MGT 470: Learning and Transfer of Training

self efficacy

an influence of learning; person's judgment about whether he or she can successfully learn knowledge and skills

goal setting theory

assumes that behavior results from a person's conscious goals and intentions; suggests that learning can be facilitated by providing trainees with specific challenging goals and objectives

four processes involved in learning

attention, retention, motor reproduction, motivational processes

key to effective learning

be competent in each of the four stages

motivational process

behaviors that are reinforced

expectancies

beliefs about the link between trying to perform a a behavior and actually performing well; similar to self-efficacy; suggests that learning is most likely to occur when employees believe that they can learn the content of the program

intellectual skills

concepts and rules, which are critical to solve problems, serve customers, and create products; e.g. manager must know the steps in the performance appraisal process in order to conduct an employee appraisal

motor skills

coordination of physical movements; e.g. telephone repair person must have the coordination and dexterity required to climb ladders and telephone poles

ways to create long term memory

create a concept map to show relationships among ideas; multiple forms of review; teach key words, procedures, sequences, providing visual image

need

deficiency that a person is experiencing at any point in time

adult learning theory

developed out of a need for a specific theory of how adults learn

how goals influence a person's behavior

directing energy and attention, sustaining effort over time, motivating the person to develop strategies for goal attainment

extinction

eliminate a behavior

reinforcement theory

emphasizes that people are motivated to perform or avoid certain behaviors because of past outcomes that have resulted from those behaviors

gratifying

feedback that the learner receives as a result of using learning content

concrete experience

first stage of learning cycle; e.g. work problem

active experimentation

fourth stage of learning cycle; e.g. implementation of the ideas directly to the problem

information processing theory

gives more emphasis to the internal processes that occurs when training content is learned and retained; proposes information or messages taken in by the learner undergo several transformations in the human brain

Purpose of training

help employees learn so they can perform their jobs successfully

spaced practice conditions

individuals given rest intervals within practice sessions; superior to massed practiced in general

massed practice conditions

individuals practice a task continuously without retesting

feedback

information about how well people are meeting the training objectives

learner-learner interaction

interaction between learners, with or without an instructor

learner-instructor interaction

interaction between the leader and the expert (trainer)

effective practice

involve trainee actively

modeling

involves having employees who already have mastered the learning outcomes demonstrate them for trainees

reflection

involves having trainees spend a short amount of time such as fifteen minutes, reviewing and writing about what they learned and how they performed

retrieval

involves identifying learned material in long term memory and using it to influence performance

list of obstacles in the work environment that can inhibit learning and transfer of training

lack of support from peers/managers and transfer of training, factors related to the work itself

table 4.4

learning process, instructional events, forms of instruction

open skills

linked to more general learning principles

two ways individuals engage in metacognition

monitoring controlling

training coordination

one of several aspects of training administration

processes in reinforcement theory

positive, negative

external conditions

refer to processes in the learning environment that facilitate learning

internal conditions

refer to processes within the learner that must be present for learning to occur; processes include how information is registered, stored, and recalled

boosters

refer to retrieval opportunities that can help the learner's brain consider training information as important and help retain it

self management

refers to a person's attempt to control certain aspects of decision making and behaviors

training administration

refers to coordinating activities before, during, and after the program

Error management training

refers to giving trainees opportunities to make errors during training; effective because it provides the opportunity for trainees to engage in metacognition

goal orientation

refers to goals held by a trainee in a learning situation; can include a learning orientation or a performance orientation

COPs/Communities of Practice

refers to groups of employees who work together, learn from each other, and develop a common understanding of how to get work accomplished; learning occurs on the job as a result of social interaction

metacognition

refers to individual control over one's thinking

automization

refers to making performance of a task, recall of knowledge, or demonstration of a skill so automatic that it requires little thought/attention; helps reduce memory demands

overall task complexity

refers to the degree to which a task requires a number of distinct behaviors, the number of choices involved in performing the task, and the degree of uncertainty in performing the task

mental requirements

refers to the degree to which the task requires the person to use or demonstrate physical skills and abilities to perform and complete a task

