Methods and Stats Exam 2

Cross-Cultural Studies

- Contrasts groups from different cultural contexts. - E.g.: Assessing parenting styles in the USA vs. Japan.

Cross-Sectional Studies

- Examines groups from different societal sections at the same time, often using age groups. - E.g.: Comparing memory abilities among children, adults, elderly.

Longitudinal Studies

- Monitors the same group over an extended timeframe. - E.g.: Observing kids' language development from age 2 to 12.

Measurement vs. Information Gathering in Psychological Testing

- Psychological Tools: - Scales and Tests: Scientific measuring instruments. - Questionnaires: Gather information on opinions or patterns. - Psychometric Tests: - Require expertise in development. - Must ensure reliability, validity, and standardization. - Used to understand specific groups (e.g., social workers vs. 18-25-year-old men).

Comparison studies Purpose & Significance:

- Validates or refutes developmental theories. - Analyses impacts of media, environment, or intrinsic traits. - Contributes to debates on nature vs. nurture, trait universality, and cultural specifics. Key Insight: Comparison studies enrich our understanding of human behavior variations across time, cultures, and groups, helping shape or challenge psychological theories.

STRUCTURED (OR 'SYSTEMATIC') OBSERVATION Part 1

1. Defining Behavior Categories: Predefined Categories: Before observation begins, specific behaviors or events of interest are clearly defined and categorized. Objective: The aim is to ensure that observations remain consistent and relevant to the research question. Consistency: Having set categories ensures that only the behaviors of interest are recorded, reducing observer bias and irrelevant observations.

Features of good psychological measurement scales

1. Discriminatory Power: - Definition: Ability to differentiate widely across human responses. - Importance: Ensures that the scale doesn't just identify outliers but can differentiate between individuals in the central range. - Dependent On: Sensitivity of items and the response system. 2. Reliability: - Definition: Consistency in measurement over repeated applications. - Importance: Guarantees that the results are stable and not due to random fluctuations. 3. Validity: - Definition: The degree to which the scale truly measures the intended construct. - Importance: Ensures that the tool is capturing the desired psychological characteristic and not something else. 4. Standardization: - Definition: Establishing norms so that scores have consistent meaning across the same population. - Importance: Allows for meaningful comparison and interpretation of scores. - Criteria: Knowledge of typical scores of identifiable populations. 5- Piloting: - All measurement tools should undergo a pilot phase, often multiple times, to ensure they meet the above criteria. It helps identify issues and ensures the tool's effectiveness.

Different Types of Validity

1. Face Validity: - Definition: The extent to which the purpose of a test appears obvious or self-evident to those taking it. - Implication: Provides a superficial assessment. If a test appears valid on its face, respondents might feel more confident in its accuracy, even if deeper forms of validity haven't been assessed. 2. Known Groups Criterion: - Definition: A test of criterion validity where scores on the test should differ between known, distinct groups. - Example: If a test measures academic ability, then the scores should be higher for university professors than for elementary school students. 3. Concurrent Validity: - Definition: The extent to which the results of a test align with those of another test that is assumed to measure the same construct, with both tests taken at the same time. - Implication: Used to validate a new test by comparing its results with an established test measuring the same concept. Key Takeaway: Ensuring a test's validity in various aspects ensures that it measures what it intends to measure, making its results more trustworthy and actionable.

What are the key traits of observational technique?

1. Often used in both laboratory and field settings. 2. Can be integrated into experimental designs. 3. Typically involves recording specific behaviors or reactions, either manually or with equipment like cameras.

Understanding Test Validity

1. Predictive Validity: - Definition: The extent to which test scores can be used to predict outcomes or behaviors on some other variable. - Example: The SAT's ability to predict college success is an example of predictive validity. If high SAT scores correlate with high college GPAs, the SAT has good predictive validity. 2. Construct Validity: - Definition: The extent to which the existence of a construct (a theoretical concept or idea) is supported by an interlinked set of diverse research findings. - Detail: It's about establishing the legitimacy of a certain psychological construct through a cohesive and logically connected set of psychological research studies. - Example: Measuring "intelligence" requires a test to have construct validity - it should reflect diverse findings and theoretical underpinnings about what "intelligence" truly is. Key Takeaway: A well-validated test is one that can make accurate predictions (predictive validity) and has a strong theoretical basis (construct validity), making its results meaningful and relevant.

Methods for Checking Internal Reliability

1. Split-Half Reliability with Spearman-Brown Correction: - Description: Provides an estimate of the true reliability from the correlation between two test halves. This accounts for the fact that each half is only part of the full scale. - Why it's used: Corrects for the raw split-half correlation being based on a shortened set of items. 2. Cronbach's Alpha: - Description: A statistical measure used to evaluate the consistency or reliability of test scores. - Why it's used: Measures the variance of respondents' scores on each item in relation to the overall variance on the scale. A high value (closer to 1) indicates good internal consistency. 3. Kuder-Richardson Measure: - Description: A specialized version of Cronbach's alpha for dichotomous items (e.g., 'yes'/'no' answers). - Why it's used: Useful for tests where items have only two possible responses. Key Takeaway: Checking internal reliability ensures that the items within a test or scale consistently measure the same concept.

Understanding Test Standardization

1. Why Standardization? - Provides a frame of reference (norms) to interpret individual scores. - Example: Knowing you scored 112 on an IQ test doesn't provide much information on its own. But comparing it to a norm, where the average is 100, offers context. 2. Method of Standardization: - Administer the test to a large sample of the target population. - Calculate mean scores and standard scores to understand the average and variations. - Example: IQ scales are adjusted until their mean is 100 and the average variation (standard deviation) is 15 points. 3. Ethical & Scientific Importance: - Ensures tests are fair and don't discriminate against certain groups. - Ensures scientific value through accurate comparisons and predictions. 4. The Normal Distribution: - Many tests are adjusted to align with a normal distribution, providing powerful statistical estimates. - Note: Adjusting a test to fit a normal distribution is an artificial process, and not all biological or psychological phenomena are normally distributed. 5. Limitations & Considerations: - A test standardized for one population may not be suitable for another. - Cultural differences play a significant role in test applicability and interpretation. - Example: Until 1973, the Stanford-Binet IQ test in the USA did not include black individuals in its standardization sample. Key Takeaway: Standardization is crucial for interpreting test scores accurately, ensuring fairness, and maintaining the test's scientific and ethical value. However, cultural considerations and the chosen method of standardization can impact the test's applicability and validity.

STRUCTURED (OR 'SYSTEMATIC') OBSERVATION Part 2

2. Sampling of Behavior: Consistent Sampling: Structured observation employs consistent sampling methods to ensure uniformity in the data collection process. Sampling Devices: Several sampling devices or techniques can be used, depending on the nature of the study. This could include time sampling (observing at specific times), event sampling (recording when a specific event occurs), or individual sampling (focusing on specific individuals). Reduces Overwhelm: Given that it's impossible to record every single behavior in a setting, this approach ensures that only relevant data is collected.

