down. The fact that it did not says that once people are rehearsing the list, they are using their full attention. The fact that when the list gets longer, the judgment time goes up linearly means that when people rehearse the list of words it takes them more time to rehearse it when it is longer than when it is shorter. Thus, spending more time rehearsing the list delays their return time to do the judgment task, making the judgment response time longer.

What is time-based resource sharing, and resource-based sharing? which one measures WM better?

Time-based sharing is one goes back and forth between a retaining task and a processing task in WM, e.g., when you rehearse the list of words you are told to retain in your memory while you are asked to do some true/false judgment task, you go back and forth between the two tasks, but when you are doing one of the two tasks, you give your full attention to a task. Resource-sharing says that you are doing the two tasks at the same time by dividing your attention between them, e.g., 60% to the judgment task and 40% to hold the list of word in your memory It is found that we handle two tasks in our WM by the time-based sharing

What is the purpose of the "teach back method"? what did it find?

To force one to teach another person a skill one has learned will make that knowledge more explicit to the teacher (because the teacher has to verbalize what she learned). Research found that it makes the teacher better able to verbalize the originally implicit knowledge but only after a lot of effort and practices

What is perceptual priming? Conceptual priming? Associative (semantic) priming? Repetition priming? are they explicit or implicit memory?

Usually, priming is implicit memory. • Perceptual priming: one responds faster to things that look or sound similar to things one saw or heard a while back. E.g., ball and hall will produce perceptual priming to each other. • Conceptual priming: one responds faster to things that have the similar meanings to things one saw or heard a while back, e.g., doctor and nurse. • Associative priming: means pretty much the same as conceptual priming. • Repetition priming: when a stimulus is presented to us a second time, we respond to it faster than we do the first time.

Which brain area is necessary in explicit memory?

pre-frontal lobe

To which task will a normal control subject and an amnesic patient respond differently?

recognizing a list of learned words

Retroactive amnesia

refers to absence of memory for events that occurred right before an accident that renders a person unconscious.

Now that you know how to learn more effectively, you would choose ______ semester system although you know that the total class meeting times under each system are all

regular fall or spring semester

Someone with a damage to the phonological loop (on the left hemisphere of the brain) is especially impaired in

repeating back a list of non-words

Which one is most likely to get the highest GRE score?

someone with a computation span of 5

Which one will be able to do the Stroop task the fastest and most accurately?

someone with a computation span of 5

Which one will be most susceptible to the cocktail party phenomenon?

someone with a reading span of 3

Dorsal area of the brain is more activated in

spatial location memory

What is the cocktail party phenomenon? How is that related to the inhibition ability? And how is inhibition related to WM?

A cocktail party phenomenon is overhearing other people's talking contents when you are not a member of that small group. People with low inhibition ability is more susceptible to this phenomenon. People with a larger WM (measured by complex span tasks) are less susceptible to cocktail party phenomenon than people with smaller complex span.

What is a dissociation in memory? Explain and give some examples. What is a double dissociation?

A dissociation in memory is that a variable affects two different types of memories differently. For example, brain injury often wipes out explicit memory but often leaves implicit memory intact. Amnesia can wipe out either STM or LTM and leave the other type intact. If you find one person with intact STM and impaired LTM, then you have one dissociation between STM and LTM. If you then find another person with LTM intact and STM impaired, you have another dissociation. So you have a double dissociation. When you have a double dissociation, you are even more sure that the two types of memories are indeed two different types of memories than if you have only one dissociation

What are the commonly used indirect tests for implicit memory

A word stem-completion or word-fragment completion test in which the stem or fragments of a word one has learned is provided and is asked to be completed. The stem can be completed in many different ways and the person is asked to complete it with ANY Word that comes to her mind. For example, " ori_____ " can be completed as oriental, oriented, original, orientation, etc. If a person learned the word oriental a while ago but claims she does not remember that word, but completes the stem with oriental, that means that she has the implicit memory of what she learned. The important thing about an implicit memory test is that one does not mention that it is testing for her previously learned materials. If you tell the person it is a test related to what she learned previously then you are changing the test into an explicit memory test

What is Cowan's WM theory? What is the difference between WM and LTM from that theory's perspective?

According to Cowan, WM is just the activated part of the LTM that is currently working

Which of the following does not require the intervention of the Central Executive according to the working memory theory?

