MGMT Ch 6 (Test 2)

task identity

should be able to identify their contribution to a finished product or service (task identity)

Manufacturing or service companies that have a quantitative measure of output may use which type of incentive-based motivation?

Piecework plans

if we want a behavior to continue happening, we can try two things.

Positive reinforcement Negative Reinforcement

If a manager is perceived to treat one employee more favorably than others, which element of organizational justice would this relate to?

Interactional justice

If we want a behavior to stop happening, we can try these two approaches.

Punishment Extinction

According to Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory, which of the following would be seen as a "motivational" factor?

Recognition

Relatedness

The state of connection or association with an individual, group, or entity. Associated with belongingness

Factors that affect motivation

There are multiple individual and contextual factors that must be considered. Motivation can vary based on individuals' personalities and attitudes as well as based on organizational values, the physical environment, and the rewards that are offered.

​Incentive-Based Options

There are multiple ways that companies use money as a motivator. There are positives and negatives to each. 1. Piecework plans 2. Commission 3. Profit sharing 4. Gainsharing 5. Stock options

Confidence, achievement and respect are examples of needs in which category of Maslow's hierarchy?

Esteem

What does ERG stand for in Alderfer's ERG Theory of motivation?

Existence, Relatedness, Growth

Equity theory would fit into which group of motivation theories?

Process theories

Relatedness

Relatedness can be seen as we have discussed previously. However, another way of looking at this concept is to think how the tasks relate to the bigger picture. Is there a purpose that I can relate to what I am accomplishing? The more people find a purpose in what they do, the more engaged they become in their jobs.

Using SMART goals, which aspect states that our goals should align with other goals, such as vision statements or organizational strategies?

Relevant

institutional power

An individual's need for control in an organizational setting.

need for achievement

desire to be good at what you do

task significance

feel that their efforts matter to the organization and its customers (task significance)

Motivation is the process that directs our behavior toward certain

goals

job analysis

the gathering of information to describe a job as it currently exists

basic model of motivation

unmet need or desire is recognized -> tension exists to meet that need or desire -> motivation -> action/behavior -> result or feedback

Existence

Existence needs are related to physiological and safety needs

Expectancy

Expectancy is the belief that if you put forth effort, then that effort will lead to the desired performance. If you study hard, do you believe you can make an "A" on the next exam?

theories of motivation

(1)Need and Content theories (2)Process theories (3)Job Design (4)Reinforcement theories From a management perspective we want to influence motivation because of its impact on such behaviors as performance, retention, engagement, and organizational citizenship.

Negative Reinforcement

We remove something unpleasant to encourage a desirable behavior. Suppose that you are continually late to work. Your manager gets on your case every single time and gives you the same, awful speech about how you should understand the importance of punctuality that makes your eyes roll back into your head. However, once you start showing up on time, the speech goes away. As long as you continue showing up on time, the awful speech is never heard from again. The removal of the speech is encouragement to you to continue the behavior of showing up on time.

Process Theories

1. Equity Theory 2. Expectancy Theory 3. Goal-Setting Theory 4. Job Design Theory 5. ​Reinforcement Theory Focus on the psychological processes that drive individuals toward certain behaviors. These theories, rather than identifying unmet needs to explain motivation, examine the thought processes that lead to specific action.

Put the steps in the motivation process in the correct order.

1. unmet need or desire is recognized 2. tension exists to meet that need or desire 3. motivation 4. action/behavior 5. result or feedback

What is the tangible award given to you for accomplishing something?

Extrinsic reward

Which of the following would be considered an intrinsic motivator?

Feeling of accomplishment

In the video above, what group is fighting against pay inequity between genders?

Female U.S. Soccer Team members

feedback

Finally, how much information is given to an employee about how they are doing and why their jobs are important (feedback)? How do they know if they are making a difference if we aren't telling them? Positive, and even constructive, feedback helps employees to understand the actual results of their work and why it matters. This sense of purpose and accomplishment is the third psychological state we are concerned with.

3. Profit sharing

Giving employees a certain percentage of company profits. This encourages employees to not only focus on the revenues of the organization but also the costs.

autonomy

How responsible employees feel they are for work outcomes. Employees want to feel as though they are in control of the work that they do (autonomy). The more an employee controls their own schedule and the manner in which the work is done, the more they will get that sense of responsibility.