physical requirements

refers to the degree to which the task requires the person to use or demonstrate physical skills and abilities to perform and complete the task

self regulation

refers to the learner's involvement with the training material and assessing their progress towards learning; especially important for online training courses

far transfer

refers to the trainee's ability to apply learned capabilities to the work environment, even though work environment is not identical to that of the training session

instruction

refers to the trainer's manipulation of the environment in order to help trainees learn

transfer of training

refers to trainees effectively and continually applying what they have learned in training to their jobs

climate for transfer

refers to trainees' perceptions about a wide variety of characteristics of the work environment that facilitate/inhibit the use of trained skills/behavior

elaboration

requires the trainee to relate the training material to other, more familiar knowledge, skills, or behaviors

reflective observation

second stage of learning cycle; e.g. thinking

physical capability

sensory capability

Zenger Miller five key behaviors

state point+purpose, present points to aid understanding, check audience for reactions and understanding, handle reactions from the audience to what was presented, summarize the main point

attention

suggests that persons cannot learn by observation unless they are aware of the important aspects of a model's performance; influenced by characteristics of the model and the learner

lapses

take place when the trainee uses previously learned, less effective capabilities instead of trying to apply the capability emphasized in the training program

pedagogy

the art and science of teaching children; gives the instructor the major responsibility for making decisions about learning content, methos, and evaluation

to be an effective model

the desired behaviors or skills need to be clearly specified and the model should have characteristics similar to the target audience

Learner-content interaction

the learner interacts with the training content

adragogy

the theory of adult learning

key part of learning

trainees commit to memory what they have learned and recall it

behavior modification

training method that is primarily based on reinforcement theory

five learning outcomes

verbal information, cognitive skills, motor skills, intellectual skills, attitudes

how to increase self efficacy

verbal persuasion. logical verification, observation of others (modeling), past accomplishments

three questions after reviewing learning and transfer of training theories

what are the physical + mental processes involved in learning? how does learning and transfer occur? do trainees have different learning styles?

whole practice

all tasks/objectives should be practiced at the same time

part practice

a task/objective should be practiced individually

logical verification

perceiving a relationship between a new task and a task already mastered

Abraham Maslow's and Clayton Alderfer's need theories

physiological needs, relatedness needs, and growth needs

positive reinforcement

pleasurable outcome resulting from a behavior

punishment

presenting an unpleasant outcome after a behavior, leading to a decrease in that behavior

David McClelland's need theory

primarily on needs for achievement, affiliation, and power

theory of identical elements

proposes that transfer of training occurs when what is being learned in the training session is identical to what the trainee has to perform on the job

expectancy

refers to the mental state that the learner bring to the instructional process; includes readiness for training + understanding the purpose of the instruction and the likely benefits that may result from learning and using capabilities on the job

maintenance

refers to the process of trainees continuing to use what they learned over time

objective

refers to the purpose and expected outcome of training activities

pre-practice conditions

1. provide information about the process or strategy that will result in the greatest learning, 2. encourage trainees to develop a strategy (metacognition) to reflect on their own learning process, 3. provide advance organizers, 4. help trainees set challenging mastery or learning goals, 5. create realistic expectations for trainees by communicating what will occur in training, 6. when training employees in teams, communicate performance expectations + clarify the roles + responsibilities of team members

Conditions for learning to occur

1. providing opportunities for trainees to practice and receive feedback, 2. offering meaningful training content, 3. identifying prerequisites that trainees need to complete the program successfully, 4. allowing trainees to learn through observation and experience, 5. ensuring that the work environment (+managers and peers) support learning and use of skills on the job

instrumentality

a belief that performing a given behavior is associated with a particular outcome

search process

a response to the message/stimulus is organized

perception

ability to organize the message from the environment

Semantic encoding

actual coding process of incoming messages

cognitive theory of transfer

based on information processing theory of learning; the likelihood of transfer depends on the trainees' ability to retrieve learned capabilities; suggests that the likelihood of transfer is increased by providing trainees with meaningful material that enhances the chance that they will link what they encounter in the work environment to the learned capability

information processing

begins when a message or stimulus from the environment is received by receptors; message registered in senses + stored in short term memory; search process occurs