After I drive my car to the street in front of my house, I make a right turn to be headed toward UTPA.

What is the mere exposure effect?

After we are exposed to something, we tend to like it more. E.g., the commercials or our neighbors are things we are exposed to more than other things and we tend to like them more

How does aging affect the above two types of memory differently?

Aging weakens the explicit memory, but leaves the implicit memory intact

Which describes the formation of a long term memory?

All of the above. ( Long term, neurons, and consolidation)

What cognitive abilities are found to be correlated with working memory capacity?

All the good intellectual abilities: IQ, GPA, all kinds of other cognitive test scores, e.g., reading comprehension, spatial reasoning ability tests, etc.

What part of WM affects second language learning or learning a new language?

An adequately functional phonological loop system is necessary for learning a new language

What is an auditory image? Does articulatory suppression or spatial tapping impair it more?

An auditory image is like mentally re-playing the sound you heard in the past. Since it is auditory in nature, articulatory suppression will hurt it more

Why does total time learning theory contradict the idea that there can be more or less effective learning methods?

Because the total time learning theory says that total time, not how you distribute the time is the only factor that matters.

Why can articulatory suppression impair the learning of a new skill (e.g., a beginning driver) but not affect the performance of an old task (e.g., an experienced driver)?

Because when one is learning a new skill, one needs to talk to oneself about how to do it (it is like a self-instruction process), so when one cannot speak due to an articulatory suppression, that can hurt the performance on a new task. This verbal mediation drops out when one becomes very familiar with the task, and so articulatory suppression will not have an effect on it.

Why are WM activities like a dual task?

Because you have to hold the info and process it at the same time

What is memory consolidation? What can disrupt it

Consolidation is a process that a newly acquired memory must go through to become a permanent part of memory. The memory can take hours to get "set' or consolidated. If during this period, some other info comes into one memory, the new info can interrupt this process of consolidating the old info. A heavy physical blow can have the same effect

What is dorsal area and ventral area of the brain? what kinds of info does each area predominantly process?

Dorsal areas refer to the top part of the brain, and ventral areas refer to the bottom part of the brain. Dorsal areas are primarily responsible for processing spatial location info, whereas the ventral areas for processing the object info

How does the explicit learning approach compare with the immersion method in second language learning

Explicit learning approach (learning the language formally in classroom) is more suitable for adults learning a second language whereas immersion method is more suitable for children learning a second language. For an adult, both explicit learning and actually practicing it in life are better mixed together

What area of the brain is most responsible for N-back task performance?

Frontal lobe; and its activity increases when the item that appears in the current trial occurred further back in the sequence of trials.

According to Cowan's theory of WM, what is our immediate attention span? Any evidence for that?

He thinks that our immediate attention focus capacity is 4 items, not 7 items. So he called it the magic number 4 instead of magic number 7. Yes, there is a lot of evidence supporting this idea. That is why we always divide a long sequence of items into chunks, e.g., the credit card number is divided into many 4 digit blocks. Our SSN is divided into 3 blocks with dashes. Our phone number is divided into 3 blocks

What are some of the differences between explicit and implicit memories?

Implicit memory is a more primitive, more basic type of memory. Other animals all have that type of memory. Explicit memory is a more advanced type of memory, the ability to consciously think about something. The former is more resilient, rougher than the latter to the attacks of disease, amnesia, aging, injuries, etc. So, most amnesics have the implicit memory even though they normally do not have the explicit memory.

How does a serial reaction task (SRT) demonstrate implicit learning

In a SRT, subjects are asked to press a corresponding key when a certain stimulus item occurs on the monitor screen. For example, a number can occur and the subject has to press that number key to clear that number and bring up the next number, etc. When a long enough sequence is used, one cannot tell what the sequence is, but one is getting faster with the same sequence repeated. And when the sequence is changed to a new sequence, one suddenly slows down. This indicates that one is learning the old sequence although one cannot tell the sequence, one's behavior is getting faster. That being unable to tell the sequence but one's reaction to press the key is getting faster is evidence of implicit learning

How does the brain divide work between the two hemispheres?

In the overwhelming majority of people, the left hemisphere is the verbal, logical, mathematical hemisphere, and the right hemisphere is the visual, perceptual hemisphere

Provide evidence that there are such relatively independent subsystems in our working memory.