STRUCTURED (OR 'SYSTEMATIC') OBSERVATION Part 3

3. Training of Observers: Coding System: Observers are trained in a specific coding system that is designed to record the predefined behaviors or events. This ensures that all observers are "speaking the same language" when recording observations. Inter-Observer Reliability: It is crucial that multiple observers record the same behavior in the same way. To ensure this, a high level of agreement or inter-observer reliability is established before main data collection begins. Consistency Across Observers: Training ensures that different observers do not interpret behaviors differently. Regular checks and training sessions can be conducted to maintain consistency

Interest in Interviews:

A genuine engagement and respect for the information provided by the interviewee, valuing their perspective and time contribution. Valuing Contributions: Recognizing and appreciating the worth of insights and time that interviewees offer during the interview process. Challenging Stereotypes: Dismissing any preconceived notions or biases about "bad interviewees." It's crucial to approach each interview without prejudgment, understanding that different people have different communication styles. Adaptability: Patton (2002) emphasizes the need for the interviewer to be flexible in their approach. This means adjusting their interview techniques and style to best fit the unique nature and comfort level of each interviewee, aiming to understand their internal perspective deeply.

Cross-Lagged Correlation:

A statistical technique in time-lag studies that assesses whether changes in one variable at an earlier time point predict changes in another variable at a later time point, revealing potential causal relationships.

Psychometric test:

A tool designed to quantify psychological constructs like skills, character, and abilities.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Case Studies

Advantages: Outstanding Cases: Case studies allow for the exploration of unique phenomena that may not have been predicted, leading to insights into new and challenging areas. Contradicting a Theory: A single contrary case can challenge and potentially invalidate prevailing theories, pushing for a re-evaluation of accepted notions.' Data Pool: Data from multiple case studies can be aggregated to identify common factors or experiences, which can later guide structured, quantitative studies. Insight: Case studies provide a rich, in-depth understanding of the subject. They can offer empathetic insights into experiences or conditions, enriching our understanding of human psychology.

Active Role vs. Non-Active Role in Role-Play and Simulation

Active Role: Definition: In an active role, participants are directly involved in the action or scenario. They act out roles, interact with other participants, and are primary drivers of the situation or storyline. Usage: Studies requiring direct interaction, emotion simulation, group dynamics, and decision-making processes often use active role-play. For instance, participants might be asked to role-play in a jury to understand group decision-making under pressure. Non-Active Role: Definition: In a non-active role, participants observe a role-play or simulation without directly participating in it. They watch the events unfold without influencing the outcome. Usage: Studies looking to understand perceptions, biases, or observer reactions use non-active role-play. For instance, participants might be asked how they feel about a depicted scene or how they would react if they were in the depicted situation.

Attitude Scales Explained

Attitudes: Deep-seated beliefs affecting our behavior and views. Comprised of behavior, beliefs, and emotional response. Measurement Challenge: Can't always ask directly. Instead, present multiple items related to the specific attitude. - Thurstone Scale: Rate agreement with various statements. Each statement has a strength score (determined by judges). Respondents get scores based on their agreement, reflecting their attitude. - Likert Scale: Respondents indicate their agreement using a fixed range, e.g., "Strongly Agree" to "Strongly Disagree". Can include both direct and indirect (diagnostic) items related to the attitude. Key Takeaway: Attitude scales offer nuanced methods to understand and measure deeply in

Cross-Sectional Studies Overview

Benefits: - Efficient and relatively quick as it captures data at one specific point. - Can offer insights into variations and patterns across different segments of a population. Limitation: - Cannot track changes in individual participants over time, unlike longitudinal studies. Conclusion: Cross-sectional studies provide a snapshot of differences and similarities across various sub-groups, making them valuable for understanding demographic or group-based patterns.

Longitudinal Studies Overview

Benefits: - Offers insights into long-term development and changes. - Can highlight the effect of interventions or environmental factors on development. Challenges: - Time-consuming and often expensive. - Risk of participants dropping out or being unavailable for follow-ups, leading to incomplete data. Conclusion: Longitudinal studies provide in-depth insights into the progression, stability, or change of specific characteristics or behaviors over time, making them valuable for understanding long-term developmental patterns and trends.

Cross-Generational Problem:

Confounding that arises when comparing longitudinally studied groups with distinct social or historical experiences, making it challenging to attribute differences solely to time or age.

Cross-Sectional Studies Overview

Cross-sectional studies compare samples from distinct sub-groups within a population at a specific point in time. Key Features: 1. Age Groups: - Most common focus of cross-sectional studies. - E.g., Comparing cognitive abilities of toddlers, teenagers, and senior citizens simultaneously. 2. Gender Differences: - Compares representative samples of males and females, potentially within a specific group (like students or patients). 3. Other Comparisons: - Can focus on other distinct groups such as various departments within an organization, drivers vs. cyclists, urban vs. rural residents, etc.

Types of Observational Sampling 6

Partial Interval Recording: Observers note if a specific behavior occurs at any point during a time interval. Captures the occurrence but not the frequency or duration.

Projective Tests

Definition: Projective tests originate from the psychoanalytic tradition. Based on the Freudian concept: individuals project inner conflicts onto external stimuli, especially in ambiguous situations. Characteristics: Origin: Stem from psychoanalytic research. Basis: Utilize ambiguous stimuli to elicit subconscious thoughts and emotions. Examples: Rorschach Inkblot Test: Interpret abstract inkblots. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): Describe scenes in ambiguous pictures.

Case Studies in Observational Research

Definition: A case study is an in-depth examination of an individual, group, or organization using diverse research methods. Benefits of Case Studies: In-Depth Analysis: Allows for a profound understanding of the subject. Generates New Insights: This can lead to discovering new patterns or phenomena. Versatility: Can be applied to a wide range of subjects and disciplines. Limitations of Case Studies: Generalizability: Due to its focus on a single subject or a small group, the findings may not be applicable to a broader population. Subjectivity: The researcher's perspective can influence the interpretation of the data.

Halo Effect

Definition: A cognitive bias where an individual's overall positive impression of a person influences their feelings and thoughts about that person's character or properties, based on one trait or characteristic. Examples: Dion, Berscheid & Walster (1972): Found that individuals perceived as attractive were rated higher on various positive traits and were expected to lead better lives in terms of marriage, parenting, and careers compared to average-looking or unattractive individuals. Implication: A positive impression in one area can lead to positive biases in other areas, potentially leading to misjudgments.

Qualitative Non-participant Observation

Definition: An observational method in which researchers observe participants without directly engaging with them, and gather data in a qualitative, descriptive form. Key Features: Running Commentary: Researchers might describe participants' behavior in real-time, often recording observations for later analysis. Data Form: Produces extensive raw data in the form of detailed descriptions, narratives, or commentaries. Analysis: While some studies might structure this data by using coding schemes or categorization, others retain the qualitative nature, analyzing for patterns, insights, or emergent themes.