Hygiene factors

Hygiene factors are the aspects of the job that don't actually motivate employees, but the lack of these factors can lead to dissatisfaction. A good way to think about this is that there are expectations to each of these factors. You expect your company to have a clean and safe working environment, the fact that they do have a good environment doesn't motivate you, but if your workplace is dirty, dangerous, or unpleasant, then it decreases your job-satisfaction.

Instrumentality

Instrumentality is the belief that if you perform, you will receive the reward that has been promised. Suppose that your professor tells you that if you get an "A" on the exam, he will give you $1,000! Do you actually believe him? If you believe him, that would mean that you have high instrumentality. I wouldn't believe him! That means I have low instrumentality.

4. Job Design Theory

Job analysis and job design play a large part in job design theory, which is the process of changing a job or position to suit our needs. Suppose that we have had high turnover for a particular job and we find out that the biggest issue is that the job itself is monotonous and lacks challenge. We would need to design that job so that it is inherently more motivating for our employees. So how do we go about doing this?

If a manager increases the importance and responsibility of a job, which approach to motivation are they using?

Job enrichment

need for affiliation

Like Maslow's belongingness and Alderfer's relatedness A recognition of the need for fulfilling social relationships

1. ​Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow hypothesized that individuals are motivated by their lowest order (bottom of the pyramid) unmet needs. If John is struggling to pay his rent, then he would be motivated to pursue actions that would allow him to meet that safety need. John would try to find a better job so he could pay his bills more easily. Generally, we would define safety and physiological needs as being lower order (and to a certain extent belongingness), while esteem and self-actualization would be considered higher-order needs. From a management perspective, we would want to identify where our employees fall within the hierarchy to determine which needs our employees are attempting to meet and offer rewards that are related to those needs. For lower-order needs that might mean offering monetary bonuses, while for higher-order needs employees could be more motivated by recognition or opportunity for advancement.

Nonmonetary incentives

Monetary based incentive programs only meet lower-order needs, and may not be the motivators that employers are hoping for. Because of that, other organizations may use nonmonetary incentives. Nonmonetary incentives are benefits that the organization can provide that are not directly tied to pay. These types of incentives are meant to motivate employees by addressing the higher order needs we discussed previously. Employers might offer paid-time-off so that employees can have better work life balance. They can offer training and development opportunities to improve their employees' knowledge and skills. This could include special training, professional conferences, or tuition reimbursement to enroll in classes at local colleges or universities.

According to Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory, what type of factors are the aspects of the job that increase employee's job satisfaction?

Motivational

5. Stock options

Opportunities for employees to purchase an ownership interest in their organization in the form of stock. The logic is that if the employees are also the owners of the company, then they will do whatever is in the best interest of the organization because they can benefit from its performance.

Organizational Justice

Other researchers used the work of J. Stacy Adams to develop related theories on organizational justice. Organizational justice is the perception that individuals are treated fairly in the workplace. This perception is based on three elements: distributive justice, procedural justice, and interactional justice.

Those with a(n) _________ of learning will focus on achievement and learning because their supervisor expects a certain level of performance.

Performance orientation

1. Piecework plans

Piecework plans are compensation systems that base pay on the level of output. For manufacturing or service companies that have a quantitative measure of output, a this plan might be used. The logic being that if you are paid per unit of production, you are motivated to work faster. A possible issue is that workers may focus on pushing out the most units possible, and this could cause quality to suffer.

Which component of reinforcement theory involves providing a desirable reward after we observe a behavior that we would like to see continue?

Positive reinforcement

According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, which of the following is considered a lower order need?

Safety

4. Gainsharing

Similar to profit sharing, but instead of a percentage of profit, it offers employees a percentage of improvement. If employees help increase revenue or reduce costs, employees receive some monetary reward for that improvement.

Which characteristic of the job characteristics model looks at whether employees feel that their efforts matter to the organization and its customers?

Task significance

5. Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

The Two-factor theory says that the things that satisfy, or motivate, us; and the things that dissatisfy, or demotivate, us are related to two different factors. Herzberg discovered that employees are motivated by things related to competence and achievement, and are demotivated by things such as working conditions and the pay associated with the job. Hygiene factors and motivational factors

Competence

The ability to do something well. Similar to the need for achievement. There is a drive in people to master tasks in which they participate. We typically don't enjoy doing tasks where we continue to be average. We want to be good at what we do.

Why do people do the things they do?

