MGT304 exam 3

(start ch. 13) video: TED talk- Amy Cuddy power posing

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(start ch. 14) conflict and negotiation (background reading)

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reading: why girls get called bossy (emailed article)

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situational leadership

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status

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traits

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out-groups

managed by formal rules and policies given less attention; fewer rewards outside the leader's communication circle more likely to retaliate against the organization stress from being left out of communication network

authentic leadership theory

authentic leaders know who they are. they know what they believe in and value. and they act on those values and beliefs openly and candidly. the result: people come to have faith in them recent research indicated that authentic leadership, especially when shared among top management team members, created a positive energizing effect that heightened firm performance (see affective events theory in ch. 4)

logrolling

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reading: Cialdini interview- the uses and abuses of influence (HBR aug 2013)

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reading: Galinsky & Kilduff- be seen as a leader (HBR dec 2013)

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reading: from transactional to transformational leadership

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relationship building

stage two getting to know one's contacts and building mutual trust nontask sounding (nemawashi) use an intermediary

distributive game plan

typical game plan I: (competitive) goal: maximize own share of pie typical game: demands decline rapidly, then slowly concessions are reciprocated strategy: be "tough" - make extreme initial offer, do not concede first, argue forcefully for own positions, conceal information, make few concessions, exaggerate their value

trait theory (early & late)

what characteristics make a successful leader? focus on personal qualities and characteristics -the search for personality, social, physical, or intellectual attributes that differentiate leaders from non-leaders goes back to the earliest stages of leadership research early research efforts to isolate leadership traits resulted in a number of dead ends, a review in the late 1960s of 20 different studies identified nearly 80 leadership traits, but only 5 were common to 4 or more of the investigations. by the 1990s, after numerous studies and analyses, about the best we could say was that most leaders "are not like other people" but the particular traits that characterized them varied a great deal from review to review early trait theories: systematic research concerned with leadership first focused on the search for individual characteristics that universally differentiate leaders from non-leaders assumptions: people are born with inherited traits. some traits are particularly suited to leadership. people who make good leaders have the right (or sufficient) combination of traits this research was largely atheoretical the dominant part of this literature was published between 1930 and 1950 early trait theory research resulted in controversial findings: "the great man theory" summarize the conclusions of trait theories of leadership: a breakthrough came when researchers began organizing traits around the big five personality framework (ch. 5) most of the dozens of traits in various leadership reviews fit under one of the big five (ambition and energy are part of extraversion for instance), giving strong support to traits as predictors of leadership a comprehensive review of the leadership literature, when organized around the big five, has found extraversion to be the most important trait of effective leaders, but it is more strongly related to the way leaders emerge than to their effectiveness the trait approach does have something to offer good leaders: like being around people, are able to assert themselves (extraverted), are disciplined and able to keep commitments they make (conscientious), are creative and flexible (open) leaders who have those traits do have an apparent advantage when it comes to leadership, suggesting good leaders do have key traits in common. one reason is that conscientiousness and extraversion are positively related to leaders' self-efficacy, which explained most of the variance in subordinates' ratings of leader performance. people are more likely to follow someone who is confident she's going in the right direction another trait that may indicate effective leadership is emotional intelligence (EI) (ch. 4) advocates of EI argue that without it, a person can have outstanding training, a highly analytical mind, a compelling vision, and an endless supply of terrific ideas, but still not make a great leader. this may be especially true as individuals move up in an organization why is EI so critical to effective leadership? a core component of EI is empathy. empathetic leaders can sense others' needs, listen to what followers say (and don't say), and read the reactions of others. a leader who effectively displays and manages emotions will find it easier to influence the feelings of followers, by both expressing genuine sympathy and enthusiasm for good performance and by using irritation for those who fail to perform conclusions based on the latest findings: contrary to what we believed 20 years ago, and thanks to the big five, we can say that traits can predict leadership traits do a better job predicting the emergence of leaders and the appearance of leadership than actually distinguishing between effective and ineffective leaders. the fact that an individual exhibits the traits and that others consider him or her a leader does not necessarily mean the leader is successful at getting the group to achieve its goals summary of trait theories and behavioral theories- leaders who have certain traits and who display consideration and structuring behaviors do appear to be more effective. future research is needed to integrate these approaches. as important as traits and behaviors are in identifying effective or ineffective leaders, they do not guarantee success (the context matters, too) the early search for a set of universal leadership traits failed. however, recent efforts using the big five personality framework show strong and consistent relationships between leadership and extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness to experience

expectations

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impression management techniques (end ch. 13)