Controlled Observation

Definition: An observational method where the researcher intervenes to some extent by setting up a specific situation or environment to observe participants' behaviors. Setting: Often takes place in a controlled environment such as a laboratory or a specific observation room. Characteristics: Researcher has control over certain aspects of the environment. Participants may be aware they are being observed. Specific variables or conditions may be manipulated to observe their effect on behavior. Advantages: Allows for better control of extraneous variables and often yields more precise results. Disadvantages: May lack ecological validity since behaviors are observed in an artificial setting.

Naturalistic Observation

Definition: An observational method where the researcher observes participants in their natural environment without any intervention or manipulation. Setting: Takes place in the real-world setting where the behavior naturally occurs. Characteristics: Researcher is a passive observer, not interfering in any way. Participants may not be aware they are being observed. Offers a 'real-life' snapshot of behaviors. Advantages: High ecological validity since behaviors are observed in their natural context. Disadvantages: Less control over extraneous variables; potential for observer bias.

Issues to Avoid in Scale Item Construction

Definition: Constructing a scale item requires clear phrasing and avoidance of biases to ensure authentic responses. Key Points: 1. Complexity: Avoid long, intricate statements. Break down into smaller logical components. 2. Technical Terms: Refrain from using terms respondents might not understand. Provide definitions if necessary. 3. Ambiguity: Ensure clarity so that the item isn't open to multiple interpretations. 4. Double-barrelled Items: Avoid items that ask two questions at once. 5. Double Negatives: Can be confusing. Avoid questions like "It should not be impossible to reject..." 6. Emotive Language: Avoid statements that might emotionally charge or bias the respondent. 7. Leading Questions: Prevent items that subtly prompt the respondent towards a particular answer. 8. Invasion of Privacy: Respect privacy. Avoid questions about intimate, personal details. 9. Balance of Scale Items: Ensure a fair distribution of positive and negative items. 10. Sensitivity to Level of Measurement: Choose appropriate scales (like visual analogue) that can capture the range of responses.

Non-participant Observation

Definition: Here, the researcher observes the group without becoming a part of it, maintaining a distance and ensuring minimal interference with the natural behavior of the group. Characteristics: Detachment: The researcher remains an "outsider", simply watching and recording without engagement. Objective Stance: As there's no emotional or social involvement, it's easier to maintain objectivity. Less Risk of Bias: Since the observer isn't involved, there's a reduced risk of their presence influencing the behavior of the group. Disclosure: Like participant observation, the group might be unaware, partially aware, or fully informed about the observation.

PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

Definition: In participant observation, the researcher becomes part of the group being studied, actively engaging in its activities and experiences. Characteristics: Immersion: The researcher immerses themselves in the community or group, often for an extended period. Degree of Participation: The level of involvement can vary. An observer might be a passive member or an active participant, even assuming leadership roles in some cases. Insider Perspective: This method allows the observer to gain an "insider's" perspective, understanding the group's norms, rituals, and dynamics from within. Disclosure: The group may or may not be aware that they are being studied. Sometimes, researchers might use deception or partial disclosure to ensure genuine behavior.

Longitudinal Studies Overview

Definition: Longitudinal studies involve repeated observations or measurements of the same group of participants over extended periods, often years. Key Features: 1. Advantage Over Cross-Sectional Studies: - Eliminates the problem of group equivalence since it measures the same group over time, ensuring consistency. 2. Observing Changes: - Allows for observation of genuine changes in psychological characteristics over time or the stability of certain traits. 3. Intervention Programs: - Some longitudinal studies employ control groups to compare outcomes with those receiving interventions. E.g., special language training for children to boost mental age. 4. Panel Designs: - Studies that consider changes over time; they can vary in size, from a few hundred to thousands of participants. 5. Cohorts: - Large-scale longitudinal studies that track a particular group, like children born within a specific time frame, to understand national or generational trends.

Participant Observation and Degrees of Participation

Definition: Participant observation is a qualitative research method where the researcher observes people in their natural surroundings. Depending on the level of involvement, they may immerse themselves within the community or group to varying degrees. Degrees of Participation: Full Participant: Role: The researcher completely immerses themselves within the group, and their true research role is undisclosed. Participant as Observer: Role: While the research role is known, it's downplayed. The main interaction is through roles central to the group. Observer as Participant: Role: The researcher's primary role is observation, but they interact minimally with the group. Full Observer: Role: Complete detachment; the researcher observes without any interaction.

The Diary Method in Research

Definition: The diary method involves participants keeping a daily record of specific behaviors, experiences, or feelings over a set period. Advantages: Natural Environment: The diary method captures behavior and experiences in participants' natural settings. Longitudinal Data: Diaries can provide longitudinal data on participants over extended periods. Detailed Insights: They can offer rich, in-depth insights into participants' daily lives, feelings, and experiences. Variations: Covert Diaries: In covert participant observation, diaries are constructed discreetly or from memory. Participative Research: In some studies, participants maintain diaries that researchers then subject to content analysis. Considerations: Bias and Perspective: Early baby biographers had unique perspectives, focusing on different behaviors and not always standardizing their recording intervals. Quantitative vs. Qualitative: While many diary studies are qualitative, providing rich narratives, they can also be quantitative, providing numerical data.

Horns Effect (or Devil Effect):

Definition: The opposite of the halo effect; a cognitive bias where a negative trait of an individual affects the perception of their other traits. Examples: Lammers et al. (2016): Showed that a negative description could lead participants to have a generalized negative impression of an individual, suggesting the horns effect. Implication: A negative impression in one area can lead to negative biases in other areas, causing potential misjudgments.

Verbal Protocols

Definition: Verbal protocols involve recording the verbal output of participants as they engage in an activity. Participants are typically asked to vocalize their thoughts, known as "think-aloud" or "talk-aloud" processes, during an assigned task. Types of Verbalizing Instructions: Talk Aloud: Participants are asked to vocalize their silent speech, essentially articulating the thoughts they'd naturally have during the task. Think Aloud: Participants are asked to vocalize any thoughts that occur to them as they perform the task. Reasoned Verbalization: Participants are asked to vocalize their thoughts, decisions, and the reasons for those decisions. Applications in Research: Expertise in Problem-solving: Research on the difference in problem-solving approaches between experts and novices.

Structured Interviews Overview

Description: In this approach, every respondent is asked the exact same set of questions in a specific order. Pros: Greater reliability due to consistency. Allows for straightforward comparison between cases. Cons: Can seem impersonal or rigid. May not allow for in-depth, context-rich responses. Perspective: A positivist viewpoint holds that structured interviews are used to collect factual data and that interviewees' responses should match an objective reality.

Unstructured Interviews:

Description: These use a conversational style, often with open-ended questions, to obtain richer and more authentic responses. Pros: Yields more comprehensive and genuine answers. Establishes a relaxed and natural environment for the respondent. Cons: Less reliability due to inconsistency. Outcomes are heavily reliant on the interviewer's skills and can be influenced by their biases or leading questions. Perspective: A qualitative viewpoint suggests that interviews are social interactions where interviewees construct their unique realities. Instead of merely collecting facts, interviewers facilitate a space where interviewees can define their experiences and perspectives.