The basic question behind motivation

Frustration-regression

The idea that if an individual is unable to fulfill a higher-order need, that they will regress and concentrate on an already-met need. So if I find that I am not meeting my relatedness needs by having fulfilling relationships, I might throw myself into work to make more money.

job design

The process of altering a job or position to suit particular needs. Rather than altering existing jobs, we instead focus on designing jobs that have these motivational characteristics already included.

job enrichment

The process of increasing the importance or difficulty of tasks associated with a job. We offer them the opportunity to work on more challenging and important projects or tasks. As you hopefully remember, employees respond to opportunities to meet higher order needs such as autonomy and competence much more positively than opportunities to more fully meet lower order needs.

Job enlargement

The process of increasing the number of tasks that are associated with specific jobs. Job enlargement is the process of increasing the number of tasks that are associated with specific jobs. This doesn't involve changing the tasks or making them more or less challenging, it is simply putting more on someone's plate. By increasing the number of tasks we can hopefully alleviate the boredom and dissatisfaction.

motivation

The process that directs our behavior toward certain goals.

performance in the workplace

We can think about performance in the workplace as being a function of ability and motivation. Often, this relationship is represented as [performance = ability x motivation]. The fact that it is ability times motivation rather than ability plus motivation is important. These factors are not additive but multiplicative. This means that if either ability or motivation are equal to zero, then performance will equal zero. When you think about it, it makes sense that if someone is unmotivated they won't perform and if they don't have any ability they won't perform. Additionally, we must consider the nature of the reward or outcome that is desired.

Extinction

We eliminate undesirable behaviors by ignoring them or withholding reinforcement. The idea is that if we ignore certain behaviors, they will not be repeated. If a student in class continually raises their hand to participate in class discussions, but I never call on them, eventually they will stop raising their hand.

Positive reinforcement

We provide a desirable reward after we observe a behavior that we would like to see. If Cindy provides excellent customer service to one of our guests, we want to praise her immediately. In this example, the reward is praise, but we could also offer a monetary reward or anything else that our employees might value.

Conclusion of equity theory

When it comes to equity and justice, reality isn't important, only the perceptions of the employees really matters. If an individual perceives that they are being treated or compensated unfairly, they are going to be motivated by that perception rather than any objective reality. So, perception is reality when it comes to motivation. We need to understand that much of employee perception is driven by the behavior of managers or supervisors. If managers or supervisors enact a "do as I say, not as I do" mentality, it will directly influence employee perceptions of the fairness of the workplace. We need to be sure that employees have a method of voicing their concerns and some form of due process to question decisions. Having a system of due process allows us to address concerns before employees are motivated to action themselves.

The ability of a person on a diet to avoid eating chocolate, potato chips, and soda is an example of ___________.

Willpower

motivational factors

​The motivational factors are the aspects of the job that increase employee's job satisfaction. These factors tend to be more aspirational in nature. Challenge, opportunity, and employee recognition are all things that have been related to higher job satisfaction. We can tie this back to Maslow and the earlier needs-based theories by seeing that satisfying lower order needs are hygiene factors while the motivating factors are all related to the higher order needs. As a manager or an organization, you want to try to eliminate the dissatisfaction of the hygiene factors and improve the motivational factors as much as possible. The better you are at this, the more motivated employees will be.

basic model of motivation explained

​Using this basic model of motivation, we can see that individuals identify an unmet need or desire in their lives. For some, this may be wanting a better job or more money. This recognition that you don't make enough money or are qualified for a better job creates a psychological tension that results in one of two outcomes. First, it results in motivation to pursue the job or money, or you decide that you are actually fine with your current job or income. When that tension results in motivation, you are then directed towards certain actions or behaviors that are likely to help you reach that goal (better job/more money). The final aspect of the model is to get feedback and evaluate whether or not our actions led to the goal that originally motivated us. Was the need met or not? Then the cycle continues. If it was met, we begin fulfilling another desire. If not, we find a different way to go about filling that desire.

Self-Determination Theory is based on the assumption that employees are essentially driven to behave in

effective and healthy ways

Growth

Growth is connected to self-esteem and self-actualization.

extrinsic reward

A tangible award given to you for accomplishing something. such as money or any other reward we might receive from others

intrinsic reward

An individual personal satisfaction from accomplishing something. For example, I am motivated to learn the guitar because playing for my children makes me feel good, rather than getting paid for my performances (people might actually pay me to not play in public).

Personal power

An individual's need to dominate other people.

Self-determination theory (SDT)

Based on the assumption that employees are essentially driven to "behave in effective and healthy ways." SDT proposes that all individuals have basic innate needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness rather than socially learning these needs.