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negotiating styles

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employee-oriented leader

emphasized interpersonal relationships by taking a personal interest in the needs of employees and accepting individual differences among them similar to consideration

power

refers to a capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B, so that B acts in accordance with A's wishes -power may exist but not be used (it is, therefore, a capacity or potential) a person can have power over you only if he or she controls something you desire

ethics in politics

questions to consider: what is the utility of engaging in politicking? how does the utility of engaging in the political behavior balance out any harm (or potential harm) it will do to others? does the political activity conform to standards of equity and justice? immoral people can justify almost any behavior recognize the ability of power to corrupt

trust

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video: youtube- leader corruption (John Antonakis)

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video: youtube- the science of persuasion

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GLOBE studies

the GLOBE study of 18,000 leaders from 825 organizations in 62 countries links a number of elements of transformational leadership with effective leadership, regardless of country -very important because it disputes the contingency view that leadership style needs to adapt to cultural differences -universal elements are vision, foresight, providing encouragement, trustworthiness, dynamism, positiveness, and proactiveness

authentic leadership

what is authentic leadership? authentic leaders: -know who they are -know what they believe in and value -act on those values and beliefs openly and candidly the result: people come to have faith in them recent research indicates that authentic leadership, especially when shared among top management team members, created a positive energizing effect that heightened firm performance (see affective events theory in ch. 4) self-awareness: leaders are aware of strengths and weaknesses relational transparency: leaders disclose true feelings and thoughts clearly internalized moral perspective: leaders act according to internal moral standards balanced processing of information: leaders objectively evaluate related information; fair minded example: martin luther king two antecedents- personal history, trigger events can influence followers through: behave as a role model (authentic followers, gain employees' trust), social exchange with followers (have high quality relationships with followers), social identity process (identify with the leader) how effective is authentic leadership? authentic leadership--> employees' job performance, creativity, OCBs, fewer withdrawal behaviors other benefits? negative influences?

leadership styles: telling

advisable for followers with low readiness. includes providing more instruction and close supervision for R1 (unable or unwilling or insecure) provide specific instructions and closely supervise performance low relationship behavior (supportive behavior) & high task behavior (guidance)

nine power or influence tactics (effectiveness and direction)

research has identified nine distinct influence or power tactics 1. legitimacy- relying on your authority position or saying a request accords with organizational policies or rules 2. rational persuasion- presenting logical arguments and factual evidence to demonstrate a request is reasonable 3. inspirational appeals- developing emotional commitment by appealing to a target's values, needs, hopes, and aspirations 4. consultation- increasing the target's support by involving him or her in deciding how you will accomplish your plan 5. exchange- rewarding the target with benefits or favors in exchange for following a request 6. personal appeals- asking for compliance based on friendship or loyalty 7. ingratiating- using flattery, praise, or friendly behavior prior to making a request 8. pressure- using warnings, repeated demands, and threats 9. coalitions- insisting the aid or support of others to persuade the target to agree some tactics are more effective than others -rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, and consultation are most effective when the audience is highly interested in the outcomes -pressure tends to backfire and is typically the least effective of the nine -using both ingratiation and legitimacy can lessen the negative reactions from appearing to "dictate" outcomes, but only when the audience does not really care about the outcomes of a decision process or the policy is routine you can also increase your chance of success by using more than one type of tactic at the same time or sequentially, as long as your choices are compatible preferred power tactics by influence direction: upward influence- rational persuasion downward influence- rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, pressure, consultation, ingratiation, exchange, legitimacy lateral influence- rational persuasion, consultation, ingratiation, exchange, legitimacy, personal appeals, coalitions rational persuasion is the only tactic effective across organizational levels inspirational appeals work best as a downward influencing tactic with subordinates when pressure works, it's generally downward only personal appeals and coalitions are most effective as lateral influence other factors that affect the effectiveness of influence include the sequencing of tactics, a person's skill in using the tactic, and the organizational culture you are more likely to be effective if you begin with "softer" tactics that rely on personal power, such as personal and inspirational appeals, rational persuasion, and consultation. if these fail, you can move to "harder" tactics, such as exchange, coalitions, and pressure, which emphasize formal power and incur greater costs and risks. interestingly, a single soft tactic is more effective than a single hard tactic, and combining two soft tactics or a soft tactic and rational persuasion is more effective than any single tactic or combination of hard tactics the effectiveness of tactics depends on the audience. people especially likely to comply with soft power tactics tend to be more reflective, are intrinsically motivated, have high self-esteem, and have greater desire for control. in contrast, people especially likely to comply with hard power tactics are more action oriented and extrinsically motivated, and are more focused on getting along with others than with getting their own way people in different countries prefer different power tactics- individualistic countries see power in personalized terms and as a legitimate means of advancing their personal ends (US: prefer rational persuasion), collectivist countries see power in social terms and as a legitimate means of helping other (China: prefer coalitions) a study comparing mangers in the US and china found that US managers prefer rational appeal, whereas chinese mangers preferred coalition tactics. these differences tend to be consistent with the values in these two countries. the reason is consistent with the US preference for direct confrontation and rational persuasion to influence others and resolve differences, while coalition tactics align with the chinese preference for meeting difficult or controversial requests with indirect approaches. research has also shown that individuals in western, individualistic cultures tend to engage in more self-enhancement behaviors (such as self-promotion) than individuals in more collectivist easten cultures