Cohort Effect:

Differences in a cross-sectional study caused by varying life experiences between different age groups within the same population.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Case Studies

Disadvantages: Reliability and Validity: Case studies often focus on unique instances, making replication challenging. Their uniqueness may limit generalizability, especially when viewed from a traditional hypothesis-testing perspective. Observer Interaction: The close relationship between the researcher and the participant might bias the findings. A researcher's objectivity could be compromised, affecting the authenticity of the data. Subjective Selection: The need to be selective about which data is presented in the final report can introduce bias. The researcher might emphasize certain aspects, potentially ignoring contradictory information. Memory Errors: Relying on a participant's memory can be problematic. Memories are susceptible to errors, distortions, and can be influenced by subsequent events or narratives.

Discussion Forums in Psychological Research:

Discussion forums on the internet offer a unique way to gather qualitative data for research. They can be used to access specific populations, facilitate open discussions, or simply provide an unfiltered look into how individuals feel about certain topics. Objective: Understand how men express emotions about infertility online. Method: Posts from a public forum dedicated to male infertility were analyzed. Advantages of Using Discussion Forums: Naturalistic Data: Forums provide spontaneous and uninfluenced responses. Rich Insights: The depth and variety of opinions can offer a comprehensive understanding of a topic. Access to Specific Groups: Allows for targeted research on niche populations. Cost-effective and Time-saving: Forums are pre-existing sources of data, thus avoiding the need for extensive recruitment or data-gathering processes. Disadvantages: Sample Limitations: Data comes from self-selected participants, which may not be representative. Lack of Control: Researchers can't guide discussions or ask follow-up questions. Data Volume and Relevance: The sheer amount of data can be overwhelming, and not all of it will be relevant. Ethical Concerns: Using public forum data may raise privacy concerns, even if the forum is technically public.

The Use of Disguise in Psychological Research

Disguise is employed by psychologists to bypass potential biases and obtain genuine responses, especially on sensitive topics. This strategy can be implemented using various methods. - Purpose of Disguise: - Counteracts social desirability effects. - Obtains valid, unbiased information. - Especially useful for sensitive or potentially embarrassing topics. - Examples of Disguise in Research: 1. Error Choice Technique: - Presents respondents with intentionally incorrect answers. - Gauges attitude based on the selection. 2. Physiological Measurements: - Monitor physiological responses (like GSR) while posing questions. - Can detect anxiety or other emotional reactions without the respondent's awareness.

Evaluative Cues in Interviews:

Evaluative cues during interviews can significantly influence the authenticity and quality of the responses obtained: Interviews often present unique settings where respondents are asked about their opinions without the expectation of facing disagreement or criticism. This environment can significantly affect how individuals respond. Interviewers must remain vigilant to ensure they don't unintentionally display any behaviors or cues that might be perceived as agreement, disagreement, encouragement, or discouragement. Even subtle behaviors can sway respondents. An interviewee may be actively looking for cues to gauge what the "correct" or desired response might be. Any signs of approval or disapproval from the interviewer can distort their answers. The concept of interviewer neutrality is debated among researchers. Some believe that maintaining a strictly neutral stance can lead to more genuine and unbiased responses, while others think that a certain degree of interaction or feedback can enhance the depth and quality of the data obtained.

Types of Observational Sampling 1

Event Sampling: Observers record a specific behavior (like a child crying) every time it occurs. Especially useful when observing rare or specific behaviors.

External Reliability - Stability Across Time

External Reliability: - Concerned with the consistency of results over different occasions. Test-Retest Reliability: - A method to evaluate external reliability. - Test the same group of people at two different times. - Correlate the two sets of scores to see if individuals get consistent scores on both occasions. - Expected correlation: At least around 0.75 to 0.8. Parallel Forms: - Test the same group using two different but equivalent versions of the test. - Challenges: Rare, expensive to create, and raises doubts about true equivalence. Key Insight: To ensure external reliability, the measurement tool must produce stable and consistent results over time.

Overview of Factor Analysis in Psychometrics

Factor Analysis: - Statistical method to find underlying factors explaining observed relationships in multiple tests/sub-tests.

What are Comparison Studies?

Focus on investigating differences between specific groups or categories of people. - Aimed at comparing distinct groups rather than general behavior.

Effects of Interviewer Gender on Responses:

Gender-exclusive Language: When interviewed by females, participants expressed more negative views towards gender-exclusive language. Young men used the least inclusive language when interviewed by males, whereas older females used the most when interviewed by females (Rubin and Greene, 1991). Sexual Behavior Reports: Among Californian Latino men, those interviewed by women reported fewer sexual partners and fewer sexual encounters with strangers than men. Men were more open about encounters with prostitutes when interviewed by older interviewers (Wilson et al., 2002). Non-gender Topics: In non-gender-specific topics, cross-gender interviews influenced senior citizens in the US. Women discussed their careers, education, and WWII experiences more in cross-gender interviews, whereas men emphasized family and reproductive history more (Stephenson et al., 1999).

Respondents' Interpretations in Psychological Scales

How respondents perceive and understand the questions on a scale, potentially influenced by their beliefs about the interviewer's intentions and the phrasing of items. Perceived Interviewer Belief: - Respondents may think the interviewer believes the scale items. - Potential for hostility if items contradict respondent's beliefs. Balancing Scale Items: - Essential to include both positive and negative items. - Communicate the reasons for balance to prevent defensiveness or hostility. Initiating the Scale: - Start with less polarizing statements for a smoother beginning. Demand Characteristics: - Respondents might try to guess the objective of the questionnaire. - Could skew genuine responses if a specific aim is perceived.

what are the drawbacks and importance of Qualitative Non-participant Observation

Importance: Holistic View: Provides a more comprehensive understanding of participants' behaviors, capturing nuances that might be missed in purely quantitative studies. Flexibility: In methods like grounded theory, observations can adapt based on earlier findings, allowing the study to evolve as it progresses. Rich Data: The qualitative data gathered can be used alongside quantitative data, providing depth and context to numerical findings. Drawbacks: Can be time-consuming due to the volume of data generated. Might be susceptible to observer bias. The interpretative nature of the data may lead to varying conclusions among different researchers.

Indirect Observation and Archives

Indirect Observation: Refers to gathering information and making inferences without direct observation or interaction with the subjects of interest. Indirect/Archival Data: Observations that are not directly made on people but are sourced from available records or archives. Archives and Their Utility: Unpredictable or Rare Events: Certain events, like natural disasters, suicides, or rare socio-political occurrences, are unpredictable or infrequent. Studying them in real-time might be challenging. Data Sources: Data for indirect observation can be sourced from historical archives, government records, media outputs, and other databases. For instance, television programs might be analyzed for depictions of aggression. Real-world Implications: The study of archival data can provide insights into societal changes, trends, and the effectiveness of policies. An example is Durrant's study on the impact of banning physical punishment of children in Sweden. Using various records, the study showed positive outcomes associated with the ban. Testing Hypotheses: Even though the data is indirect, these studies can provide valuable insights into human behaviors and attitudes. They offer a means to test and refute hypotheses about causative factors in societal or behavioral phenomena. Content Analysis: The observation of electronic or printed media coverage can be subjected to content analysis, a technique that systematically evaluates the content of documented material.