generalizing

being able to adapt the learning for use in similar but not identical situations

job similarity

can be used as one measure of the extent to which training in the knowledge and skills required for one job prepares an employee to perform a different job

attitudes

combination of beliefs and feelings that predispose a person to behave a certain way; e.g. cognitive components (beliefs), affective component (feeling), and an intentional component (way a person intends to behave with regard to focus of the attitude)

learning cycle: four stages

concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, active experimentation

overlearning

continuing to practice even if trainees have been able to perform the objective several times

where learning new skills or behavior come from

directly experiencing the consequences of using that behavior or skill; the process of observing others and seeing the consequences of their behavior

social learning theory

emphasizes that people learn by observing other persons (models) whom they believe are credible and knowledgeable; recognizes that behavior that is reinforced or rewarded tends to be repeated

one step in developing effective interpersonal skill training

identify key behaviors that are needed to be successful in a situation

learning strategies

include rehearsal, organizing, and elaboration

motor reproduction

involves trying to figure out the observed behaviors to see if they result in the same reinforcement that the model received

retention

learners have to code the observed behavior and skills in memory in an organized manner so they can recall them for the appropriate situation

benefits of participating in training programs

learning an easier or more interesting way to perform their job (job-related), meeting other employees who can serve as resources when problems occur (personal), or increasing opportunities who can sider new positions in the company (career-related)

transfer of training theory

more likely to occur when the trainee works on tasks during training that are very similar/identical to the work environment

Malcolm Knowles

most frequently addociated with adult learning theory (assumptions found on page 54)

verbal information

names of labels, facts, and bodies of knowledge

verbal persuasion

offering words of encouragement to convince others they can learn

advance organizers

outlines, texts diagrams, and graphs that help trainee organize the information that will be presented and practiced

past accomplishments

refer to allowing employees to build a history of successful accomplish

key behaviors

refer to behaviors that can be used successfully in a wide variety of situations

closed skills

refer to training objectives that are linked to learning specific skills that are to be identically produced by the trainee on their job

practice

refers ti the physical or mental rehearsal of a task, knowledge, and skill to achieve proficiency in performing the task or skill or demonstrating the knowledge; involves having the employee demonstrate the learned capability emphasized in the training objectives under conditions and performance standards specified by the objectives

training context

refers ti the physical, intellectual, and emotional environment in which training occurs

learning

refers to a relatively permanent change in human capabilities that can include knowledge, skills, attitudes, behaviors, and competencies that are not the result of growth processes

performance orientation

refers to learners who focus on task performance and how they compare to others; define success as high performance relative to others, value high ability more than learning, and find that errors and mistakes cause anxiety and want to avoid them

Fidelity

refers to the extent to which the training environment is similar to the work environment

generalization

refers to trainees ability to apply what they have learned to on-the job work problems and situations that are similar but not necessarily identical to those problems and situations encountered in the learning environment

near transfer

refers to trainees' ability to apply learned capabilities exactly to the work situation

cognitive strategies

regulate the processes of learning; relate to learner's decision regarding what information to attend to, how to remember, and how to solve problems

working storage

rehearsal and repetition normally occur, allowing material to be coded for memory; limited by amount of material that can be processed (not more than five messages)

learning orientation

relates to trying to increase ability or competence in a task; people believe that training success is defined as showing improvement and making progress, prefer trainers who are more interested in how trainees are learning than in how they are performing

negative reinforcement

removal of an unpleasant outcome

organizing

requires the learner to find similarities and themes in the training material

rehearsal

simplest learning strategy, focuses on learning through repetition (memorization)

Expectancy theory (p.53)

suggests that a person's behavior is based on three factors: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence

Stimulus Generalization Approach

suggests that the way to understand the transfer of training issue is to construct training so that the most important features or general principles are emphasized

three theorise of transfer of training

theory of identical elements, stimulus generalization approach, cognitive theory of transfer

abstract conceptualization

third stage of learning cycle; e.g. ideas of how to solve problems

TQM

total quality management

valence

value that a person places on an outcome

key part of training

you need learning and transfer of training