distant charismatic

should demonstrate -persistence -rhetorical skills -courage -an emphasis on social courage (expressing opinions, not conforming to pressure) -ideological orientation both distant and close-up should demonstrate -self-confidence -honesty -authoritativeness -sacrifice

concessions & agreement

stage five well-prepared negotiators are aware of various concession strategies across cultures and have decided ahead of time what their own strategy will be russians and the chinese start bargaining with extreme positions swedes start with what they will accept start bargaining with extremes may be most effective

general dependency postulate

when you possess anything that others require but that you alone control, you make them dependent upon you, and therefore, you gain power over them dependence, then, is inversely proportional to the alternative sources of supply this is why most organizations develop multiple suppliers rather than using just one, it also explains why so many of us aspire to financial independence the greater B's dependency on A, the greater the power A has over B

leadership styles: delegating

most appropriate for followers who are able and willing to take responsibility for what needs to be done for R4 (able and willing or confident) turn over responsibility for decisions and implementation low relationship behavior (supportive behavior) & low task behavior (guidance)

full range of leadership

full range of leadership model x-axis: passive -----> active y-axis: ineffective up to effective diagonal line from bottom left to top right -laissez-faire (the most passive and least effective type) -management by exception (slightly better than laissez-faire) -contingent reward (origin) (can be effective, but will not get employees to go above and beyond the call of duty) -individualized consideration -intellectual stimulation -inspirational motivation -idealized influence first 3- transactional last 4- transformational leaders are generally more effective when they regularly use the four I's. only with these styles are leaders able to motivate followers to perform above expectations and transcend their self-interests for the sake of the organization most leaders have a profile of the full range of leadership that includes both transformational and transactional factors however, those whom we call transformational do much more of the transformational than the transactional transformational leadership augments the effectiveness of transactional leadership; it does not replace transactional leadership the theory currently consists of nine factors: five transformational, three transactional, and one non-transactional factor current empirical work is quite promising and suggests that the FRLT can serve as a baseline for pointing out the systematic treatment of context on leadership and vice versa

vision

how charismatic leaders influence followers -articulating an appealing vision -developing a vision statement -establishing a new set of values -conveying courage and conviction about the vision followers "catch" the emotions their leader is conveying

(start ch. 12) Video: Youtube charismatic vs non-charismatic political leaders & activists