5. Reinforcement Theory

Based on the idea that you can change people's behavior by using rewards and punishment. Operant conditioning, which is based on the work of B.F. Skinner and Edward Thorndike. From the management perspective, we want to think about how we provide rewards and punishments to motivate certain behaviors. Whether in work or life, there are two basic outcomes that we would like to see after any kind of behavior occurs: (1) We want the behavior to continue happening (2) We want the behavior to stop happening Make sure you are being fair and consistent with rewards and punishments. It needs to be clear what behaviors are being rewarded or punished and explained properly. If there is confusion or unfairness in these methods, you could cause more problems than what you started with.

Interactional justice

Based on the perception that we feel the interaction between employees and managers is fair and equitable. Does the manager treat everyone with respect? Do they yell at certain employees in public, but are more discreet with others? If this is the case, then there may be a lack of interactional justice. Managers should have a consistent pattern of behavior with all employees.

3. Goal-Setting Theory

Based on the work of Edwin Locke and Gary Latham, states that employees are motivated by goals that are specific and challenging yet attainable. This theory proposes that goal-setting motivates people through specific psychological mechanisms. It directs employee behavior toward associated tasks while ignoring unimportant tasks. Goal setting helps us develop strategies to meet our goals, boost persistence, and regulate how much effort we put forth based on how difficult the goal is to attain. This is also where we get the concept of SMART goals. Specific Measurable Attainable Relevant Time-based Goal orientation theory was developed primarily in relation to educational settings, but it does apply to the workplace as well. Instead of focusing on what people are attempting to achieve, this theory looks at why and how people try to achieve a goal and the purposes behind their actions. This theory is based on the idea that individuals have a predisposition toward either performance or mastery.

If one employee is paid more than others for completing the same tasks, which element of organizational justice could the organization be violating?

Distributive justice

Valence

Valence is the value that individuals put on the rewards they are pursuing. The higher the value, the more it is a motivating factor. If you are offered an all-expenses-paid trip to Hawaii, it has greater value than a trip to the middle of nowhere, thus the trip to Hawaii would have higher valence.

According to McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory, the need for ________ is a recognition of the need for fulfilling social relationships.

affiliation

Procedural justice

how decisions are made regarding those allocations of rewards. Do we feel that the process that managers use to reach those decisions are fair?

Distributive justice

how fair employees consider the distribution of rewards. In other words, is everyone paid the same wage, and is that fair given their level of effort, skill, and experience?

What aspect of the expectancy theory is missing from the equation? expectancy x ??? x valence = motivation

instrumentality

Performance orientation

means that individuals are motivated to meet the expectations established by managers or supervisors simply want to produce an outcome and then move on

mastery orientation

motivated by becoming good at, or mastering, the task that is assigned those with a mastery orientation are more likely to be motivated to persist and improve over time while

According to equity theory, what is missing from the equation? (??/my outcomes)/(others' inputs/others' outcomes)

my inputs

needs theories

1. ​Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs 2. ​Alderfer's ERG Theory 3. McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory 4. Deci & Ryan's Self-Determination Theory 5. Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

2. ​Alderfer's ERG Theory

Clayton Alderfer developed a related needs-based theory called ERG theory. ERG stands for existence, relatedness, and growth. We can directly compare Maslow's hierarchy to ERG theory. Existence needs are related to physiological and safety needs and relatedness is associated with belongingness. Growth is connected to self-esteem and self-actualization. The advance that Alderfer offered to Maslow's work was the addition of a frustration-regression component to his theory. Frustration-regression is the idea that if an individual is unable to fulfill a higher-order need, that they will regress and concentrate on an already-met need. So if I find that I am not meeting my relatedness needs by having fulfilling relationships, I might throw myself into work to make more money.

2. Commission

Commission is a system of compensation that gives the salesperson a percentage of the sale's value. The problem with these types of compensation programs is that it only motivates a single behavior. Employees that receive commission are motivated only to make sales, not collaborate with coworkers or focus on excellent customer service.

skill variety

Employees should engage in a variety of tasks at their job (skill variety)

3. McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory

David McClelland proposed an acquired needs theory comprised of achievement, affiliation, and power needs. The need for achievement is a desire to be good at what you do. The need for affiliation is like Maslow's belongingness and Alderfer's relatedness, in that it is a recognition of the need for fulfilling social relationships. The need for power is divided into two different types of power. Personal power is the need to dominate others, while institutional power is the need to have control for more beneficial ends, such as furthering organizational goals. McClelland ignores the lower-order needs such as physiological and safety because they are less important in the work context. He also proposes that all of these needs are not biological in nature, but instead are learned from social and environmental factors. This means that everyone's environment and connections to others will help determine which of these needs actually motivate their actions and behaviors. Some people might have a very low need for power, but be very motivated to pursue social interaction or personal achievement.