Independent means that the verbal system and visual system do not interfere with each other in function. If they do not interfere with each other, then one can do a verbal and a visual task at the same time which is very common. E.g., we drive (which is a visual task) and listening to radio (which is a verbal task) at the same time very often without much trouble.

What is the function of the episodic buffer in the WM

It can store and process info of multiple forms. It serves as a go-between between the WM and LTM.

Random number generation is found to disrupt what kind of task the most? What does this indicate about the nature of the random number generation as a mental task?

It disrupts all kinds of tasks that demand attention. It tells us that generating random numbers takes a lot of attention

What does Morris Water Maze study find

It found that the rat with a hippocampal lesions cannot find their way out of a water maze (they need to find a submerged platform to stand on), but a normal rate or one with a cortical lesion did not have this effect

What is the errorless learning? When do you use it?

It is a learning approach in which people are not given a chance to make an error. You use this method for the amnesic people who once making an error (if you let them make a guess) will remember the wrong answer forever, unlike normal people

What is the span of comprehension (or reading span)?

It is a way to measure the complex span (WM span). It requires the subject to comprehend a sentence by saying "true" or "false" (e.g., "Cheese is a type of food" is true, but "Cheese is a type of animal" is false, and then memorize the last word of the sentence. The largest number of sentences that the subject can comprehend and remember the last word of is her comprehend span (one way to measure the WM span).

How does multiple choices compare with short answer test in creating LTM retention for the materials learned?

It is found that multiple choice tests can create a longer term retention of the materials than short answer test.

Where is the hearing area located in the brain?

It is located in the Wernike's area and the left temporal lobe

What does Masters' mean by "choking"?

It means that if you think consciously about the natural process of some very familiar motor skills such as riding a bic or swimming or playing golf, you can actually disrupt you automatic performance. It is as though if you think about how to breathe, you actually can get yourself choked

What is spreading activation theory?

It says that after we are presented with (or think about) some stimulus, the activation will spread to the related notions in the memory and make those related notions more available or accessible (e.g., when the idea of doctor is activated, the idea of nurse becomes partially activated (more accessible) due to spreading of the activation from doctor.

What is total time learning theory?

It says that to learn something, the total time needed to complete the learning does not change whether you spend more time today and less time tomorrow or vice versa, which is to say HOW you spent the time does not matter; only the total time matters

What does artificial grammar learning study demonstrate

It shows that we can learn very difficult and complex rules without being able to tell what those rules are. In other words, it demonstrates implicit learning. There are real examples that demonstrate that we learn a lot of language rules implicitly in our native language. E.g., every native speaker of English knows how to use the article "a" and "the" correctly, but few can tell you the rules

Change blindness derives from

LTM representation of familiar scenes does not keep details

What is LTP? Neurologically what does it mean

LTP stands for long term potential. It means that when a groups of neurons is repeatedly activited (firing) together, they eventually get wired together in the brain. That is actually how long term memory is formed

How did Masters make subjects learn putting in an implicit way?

Learning it implicitly here means that they are learning it without consciously thinking about it. He had this subjects learn putting by requiring them to hold a list of words in their memory so that they cannot think what they are doing in putting. It turns out that the skills they learned implicitly are more resistant to stress in the final competition.

How do you determine the best length of retention interval (to max the effect of long term retention), say, between self-tests?

Make the interval between practices or repetitions as long as possible insofar as you still remember the materials you have learned.

Suppose you are processing two tasks. One of the two tasks was either to recall your family members' names or to recall 5 new friends' names. The 2nd task is to memorize 8 words. Which first task will impair the second verbal task more? Why?

Memorizing 8 words will hurt recalling the names of 5 new friends more than recalling 5 names of family members. Because remembering new names takes more memory capacity

Is mere repetition of exposure to a stimulus guarantee learning? Example?

No, if we don't pay attention to it, we will have no memory of it (e.g., we do not know exactly what a penny face looks like).

How does motivation for learning affect learning?

Not much compared with the correct method of learning. Increasing the motivation by incentives does increase the time spent in learning. However it is not crucial for learning.

What memory attribute does spontaneous recovery suggest?

Once the learning is created, it is difficult to get rid of it. Also, it says that not all memory gets weaker over time. Sometimes, memory gets stronger over time (the spontaneous coming back over time of something learned before).