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UhV5RgcNJjE

ethical leadership theory

only recently have ethicists and leadership researchers begun to consider the ethical implications in leadership. ethics touches on leadership at a number of junctures. leaders who treat their followers with fairness, especially by providing honest, frequent, and accurate information, are seen as more effective leaders must be willing to express their ethical beliefs and persuade others to follow their standards. to convey their beliefs, leaders should learn to express their moral convictions in statements that reflect values shared with their organization's members. leaders need to set high ethical standards, demonstrate them through their own behavior, and encourage and reward integrity in others while avoiding abuses of power efforts have been made by scholars to combine ethical and charismatic leadership into an idea of socialized charismatic leadership- leadership that conveys other-centered (not self-centered) values by leaders who model ethical conduct

organizational politics

organizational politics may threaten employees --> decreased job satisfaction, increased anxiety and stress, increased turnover, reduced performance when employees of two agencies in a recent study in nigeria viewed their work environments as political, they reported higher levels of job distress and were less likely to help their co-workers. thus, although developing countries such as nigeria are perhaps more ambiguous and more political environments in which to work, the negative consequences of politics appear to be the same as in the US

integrative game plan (end ch. 14)

typical game plan II: (collaborative) goal: maximize size of pie and joint gain typical game: exchanges of comparative information, non-contentious actions strategy: be "firm but conciliatory" - set realistically high aspirations, share information (develop trust), communicate clearly, create options meeting both parties' interests, if necessary lower aspirations then continue search

in-groups

members similar to leader given greater responsibilities, rewards, attention within leader's inner circle of communication high job satisfaction and organizational commitment, low turnover stress from added responsibilities

charismatic leadership theory

followers attribute heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviors conger and kanungo have argued that if leaders use behaviors such as vision articulation, environmental sensitivity, and unconventional behavior, rather than maintaining the status quo, followers will tend to attribute charismatic leadership to them. such leaders are also seen as behaving quite differently from those labeled "non charismatic" charismatic leadership theory was proposed by Robert House, stating that followers make attributes of heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviors: 1. vision and articulation: has a vision- expressed as an idealized goal- that proposes a future better than the status quo; and is able to clarify the importance of the vision in terms that are understandable to others 2. personal risk: willing to take on high personal risk, incur high costs, and engage in self-sacrifice to achieve the vision 3. sensitivity to follower needs: perceptive of others' abilities and responsive to their needs and feelings 4. unconventional behavior: engaged in behaviors that are perceived as novel and counter to norms research on charismatic and transformational leadership has made major contributions to our understand of leadership effectiveness

leadership styles: selling

for R2 (unable but willing or confident) explain decisions and provide opportunity for clarification high relationship behavior (supportive behavior) & high task behavior (guidance)

leadership styles: participating

for R3 (able but unwilling or insecure) share ideas and facilitate in decision making high relationship behavior (supportive behavior) & low task behavior (guidance)

formal power bases (3)

formal power is based on an individual's position in an organization *coercive power- depends on fear of negative results. it rests on the application, or the threat of application, of physical sanctions such as the infliction of pain, the generation of frustration through restriction of movement, or the controlling by force of basic physiological or safety needs. at the organizational level, A has coercive power over B if A can dismiss, suspend, or demote B, assuming that B values his job. similarly, if A can assign B work activities that B finds unpleasant or treat B in a manner that B finds embarrassing, A possesses coercive power over B (likely reaction- resistance) *reward power- the opposite of coercive power. people comply because doing so produces positive benefits; therefore, one who can distribute rewards that others view as valuable will have power over those others. these rewards can be either financial- such as controlling pay rates, raises, and bonuses- or non financial, including recognition, promotions, interesting work assignments, friendly colleagues, and preferred work shifts or sales territories (likely reaction- compliance) *legitimate power- shown in formal groups and organizations through one's structural position. it represents the power a person receives as a result of his or her position in the formal hierarchy. it is broader than the power to coerce and reward. it included acceptance of the authority of a position by members of an organization (likely reaction- compliance) which bases of power are most effective? -personal sources are most effective. both expert and referent power are positively related to employees' satisfaction with supervision, their organizational commitment, and their performance, whereas reward and legitimate power seem to be unrelated to these outcomes. coercive power usually backfires

5 bases of power (and their effects)

formal power: coercive power reward power legitimate power personal power: expert power referent power personal sources are most effective both expert and referent power are positively related to employees' satisfaction with supervision, their organization commitment, and their performance, whereas reward and legitimate power seem to be unrelated to these outcomes coercive power usually backfires

implications for managers- leadership (ch. 12)

-for management positions, hire candidates who exhibit transformational leadership qualities and who have demonstrated vision and charisma -tests and interviews can help you identify people with leadership qualities -hire candidates whom you believe are ethical and trustworthy for management roles and train current managers in your organization's ethical standards in order to increase leadership effectiveness -seek to develop trusting relationships with followers because, as organizations have become less stable and predictable, strong bonds of trust are replacing bureaucratic rules in defining expectations and relationships -consider investing in leadership training such as formal courses, workshops, rotating job responsibilities, coaching, and mentoring

management

-not all leaders are managers, nor are all managers leaders strong leadership and strong management are needed for optimal effectiveness managers: formulate detailed plans, create efficient organizational structures, oversee day-to-day operations

activity: negotiation simulation

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direction of influence

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intercultural negotiations

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leader-member exchange

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negotiation notes by Chua

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networking

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power posing

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priming for power (how can we do this cognitively?)