2. ​Expectancy Theory

Expectancy theory is based on the idea that people are motivated by how much they want something and how likely they think they are to get that thing. There are three important elements to expectancy theory: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. To effectively use expectancy theory to motivate our employees, we need to pay special attention to the value that they put on the rewards that we are offering, as well as monitoring the level of performance that we require to get those rewards. According to Vroom, expectancy, instrumentality, and valence are multiplied by each other to determine motivation. This means that if any of those elements is missing, then employees will not be motivated. If they don't believe they can perform, they won't try. If they don't believe that their performance will result in the reward, then there's no point, and if they don't value the reward, why put forth any effort.

If I ignore one of my co-workers in an attempt to stop her from asking annoying questions, which form of reinforcement am I implementing?

Extinction

job characteristics model

Identifies five important characteristics that drive three important psychological states to improve motivation. The five characteristics are: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback skill variety, task identity, task significance; affect the first state, which is whether employees feel their work is meaningful or not. The thought behind this theory is that the more we can create positive mental states in these areas for our employees, the more we will see things like higher job satisfaction, better performance, higher levels of motivation, and decreased turnover. As the saying goes, a happy worker is a productive worker.

In Expectancy Theory, what is the thought that if an individual performs well, then they will receive the desired outcome or reward?

Instrumentality

1. Equity Theory

The first of these theories is equity, or justice theory. Equity is the idea of being fair to everyone. Equity theory is based on the idea that we all have a basic desire for fairness in relation to our inputs and outcomes in the workplace when compared with our peers. (my inputs/my outcomes) = (others' inputs/others' outcomes) This theory rests on the assumption that people want fairness in the workplace, and our peers that have similar levels of knowledge, skill, and ability that exert similar effort deserve similar compensation (outcomes) for their efforts (inputs). When this is not the case, we are motivated to change the equation so that it comes back into balance. Equity theory also depends heavily on the concept of cognitive dissonance that was addressed in the organizational behavior chapter. As a reminder, cognitive dissonance is when our attitudes and our behaviors don't match. This dissonance between attitude and action causes an uncomfortable psychological state that we are motivated to try and correct. When we perceive that there is a balance between our inputs and outcomes compared to those of our peers, we are not motivated to change our behavior.

willpower

The ability to control impulses and actions in favor of more commendable behaviors. Research has consistently shown that those who have the greatest success in life tend to have high levels of willpower. The good news is that willpower can be developed. In fact, when people engage in high levels of self-discipline in certain areas of their life, they are more like to exhibit high levels of self-discipline in other areas of their life. When you increase your self-discipline, this good habit transcends multiple areas of your life. However, there's a catch. A person's willpower can become depleted. Giving your employees opportunities to strengthen their willpower will most likely make them more productive employees. It's no wonder why big corporations across the country have recognized the benefits of offering employees opportunities to lead healthy lifestyles. When people do yoga over their lunch breaks, this disciplined practice likely produces benefits on the job. However, managers need to be mindful that employees may eventually experience a breaking point, in which they may not have what it takes to produce high-quality work, simply because they are too overwhelmed. When this happens, managers can help by providing social support—by reaching out to employees to temporarily help them with their workloads, or to reset deadlines, for the sake of giving them the breather they need to get back on track.

Autonomy

The desire to be self-directed. Employees want to feel as though they have some control over the type of work they do and how that work is done.

4. Deci & Ryan's Self-Determination Theory

The work of Deci and Ryan can be compared to McClelland in that they also ignore the importance of lower order needs, but their self-determination theory also has some significant differences. Self-determination theory (SDT) is based on the assumption that employees are essentially driven to "behave in effective and healthy ways." Unlike McClelland, SDT proposes that all individuals have basic innate needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness rather than socially learning these needs.

Summary

There is no one perfect way to motivate employees. The research has consistently shown however that money is not the best motivator, and that instead we should address the higher order psychological needs of our employees.

Punishment

We add something negative following behavior we want to stop from happening again. If you are familiar with cats, you would know that they hate getting wet. So a good punishment for a cat is to spray them with a water bottle whenever they jump on or scratch furniture. The cat doesn't want to keep getting sprayed, so they eventually stop scratching.

According to Daniel Pink in the video above, which of the following is not a factor we should focus on to get away from incentives?

Value