What brain areas are associated with explicit memory or learning?

Prefrontal lobe, temporal lobe, hippocampus, visual cortex (occipital lobe).

What kinds of learning depend heavily on implicit memory

Procedural learning, skill learning, motor learning, such as riding a bicycle or swimming or skating

What is found about the relative importance of repeated testing and studying?

Research has found that repeated self testing is critical for learning, and that repeatedly studying the materials you already has learned is not crucial for retaining them.

what did research find about unconscious learning? learning in sleep? under anesthesia

Research has found that very little or no learning takes place unconsciously and very little learning occurs during sleep and under anesthesia. In some cases where the patient can remember what the doctor said during a surgery, the reason for the acquisition of the info is due to insufficient dosage of the anesthesia

What is the difference between STM and working memory? Why is STM not an appropriate concept?

STM is the traditional term and implies that memory is just for storing info. WM is a newer term which implies that memory is for both storing and processing info. Memory is not just storing info. That is why STM is not an appropriate concept

Episodic memory, semantic memory, are they explicit or implicit memory?

They are both explicit memories

What are the symptoms of people with brain damage to the area responsible for the central executive control?

They will show dysexecutive functioning symptoms which include losing control of one's life, being unable to concentrate, and showing perseverative and utilization behaviors

How does aging affect the above two types of memory differently?

See 80 for answer ^

What is the best way to learn a second language for an adult?

See 82 for answer ^

Which areas of the brain are involved in a conscious recollection of some events

See 98 for answer ^

What is the evidence that the passing of time can actually strengthen memory instead of weakening it?

Spontaneous recovery of an extinguished conditioned response

Where is the Broca area located and what is it for? Wernike's area?

The Broca area is located at the end of the motor cortex on the left side of the brain (near the top of the left ear). It produces languages. The Wernike's area is located behind the Broca's area at the end of the sensory cortex. It comprehends language

Is explicit or implicit memory more vulnerable to disease and injury?

The explicit memory is more vulnerable to disease and injury

Give some evidence that encoding and retrieving in STM or WM are affected by the LTM

The following are all findings that support the idea that info from the LTM is affecting the work in the WM: • Concrete words are memorized better than abstract words (the word concreteness effect). • High frequency words are recalled better than low frequency words, but vice versa in recognition. • People can recall native language words better than foreign word in a word recall experiment. • when there is no rehearsal (rehearsal is blocked), people can still remember some very familiar words although they can't remember nonwords. • People can remember a sentence that contains more than 7 words when they can remember only about 7 random words. These are all evidence indicating that our LTM is involved in our learning, memory, and info processing

What is a modality-dependent feature? A modality-independent feature?

The word "modality" refers to the physical features of a stimulus. A modality-dependent feature is usually a physical feature, such as the sound of words (if presented auditorily) or the font of the word (if presented visually). A modality independent feature is usually the meaning or the abstract content of the stimulus which is not affected by the physical form in which it is presented, e.g., whether a word is presented auditorily or visually, its meaning does not change. Therefore, the meaning of a word is a modality-independent feature.

List all the functions and give examples that are related to the central executive control or SAS (supervisory attention system).

The frontal lobe is responsible for these important high-level cognitive processes: • Initiating • Decision making • Planning • Assembling • Coordinating • Monitoring • Regulating • Inhibiting • Focusing attention • Shifting attention • Dividing attention (time sharing) • Inhibiting • Updating continuously changing information e.g., if you have an exam tomorrow and you want to study and decline an invitation to a movie tonight, then you have good executive control. If you give in to the invitation and ruin you exam grade by spending whole night with you friend, then you have poor executive control

What role does hippocampus and amygdale play in memory?

The hippocampus stores factual info, and the amygdale stores emotional info

What are the tests that can measure WM span (also called complex span) (how can WM span be measured)? How is STM span (also called simple span) measured?