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reading: Liu, L.A., Chua, C.H. & Stahl, G.L. 2010 quality of communication experience: definition, measurement, and implications for intercultural negotiations. journal of applied psychology, 95(3): 469-487

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quality of communication experience (QCE)

1. clarity (refers to the cognitive aspect of the communication experience. strive for clarity in communication. check for shared definition and understanding of the situation, clarify terms and meanings, use active listening, express your own ideas clearly) 2. responsiveness (reflects the behavioral aspect of the communication experience. be responsive to others' overtures. respond to questions and request quickly during the negotiation, reciprocate and adapt to the counterpart's behavioral patterns, norms, and expectations, engage in trade-offs with counterpart, express empathy with the emotions expressed by counterpart and respond to concerns) 3. comfort (experienced by communicators reflects the affective aspect. enhance the comfort level of the negotiators. friendly and non-contentious atmosphere and interaction) QCE is lower in intercultural than in same-cultural negotiations higher QCE -> higher economic gains and higher satisfaction with the negotiation beneficial effects of higher QCE on negotiation outcomes are more pronounced in intercultural than same-cultural negotiation it is possible for intercultural negotiators to achieve not only high individual and joint economic gains, but to even surpass those of same-culture negotiators when QCE is sufficiently high it is important to remember to manage the QCE when negotiating across cultures

implications for managers- power politics (ch. 13)

An effective manager accepts the political nature of organizations. Some people are significantly more politically astute than others, meaning that they are aware of the underlying politics and can manage impressions. Those who are good at playing politics can be expected to get higher performance evaluations and, hence, larger salary increases and more promotions than the politically naïve or inept. The politically astute are also likely to exhibit higher job satisfaction and be better able to neutralize job stressors. Few employees relish being powerless in their job and organization. People respond differently to the various power bases. Expert and referent power are derived from an individual's personal qualities. In contrast, coercion, reward, and legitimate power are essentially organizationally derived. Competence especially appears to offer wide appeal, and its use as a power base results in high performance by group members. If you want to get things done in a group or an organization, it helps to have power. As a manager who wants to maximize your power, you will want to increase others' dependence on you. You will not be alone in attempting to build your power bases. Try to avoid putting others in a position where they feel they have no power. By assessing behavior in a political framework, you can better predict the actions of others and use that information to formulate political strategies that will gain advantages for you and your work unit. Employees who have poor political skills or are unwilling to play the politics game generally relate perceived organizational politics to lower job satisfaction and self-reported performance, increased anxiety, and higher turnover. Help your employees understand the importance of becoming politically savvy.

BATNA

Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement = an alternative way to satisfy a set of interests why BATNAs matter? a good BATNA strengthens your negotiation power BATNAs tell you when you accept and when to reject an agreement: when a proposal is better than your BATNA- accept it! when a proposal is worse than your BATNA- reject it! how to determine your BATNA?-develop a list of possible alternative actions to negotiation, convert the more promising ideas into practical actions, select the best option attempt to determine their BATNA- follow the same steps as for determining your own BATNA, knowing your BATNA and theirs tells you the strength of your own position only reveal your BATNA if it's better! revealing a weak BATNA weakens your position revealing a strong BATNA strengthens your position

objective focus

a good objective is a goal this is: concrete, substantive measurable and quantified (you will know when you've reached it) corresponds with one or more underlying interests expressed in terms of counterpart's resources it may be high or low, extreme or modest suggestion: set the bar high (but realistic, not extreme) objectives- 1. motivate you to perform better (results) 2. provide instant measure during active negotiating 3. protect you from making too many concessions (and limit counterpart's flexibility) but easily lead to competitive, positional bargaining and to atomizing rather than bundling the issues