Interviewing and Anonymity

Initial Clarity: Begin interviews by addressing common concerns. Clearly explain the research's purpose, subjects of discussion, and assurances about confidentiality or anonymity. Importance of Anonymity: Participants are more willing to share honest feedback when they're confident their identities will remain private. Anonymity is especially crucial in qualitative research where direct quotes are used. Dangers of Breaching Anonymity: Negative consequences can arise if participants are identifiable, even indirectly. In the 1950s, the Springdale village incident highlighted the risks of not adequately preserving anonymity. Participants' Rights: Empower participants by reminding them of their rights. This includes the right to review and veto their contributions before publication.

Types of Observational Sampling 3

Interval Sampling: Behavior is recorded within specific, consistent time intervals. Useful when monitoring behaviors that might occur at any time within a period.

Influence of Personal Qualities and Halo/Horns Effect on Interviews:

Interview dynamics can be shaped by the personal qualities and characteristics of both the interviewer and the interviewee: Even if an interviewer is instructed to adopt an informal tone, they might find it challenging with certain interviewees. This can lead to perceived artificiality in their behavior. Interviewees may feel uncomfortable due to certain characteristics or qualities of the interviewer that might not be immediately evident. Interviewers must be cautious of the "halo" and "horns" effects. The "halo effect" refers to a cognitive bias where a positive assessment of a person in one aspect influences our overall perception of them in other unrelated aspects. Conversely, the "horns effect" is when a negative assessment in one area influences our overall negative perception of a person. These effects can skew the interviewer's judgment and affect the objectivity of the interview process.

Effects of Interpersonal Variables in Interviews

Interviews are a method of gathering information by asking people questions. Just as laboratory experiments can sometimes be criticized for their artificial conditions and potential biases, interviews too have their own set of unique challenges, especially when considering interpersonal dynamics. Demand Characteristics: Respondents might alter answers based on perceived researcher expectations. Interviewer Effects: The interviewer's characteristics (e.g., gender, demeanor) can influence responses. Social Desirability Bias: Respondents may give answers that seem socially acceptable rather than truthful. Power Dynamics: An interviewee might feel overpowered by the researcher, affecting their answers. Question Phrasing: The way a question is framed can lead to different responses.

Lagged Designs

Lagged designs, also known as time-lag studies, are research designs that focus on observing changes in a population over time by selecting different groups from the same age cohort at different points in time. Object of Research: Lagged designs are used to examine changes in a specific population, such as age groups, over multiple time points. Researchers select different samples from the same age cohort at different times to assess changes in attitudes, behaviors, or abilities. Time-Lag Comparison: The term "lag" refers to the time gap or interval between data collection points. For example, researchers might study 16-year-olds in the years 1995, 2000, and 2005. Each of these years represents a different data collection point.\ No Longitudinal Comparisons: Unlike longitudinal studies, lagged designs do not involve tracking the same individuals over time. Instead, researchers focus on comparing different groups from the same age cohort at different time points. Cross-Lagged Correlations: Lagged designs may involve cross-lagged correlations to explore causal relationships. Researchers examine the correlations between variables measured at different time points to assess whether changes in one variable predict changes in another. Interpreting Findings: Researchers must carefully interpret findings from lagged designs. For example, if a significant positive correlation between violent TV viewing at time 1 and aggression at time 2 is found, it may support the hypothesis that violent TV viewing causes aggression. However, alternative explanations, such as the idea that more aggressive individuals choose to watch violent TV, should also be considered.

Principles of Open Interviewing

Misconception: Open interviewing or qualitative research is often misunderstood as a simple, informal conversation without stringent guidelines. Not a Soft Option: Open interviewing isn't a simpler alternative to quantitative methods. It requires a deep understanding of respondents and a keen sense for gathering nuanced insights. Continuous Analysis: Unlike quantitative research where analysis follows data collection, in qualitative research, analysis happens concurrently with data gathering. Interviewers interpret data while collecting it. Active Engagement: Interviewers are active participants, probing for clarity, seeking deeper insights, and noticing inconsistencies. They should always ensure they understand the perspective of the interviewee. Evolving Process: As new issues arise in subsequent interviews, they might necessitate revisiting earlier participants or adjusting questions for future ones. Essentially, participants play a role in shaping the research trajectory. Demanding Task: Semi-structured interviews aren't casual chats but structured engagements, requiring interviewers to be thoroughly prepared and attentive. It's a demanding method, both for the interviewer and the interviewee. Distinct Roles: It isn't a two-way conversation. One party (the interviewee) is the information provider, while the other (the interviewer) acts as the investigator, verifier, and deep-diver. Flexible Yet Guided: While there's no fixed method to conduct these interviews, certain guidelines ensure they remain purposeful and efficient. Following structured tips and techniques can optimize the process.

Types of Observational Sampling 5

Momentary Time Sampling: Observers record behavior at the end of specific intervals. Gives a snapshot of behavior at precise moments.

Simulation

Nature: A broader method than role-play where an entire environment or situation is simulated. It might include computer simulations, mock setups, or virtual reality. Usage: Widely used in fields like aviation for pilot training, military training, business scenarios, and in psychological research to study complex behaviors in a controlled setting. Advantages: Can recreate complex environments or situations. Offers a controlled setting for study without the risks associated with real-world situations. High repeatability for different participants. Limitations: Can be expensive and time-consuming. Might still lack the full authenticity of real-world situations.

Role-Play

Nature: Participants act out roles based on certain scenarios. These roles can be based on real-life situations or hypothetical scenarios. Usage: Widely used in research to explore behaviors, emotions, and decisions that might be difficult to observe in real-world settings. Advantages: Allows for the exploration of specific scenarios under controlled conditions. Can be adapted to various research questions. Useful for training, teaching, and therapeutic purposes. Limitations: The behavior exhibited might not be genuine since participants are aware they are role-playing. Can be influenced by participants' preconceived notions or biases about the role they are playing.

What is observation in research?

Observation can function either as a technique within a research methodology or as an overarching research design.

Types of Observational Sampling

Observational sampling techniques are systematic ways of observing and recording behavior during studies. The choice of sampling method can greatly influence the findings of the study.

What is the definition of observational technique?

Observational technique refers to the procedure that incorporates observation in some way within a research study. This can be a part of an experiment or another research method.