There are many types of measures for WM span. WM span is also called a complex span. The following is a list of the tests used to measure the WM span: 1. reading span: subjects read a set of sentences. At the end, they recall the last word in each of the sentences. The span is the maximum number of sentences over which the subjects can remember the last word 2. comprehension span: 5 to 10 word sentences that end in a noun. "A giraffe has a long neck", "A fire is very cold" There are 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 sentence groups. Subjects read each sentence aloud, and say whether the statement is true or false, remember the final word in each sentence. Then they recall the final word in each sentence. Reading span is the largest set for which one can recall all the final words correctly. 3. Computation span task: design to assess working memory capacity. It measures both storage and processing. For example, 8 + 3 = ? They solve this problem and then retain the second operand for later recall. The span is the longest series that can be successfully completed. 4. Least number span: Subjects were shown a sequence of numbers, the size of which can be from 1 to 66. Subjects first read the numbers and then name the smallest numbers. Then they recall the smallest number in that sequence. Then they read a second sequence and recall the smallest numbers for the first and second sequences, and so on. The span is the max number of sequences over which subjects can successfully recall all the smallest numbers of previous sequences. 5. operation (math operation) span: subjects read aloud a math problem (e.g., 2X4+1 = 8), and indicate whether the answer is correct. After this, a word is presented. Then subjects are asked to recall the word. The number of the math/word combination units can increase until the subjects fail to recall the words. 6. spatial span: subjects see a series of letters rotated from the normal upright position. Subjects indicate whether each letter is in normal or mirror view. Then, subjects indicate (by choosing from multiple choices) the stilted angle of each letter. 7. Processing speed: (a) Visual matching: 60 rows of 6 digits each row, two of which are identical, e.g., 8,9,5,2,9,7. The subject circle the identical rows of digits. The performance measure is the number of rows completed correctly in 3 min. (b) Cross-out task: 30 rows of geometric figures. Each row consists of a geometric figure at the left end of a row and 19 similar figures to the right. Some of the 19 figures are identical to the first figure. Subjects cross out these. Performance measure is the number of rows completed in 3 min. It is found that the RT and span task are correlated by r = -.47 8. Task switch (from Logan's 2004 JEP:HPP paper): this measures the ability of the Central Executive. Subjects were asked to remember a sequence of tasks of increasing length, e.g., HL (high/low), DW (digit/word), PJ (parity judgment) were mixed together randomly. After they have learned and memorized the sequence of tasks, they were presented with, for example, "Five 2". Depending on what the task for that trial is, they either choose Five or 2. Then next trial, for example "7 three". They have to remember what the task is for second trial, and make that right type of judgment. Simple span (also called the STM span) is typically measured by having subjects repeat back an incrementally longer sequence of digits in the correct order until he or she breaks down. The longest sequence that he or she can repeat back correctly is her STM or simple span.

What is the utilization behavior? Perseverative error? What problem does it indicate?

Utilization behavior: just use the tool or objects regardless of whether one is supposed to, e.g., if one sees a cup of coffee, one drinks it even when the coffee belongs to another person. Perseverative error: one keeps doing things the same way when one should stop doing it or change the way of doing it, e.g., in the Wisconsin card soring task, when the examiner keeps saying "No, no, no", the subject keeps sorting the cards in the same way as if she did not hear what the examiner is saying. Another example is that one keeps driving at 75 miles an hour when it starts to pour down and reduces the visibility on the highway to a very low level

What is change blindness?

We often fail to notice a change in the environment around us

What is the relation between the complexity of the materials and explicit/implicit learning mode

We tend to learn more complex things implicitly, and simpler things explicitly. It is more difficult to talk about the more complex things, but that doesn't mean that we cannot learn it.

In what way can episodic memory be transformed into semantic memory?

When an episode is repeated many, many times, we lose the track of time and the specific contexts in which it occurs and it becomes a part of our semantic memory. For example, you have traveled from home to school hundreds of times and by now you cannot remember the details of each trip but only the route of the trip. When you lose details, the episodic memory becomes semantic memory

What is verbal mediation or verbal self-instruction? at what stage of learning do people rely on this heavily?

When people start to learn a new skill, they often give themselves verbal instructions. The verbal self-talks at the beginning stage of learning something is called verbal mediation. When they have advanced to a more automatic level of performance, the verbal mediation tapers off or disappears completely.

When using a multiple choice test, should you let people guess when they do not know the correct answers? How can you prevent them from remembering their wrong answers instead of the correct answers?

Yes, let them make a guess. But it is important to correct them if their answer is wrong. Otherwise they may remember the wrong answer

You complete a summer session in 4 weeks but a fall semester in 4 months although the total class meeting time is the same. In which semester system do you complete the training more slowly? In which system, is the learning more effective and why?

You complete the training in fall semester more slowly because you spend 3.5 months on learning the knowledge. However, the learning that is distributed over a longer time is more solid and long lasting.

Of the following 4 languages, people speaking ____ have the longest digit span?

a. English

Define these terms: a. episodic memory b. semantic memory c. procedural memory d. declarative memory e. non-declarative memory. Which ones can be labeled as explicit (conscious) and which one can be labeled as implicit (unconscious)?

a. episodic memory: explicit. It is our memory of a specific event that happened at a specific date and place. It is a part of our personal experiences. b. semantic memory: explicit. It is our memory about the general facts with no specific dates and places attached to it (e.g. 4 + 2 = 6). c. procedural memory: implicit. It is memory of how to do something that one has no words to describe, e.g., how to keep oneself from falling from a bicycle. d. declarative memory: explicit. It is the part of the memory that we can describe with words. e. non-declarative memory: implicit. The part of the memory that we can't describe with words, such as the procedural memory (know how but not what).

Which is (are) a measure of WM?

all but d.

Which statement is correct?

all of the above. (massed, distributed, and does not last)

Which of the following is implicit learning?

all of the above. (mirror, classical and procedural)

IQ reasoning tasks, prose comprehension, ability to follow complex instructions, fluid intelligence, and performance in computer programming were found to be highly correlated with

complex span

Which part of the brain is associated with the emotional memory of a conditioned stimulus?

amygdale

At which of the following stages of skill learning, can articulatory suppression have a detrimental effect?

beginning

Which statement(s) about learning a second language is (are) correct?

both a and d are correct ( how effective depends and both rules is most effective)

Which of the following tasks will most effectively prevent people from diverting attention away from the task and use it for another task?

counting backward by 3 at a time

Suppose the sequential stimulus numbers you need to respond to is just 4 numbers: 3-2-4-1 instead of 20 numbers. After you have practiced responding to this pattern for 12 times, your response becomes much faster. What do you think the type of learning you acquired in this task is most likely to be (can you tell me what the sequence is)?

explicit

Some classical conditioning involves implicit memory. give some examples

for example, the white-coat syndrome: when I go into a doctor's office my blood pressure goes up. I don't have any memory of when and where I learned that reaction. In this example, the doctor's office is a CS and the pain I probably suffered as a young child is the UCS. My nervous reaction to the doctor's office is my CR, and my reaction to the pain was my UCR.

Vivid detailed memory of something one experienced as opposed to a vague feeling of familiarity involved

frontal lobe and hippocampus

How did Masters make his subjects learn putting implicitly?

in the first several learning sessions, they were required to hold in their memory a list of materials

Repeatedly presenting CS alone before forming its association with the UCS impairs its capacity to condition the CS. This is called

latent inhibition

What interval between repeated practices produces the best learning effect?

the maximal length at which subjects can still remember the materials

In the serial RT task, how do you know that the subjects were learning as the practice continued? Because

their response time was decreasing as trials continued

Which of the following indicates that the person is completely controlled by an external stimulus (with no internal supervisory control)?

utilization errors.

What is the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad?

• Central executive: the component in WM that performs that functions of controlling our behavior, inhibiting our behavior, making decisions, updating info, blocking out distractions, etc. The neurological site for performing that function is the frontal lobe. • Phonological loop: is responsible for keeping verbal info by rehearsing it. Normally the brain site for that function is on the left hemisphere. • Visuospatial sketchpad: is responsible for keeping visual info. Normally the brain site for doing that is in the right hemisphere.

What is latent inhibition, extinction, backward conditioning, spontaneous recovery? Is backward conditioning effective?

• Latent inhibition: when an animal is exposed to a stimulus for a long period of time, it becomes harder to make that stimulus into a CS in a classical conditioning learning. Because the animal has learned to ignore it during that period. • Extinction: just repeatedly present the CS (e.g., the ringing of the bell) and not the meat (UCS) until the animal or human stops responding to the CS. • Backward conditioning: present the UCS (e.g., meat) before the CS (e.g., the ringing) which is the reverse of the normal order. Animals and humans will ignore the CS because it no longer signals the coming of the really important stimulus, the meat. • Spontaneous recovery: when a conditioning has been extinguished, it will come back after a while and needs to be extinguished one more time, or many more times to be completely extinguished.