Open vs. Closed Questions in Psychological Testing

Psychological scales primarily use closed questions for ease of quantitative analysis, whereas interviews often employ open questions. Closed questions provide fixed options for responses, while open questions allow for free-form answers. - Open Questions: - E.g., "Tell me about your feelings for your parents." - Generate qualitative data. - Closed Questions: - Facilitate quantitative analysis. - Examples: 1. "I voted in the last election: Yes/No." 2. "Describe your relationship status: single, married, etc." 3. "My age is: under 16, 16-21, etc." 4. "I feel confident meeting strangers: Strongly agree to Strongly disagree." 5. "Baby started crawling at... months."

Introduction to Self-Report Methods

Psychologists utilize a variety of methods to gather data. While experiments and observations are common approaches, another straightforward method is simply asking individuals about themselves - a method termed "self-report." Key Points: Definition: Self-report methods involve participants providing information about themselves. This can be done through various means like questionnaires, psychological assessment scales, and interviews. Historical Use: Notable studies, like those conducted by Asch (1956) and Milgram (1974), incorporated post-experiment interviews. These interviews offered invaluable insights that spurred extensive research in the fields. Advantages: Direct insights into personal experiences and perceptions. Versatility in deployment, including face-to-face, phone, email, or online methods. Primary Focus: This chapter zeroes in on information gathering primarily via direct questioning. The method's structure, especially with face-to-face interviews, tends to be less regimented, allowing for a more open and personal dialogue.

1- Non-directive Interviews:

Purpose: In these interviews, the main aim is not typically data gathering for academic research but for therapeutic or self-reflective purposes. Procedure: Interviewees are allowed to talk about any topic without the interviewer guiding or influencing the direction of the conversation. The interviewer, usually a psychotherapist or counsellor, provides reflective support throughout. Use: Often employed by psychotherapists and counselors, these interviews aim to help clients achieve self-awareness and address personal issues. It's an exploratory method, where clients dive deep into their experiences, feelings, and perceptions. Outcome: While the primary aim isn't academic research, these sessions can produce valuable insights, especially when collated as case studies.

Structured but Open-Ended:

Purpose: To combine the consistency of a standardized procedure with the freedom for interviewees to express their thoughts in depth. Procedure: Interviewers follow a predetermined set of questions asked in a specific order for every participant. Question Type: Questions are open-ended, allowing respondents to provide comprehensive answers without being constrained to predefined response categories. Advantages: Achieves a balance between gathering consistent data and capturing rich, nuanced insights from interviewees. By maintaining the same questions for all participants, data can be compared more easily across respondents while still delving deep into individual perspectives. Example Question: Instead of a potentially leading question like "Do you approve of physically punishing children?", a more open-ended question would be "Tell me what you think about physically punishing children."

6. The Clinical Method (or 'Clinical Interview'):

Purpose: To explore and gather specific data or test hypotheses while adapting the conversation based on the respondent's understanding and responses. Procedure: While the goals are standardized, the way questions are posed isn't. Interviewers have the flexibility to rephrase questions, ask follow-ups, or probe deeper based on the respondent's reactions and answers. Question Type: Both open and closed questions, but with a unique flexibility to adjust based on the respondent's comprehension and response. Advantages: This approach is particularly beneficial when dealing with children or populations that might not understand standardized questions. It allows for more accurate data collection by tailoring the questions to the individual's level of understanding or thought process. Disadvantages: The lack of standardization can lead to variability in data, which might pose challenges in data analysis and consistency across respondents. It's also potentially more time-consuming than other methods. Usage: Historically, used by Piaget in his studies on child development and conservation tasks. It's also associated with Freud's psychoanalytic sessions where specific hypotheses about a client's unconscious were tested.

2- Informal Interviews:

Purpose: To gather research data in a relaxed environment. Procedure: Lightly structured, with the interviewer guiding the conversation to stay on topic and providing prompts when necessary. Historical Use: Notably used in the Hawthorne studies. Initial structured interviews were unsuccessful due to power dynamics. The switch to an indirect, informal approach yielded more genuine and insightful responses from employees. Benefits: Allows interviewees to speak freely, yielding richer data. Avoids the limitations of preset questions. Use: Popular in social sciences and applied research, especially in qualitative studies. Observations: Even structured interviews can have informal moments, which can lead to valuable insights.

5 - Fully Structured:

Purpose: To gather standardized and quantifiable data in a consistent manner across all respondents. Procedure: Interviewers follow a pre-set list of questions with fixed-answer options, ensuring that all interviewees are asked the exact same questions in the same order. Question Type: Questions are closed-ended, offering a set of predetermined responses for the interviewee to choose from. Advantages: This method is highly consistent, allows for easy quantification and analysis of responses, and reduces bias from interviewer variability. Data can be efficiently collected and compared across large samples. Disadvantages: It may not capture the depth or nuances of respondents' thoughts and feelings. Participants may feel constrained by the provided answer choices, potentially leading to inaccurate or incomplete responses. Usage: Commonly used in street surveys, market research, or any setting where data needs to be quickly and efficiently collected from many respondents.

Semi-Structured Interview (Informal but Guided):

Purpose: To provide a more natural conversation flow while ensuring all key topics are covered. Procedure: Although no pre-set questions are asked in a fixed order, interviewers use a guiding outline of topics to ensure coverage of essential information. The phrasing and timing of questions are at the interviewer's discretion, adapting to the flow of the conversation. Flexibility: If respondents provide information spontaneously, interviewers don't need to ask related questions. However, they circle back to ensure all topics are adequately addressed. Usage: Widely favored in qualitative research. Content from these interviews can also undergo content analysis for partial quantification. Advantages: Allows a more organic conversation, giving respondents freedom to explore various thought avenues. Interviewers can also flexibly decide which parts of the conversation to delve deeper into. Limitations: From a positivist perspective, there might be concerns about reliability or comparability across respondents due to the varying nature of each interview. Research Model Consideration: The choice of using this interview type depends on the underlying research model the researcher is adhering to.

Inter-observer Reliability

Refers to the extent of agreement or consistency between two or more observers who are observing and recording an event or behavior.

Reliability and Validity of Projective Tests

Reliability: Consistency of results; especially raters' interpretation. Validity: Measures test's accuracy in capturing its intent. Challenges include cultural and social biases. Intelligence and Personality Tests: Highly standardized compared to projective tests. Used professionally: job selection, clinical diagnosis, educational assessment. Require rigorous validation. Examples: Intelligence Tests: Regular revisions to avoid biases (cultural, class, etc.) Personality Tests: E.g., Eysenck Personality Inventory.

Time-Lag Study

Research design involving periodic measurements at long intervals, often with a new sample each time, to observe changes or trends over time within a specific group.

Cross-Cultural Studies: Challenges in Generalization

Researchers often seek to extend the population validity of their findings by studying different cultures. Universal psychological factors are of interest when trends appear across diverse cultures. Ethnocentrism and racism can pose significant challenges in cross-cultural research. Avoiding ethnocentrism: Researchers must be vigilant to prevent preconceptions about cultures from influencing their studies. Lack of objectivity: Scientific methods and instruments may not be suitable when applied uncritically to different cultures. An alarming example: Lynn's controversial estimate of African IQ scores, based on non-equivalent samples and assessments. The danger of pseudo-science: Researchers must actively resist the misuse of data for discriminatory purposes. Ethical considerations: Responsible publication and ethical standards in research are essential to prevent harmful consequences.

Central Issues in the Use of Psychological Scales

Response Acquiescence Set (or Response Bias) - People often find it harder to disagree than agree. - Known as 'Yeah saying.' - Common when participants respond to questionnaires. Avoiding the Bias - Mix positive and negative statements unpredictably. - Keeps respondents critically thinking about each item. Impact on Likert Scales - Blind agreement leads to a mid-range score. - Half items in one direction, half in another.

Survey Design:

Sample: Crucial in surveys. The aim is often to generalize findings to a larger population. If the entire population is surveyed, it's called a census. Representative Sampling: Essential for drawing accurate conclusions about a larger population. Special sample types used in survey research include: Panel: A group of people surveyed over time to track changes. Focus Group: A small, diverse group discussing a topic or topics in depth. Mode of Questioning: The manner in which the survey is conducted, e.g., face-to-face, telephone, online, etc. Questions: Can be open (allowing respondents to answer in their own words) or closed (e.g., multiple choice). The actual content and structure of these questions are paramount.

Psychometry

Science and technology of creating tests to quantify psychological attributes.

Semi-Structured or Open Interviewing - Gathering Qualitative Data

Semi-structured interviews blend structured and open-ended question formats. They use general guidelines but allow flexibility in how questions are phrased and sequenced. Key Features: Guided Flexibility: Uses a guideline but can adjust questions based on the conversation. Open-Ended Questions: Encourages detailed answers, capturing depth and emotion. Probing: Allows follow-up questions for deeper insights. Advantages: Gathers nuanced and rich data. Adaptable to individual respondents. Disadvantages: Time-consuming. Requires skilled interviewers. Applications: Ideal for exploratory research or when understanding underlying emotions and motivations is crucial.

Types of Observational Sampling 2

Sequential Analysis: A specialized form of event sampling. Used to record sequences of behavior, without focusing on the duration. Helps identify patterns or behaviors that often follow each other.

Social Desirability in Interviews:

Social desirability refers to the tendency of respondents to present themselves in a favorable manner, especially in the context of interviews. It can significantly impact the authenticity and accuracy of data gathered: Participants, when facing a researcher or interviewer, might adjust their responses to align with what they perceive as socially acceptable or favorable. Topics like prejudice are challenging to gauge directly because many people might provide socially desirable responses rather than their true feelings. For example, they might openly express egalitarian views in an interview, while in private settings, they might hold or express prejudiced attitudes. Similarly, when questioned about sensitive topics such as child-rearing practices, safe driving habits, or safe sex behaviors, respondents might provide answers they deem as "correct" or acceptable rather than revealing their genuine beliefs or behaviors. Understanding the influence of social desirability is crucial for researchers, as it can lead to skewed data and may not represent the true sentiments or behaviors of the population under study.

Psychometrist/psychometrician:

Specialist in creating and handling psychometric tests.

The Interview Medium

Telephone Interviews: Advantages: Potentially reach busy or intimidated individuals. Absence of visual cues can lead to more honest responses. Anonymity, economic savings, geographical flexibility, and safety for the interviewer. Disadvantages: Difficult to interpret moods or intentions. Easier for the interviewee to end the conversation abruptly. Postal Surveys (Snail Mail): Advantages: Higher level of privacy may lead to more honest answers. Reduced impact of interpersonal variables. Disadvantages: The clarity of the questionnaire is critical. Potential for high non-response rates. Email & Internet Surveys: Advantages: Broad reach given the wide usage of the internet. Cost-effective, fast, and convenient. Diverse samples possible, more than traditional methods. Can generate public interest in research. Disadvantages: Internet usage disparity across economic strata and age. Sampling can be biased based on volunteerism (those willing to complete a survey). In certain age groups, gender becomes a biasing factor. Those participating in internet surveys may differ in attitudes and behaviors from those not online.

Listening Skills in Interviews:

The ability of the interviewer to effectively pay attention, understand, and interpret the responses of the interviewee, ensuring a productive and respectful exchange of information. Avoiding Trivialization: Refrain from undermining or dismissing the statements of the interviewee, like quickly moving on from an important point they've made. Interpreting Responses: Recognizing nuances in replies, such as understanding that a seemingly affirmative answer might have reservations. For instance, if a hesitant "yes" is given, probing further may reveal it's closer to a "no". Not Dominating Interpretation: Giving the interviewee the space to express and clarify their thoughts without quickly or assertively imposing the interviewer's own understanding or interpretation.

Social Desirability in Psychological Research

The inclination of respondents to provide socially acceptable or favorable answers in order to present themselves in a positive light. Main Concern: Affects the authenticity and validity of responses. Bogus Pipeline Technique: A method used to counteract the social desirability bias. Makes participants believe their answers can be verified, encouraging honesty. Motivation to Please: Respondents might provide answers they think the researcher desires, leading to skewed outcomes. Lie Scale Implementation (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975): - Designed to detect dishonest or socially desirable responses.

Neutrality in Interviews:

The practice of ensuring that the interviewer remains unbiased and does not pass judgment, creating an environment where interviewees can openly share their experiences and perspectives. Non-judgemental Approach: The interviewer must accept the language style and non-verbal behavior of the interviewees, conveying an understanding without passing any moral assessments. Sensitive Topics: When discussing delicate subjects, it's especially important for interviewers to maintain neutrality to garner honest responses from participants. Neutral Responses: Developing a repertoire of neutral replies like "I see" or "uhuh" can help interviewers navigate moments when interviewees share potentially controversial or strong opinions, ensuring that the interviewee doesn't feel judged or discouraged from sharing. Fuller Accounts: By ensuring a non-judgmental environment, interviewers increase the likelihood of obtaining comprehensive and authentic accounts from interviewees.

Achieving and Maintaining Rapport in Interviews:

The process of establishing a trusting and harmonious relationship between the interviewer and interviewee, ensuring open and genuine communication. Interviewer Behavior: In unstructured interviews, the demeanor and approach of the interviewer are crucial. A relaxed and genuine atmosphere can elicit more authentic and comprehensive responses from interviewees. Comfortable Atmosphere: An environment where participants feel at ease promotes open communication. Conversely, a tense or formal setting may lead to guarded responses. Language and Terminology: Familiarity with the language, jargon, or colloquial terms of the group being interviewed can foster better understanding and rapport. Interviewers should be open to and value the natural language style of the participants. Avoid Misunderstandings: Being aware of and adapting to evolving language or slang can prevent misunderstandings, as highlighted by the 'sick' example. Authentic Communication: The interviewee should feel that their mode of communication (whether it's their dialect, accent, or conversational style) is accepted and appreciated.

Recording the Interview:

The process of preserving the details of an interview for future analysis. Several methods are available, with their own benefits and challenges. Note Taking: Limitations: This method is distracting and inefficient as it can break the flow of conversation and may not capture all details. Application: Notes can serve as memory aids for points to revisit or probe further. Important information is often better captured via audio or visual recordings. Audio Recording: Benefits: Enables natural conversation without the need for note-taking; captures nuances and exact phrases. Precautions: Interviewees should give informed consent and have the option to stop the recording at any time. Familiarity with the device and checking its readiness before starting is essential. Video Recording: Advantages: Allows the researcher to analyze non-verbal cues in conjunction with spoken words, offering a richer context. Limitations: The presence of a camera can be intimidating, affecting the informality and authenticity of responses. Transcription: Definition: The process of converting recorded speech into written text, often capturing details such as pauses, intonations, and other paralinguistics. Time Investment: Transcription can be time-consuming. Depending on the level of detail, it can take from 8 to 20 times the duration of the interview to transcribe it. Importance: While labor-intensive, transcription offers a valuable tool for in-depth analysis of an interview's content. Ethical Considerations: Concealing recording devices or not informing interviewees beforehand can raise ethical concerns. Strategies to address these may include informing participants after the fact or keeping the devices hidden but making participants aware of their existence.

Non-verbal Communication in Interviews:

The subtle cues and body language expressed by both the interviewer and interviewee, which can significantly influence the dynamics and outcomes of an interview. Attention to Eye Contact: Maintaining appropriate eye contact conveys attentiveness and engagement. It can help in establishing trust and making the interviewee feel valued. Supportive Gestures: Nods and affirmative gestures show that the interviewer is actively listening and understanding what the interviewee is saying. Limiting Excessive Movements: Keeping body movements, such as trunk movements or frequent shifting of position, to a minimum helps in maintaining focus and avoiding potential distractions. Maintaining Conversational Flow: A fluent conversational style without excessive pauses or interruptions can put the interviewee at ease and facilitate smoother communication. Avoiding Dominance: It's crucial for interviewers not to assume dominating postures or use an authoritative tone, as this can make the interviewee feel intimidated or defensive. Sensitivity to Discomfort: Being attentive to signs of discomfort or embarrassment from the interviewee, such as avoiding eye contact, fidgeting, or crossed arms, can give cues on when to change the direction of the conversation or provide reassurance. Considering Seating Arrangements: The placement and type of seating can impact the interview dynamics. For instance, seating side by side might feel less confrontational than sitting directly across from each other.

Natural Questioning in Interviews:

The technique of creating a relaxed and organic conversation flow while ensuring that specific key topics or questions are addressed, promoting genuine and candid responses from the interviewee. Conversation-like Dynamics: Despite having target questions, the interviewer strives to make the discussion feel like a natural conversation or a "chat" rather than a formal interrogation. Dominance of Interviewee's Voice: In this approach, the interviewee does most of the talking. The interviewer, while guiding the conversation, refrains from sharing personal views or anecdotes, ensuring the focus remains on the respondent's experiences and opinions. Flexibility with Target Questions: Unlike rigid questionnaires, natural questioning allows for spontaneity. If the interviewer has a few primary questions in mind, they can introduce them organically within the conversation. Clarifying Purpose: One of the benefits of the semi-structured interview format is the opportunity to explain why certain questions are being asked. This transparency can make the interviewee feel more at ease and engaged. Encouraging Mutual Curiosity: In a natural questioning setting, interviewees should feel comfortable seeking clarifications or asking the interviewer about the intent behind specific questions.

STRUCTURED (OR 'SYSTEMATIC') OBSERVATION Defintion

This method is often used when the researcher wants to study specific behaviors in a controlled or systematic manner. Here's a breakdown of the main features:

Cross-sectional, Short-term Longitudinal Study

This study design combines elements of cross-sectional and longitudinal research. Multiple groups from different age categories are selected. Participants are assessed at the same time (cross-sectional aspect). Assessments are repeated over a relatively short period (short-term longitudinal aspect). It allows for examining developmental changes and making age comparisons within a shorter timeframe. ' Example: Four groups of children (A, B, C, D) aged 6, 7, 8, and 9 were selected in 2009 and studied over two years. Provides insights into developmental changes within a specific age range in a shorter time.

Types of Observational Sampling 4

Time Sampling: Observations are made at specific time intervals, but not necessarily consecutively. Allows for breaks between observations, useful when observing for extended periods. Can be random to get a comprehensive view of the behavior throughout the day.

Understanding the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS)

What is VAS? - A tool that allows individuals to represent their feelings or attitudes along a continuum. Example of VAS: Low | - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - | High Advantages: 1. Nuanced Response: Avoids the limitation of binary or categorical choices, capturing a spectrum of feelings. 2. Flexible: Can be used with various descriptors, not just high and low. 3. Tracks Changes Over Time: Particularly useful for observing shifts in an individual's perspective or condition. Limitations: - Subjectivity: Each individual's interpretation of distance (e.g., 2 cm) might differ. - Not an absolute scale but useful for comparative measurements. Key Takeaway: VAS offers a more refined way to capture individual perspectives, especially beneficial for tracking changes over time.

Influence of Formal Roles on Interviews:

When interviewees perceive the interviewer as an authority figure, it can impact their responses: Interviewees might use more "formal" or "correct" language, striving to provide what they believe is the expected or right answer. The pressure to conform or please the perceived authority might reduce the fluency and spontaneity of their answers. For individuals who have previous experiences where interviews were tied to authority or consequential outcomes, such as job interviews or legal interrogations, their perceptions of the interview process might be influenced by those past experiences. Understanding an interviewee's past experiences and perceptions can help interviewers interpret responses more accurately and fairly.

Problems with Closed Questions in Psychological Testing

While closed questions facilitate quantified measures, they also present several limitations. Open-ended questions can offer richer insights and capture the nuance of respondents' thoughts. - Advantages of Closed Questions: - Produce quantified measures of psychological constructs. - Disadvantages of Closed Questions: 1. Limited Response Options: May frustrate respondents. 2. Misinterpretation: Potential misunderstanding of the question. 3. Limited Data: Provides narrow numerical data, lacking detailed reasons behind choices. 4. Unrealistic: Doesn't capture complex human thought processes.

Impact of Ethnicity on Interview Outcomes:

nterviewer behavior can vary based on the ethnic background of the interviewee. For instance, white interviewers were found to have less positive body language towards black job applicants than towards white ones. This can impact the performance and perceived friendliness of the interview. The ethnicity of the interviewer can affect the responses given by interviewees. For example, black respondents were more likely to express certain views on police behavior when speaking with a black interviewer as compared to a white one. Similarly, white respondents' views differed based on the ethnicity of the interviewer. Accent, which can be a cue to ethnicity or 'race', can also affect interview outcomes. In a study, participants' ratings of interviewees varied based on the accent of the interviewee, signaling potential bias or preference for same-race or familiar accents.