political behavior

activities that are not required as part of one's formal role in the organization, but that influence the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization -outside of one's specified job requirements -encompasses efforts to influence decision making goals, criteria, or processes -includes such behaviors as withholding information, whistle blowing, spreading rumors, and leaking confidential information most managerial decisions take place in the large and ambiguous middle ground of organization life. because most decisions have to be made in a climate of ambiguity, people within organizations will use whatever influence they can to taint the facts to support their goals and interests. these activities we call politicking. it is possible for an organization to be politics free, if all members of that organization hold the same goals and interests; however, for most of us, that is not the case factors that influence political behavior individual factors (high self-monitors (more sensitive to social cues & more likely to be skilled in political behavior than the low self-monitor), internal locus of control (more prone to take a proactive stance and attempt to manipulate situations in their favor), high mach personality (comfortable using politics as a means to further his self-interest), organizational investment, perceived job alternatives, expectations of success) & organizational factors ((probably more a function of this than individual difference variables) reallocation of resources, promotion opportunities, low trust, role ambiguity, unclear performance evaluation system, zero-sum reward practices, democratic decision making, high performance pressures, self-serving senior managers) --> political behavior (low -----> high) --> favorable outcomes (rewards, averted punishments) promotion decision have consistently been found to be one of the most political in organizations

contingency theory (Hersey and Blanchard's situational leadership theory)

although LPC theory is the most researched contingency theory, three others deserve mention situational leadership theory (SLT) is a contingency theory that focuses on the followers -successful leadership is achieved by selecting the right leadership style, which is contingent on the level of the followers' readiness the term readiness refers to "the extent to which people have the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task" a leader should choose one of four behaviors depending on the follower readiness. if followers are unable and unwilling to do a task, the leader needs to give clear and specific directions; if they are unable but willing, the leader needs to display high task orientation to compensate for followers' lack of ability and high relationship orientation to get them to "buy into" the leader's desires. conversely, if followers are able but unwilling, the leader needs to use a supportive and participative style. if they are both able and willing, the leader doesn't need to do much SLT has intuitive appeal. yet, research efforts to test and support the theory have generally been disappointing situational leadership theory -hersey and blanchard's theory -posits that there is no one best way to lead -focus is on the situational contingency of maturity, or "readiness" of followers --readiness= the extent to which people have the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task --4 categories of "readiness" hersey-blanchard situational leadership model <-R4--R3-R2--R1-> high: R4- able and willing or confident moderate: R3- able but unwilling or insecure, R2- unable but willing or confident low: R1- unable and unwilling or insecure R4 & R3- follower directed R2 & R1- leader directed the model requires the leader to diagnose the demands of the situation implement the response that is most effective in the situation a "telling" style is advisable for followers with low readiness. includes providing more instruction and close supervision as readiness increases, leaders should move to a 'selling' style, 'participating', and 'delegating' style delegating is most appropriate for followers who are able and willing to take responsibility for what needs to be done delegating- for able and willing or confident participating- for able but unwilling or insecure selling- for unable but willing or confident telling- for unable or unwilling or insecure SLT has an intuitive appeal. yet, research efforts to test and support the theory have generally been disappointing most of the contingency theories lack empirical support! -some parts of some models are supported, but not whole models -other contingency theories (e.g. Fiedler) are complicated and difficult for practitioners to use by considering the situation in which the leader operates, contingency theories promised to improve on the behavioral approach, but only LPC theory has fared well in leadership research

power corruption

does power corrupt? evidence suggests that power leads people to place their own interests ahead of others objectify others (see them as tools) powerful people react, especially negatively, to any threats to their competence (e.g. denigrate others, speak badly about them) power leads to overconfident decision making power doesn't affect everyone in the same way, and there are even positive effects of power the toxic effects of power depend on one's personality. research suggests that if we have an anxious personality, power does not corrupt us because we are less likely to think that using power benefits us. second, the coercive effect of power can be contained by organizational systems. one study found, for example, that while power made people behave in a self-serving manner, when accountability of this behavior was initiated, the self-serving behavior stopped those most likely to abuse power are those who are low in status and gain power. why? it appears that having low status is threatening, and this fear is used in negative ways if power is given there are factors that can ameliorate the negative effects of power. but there also appear to be general positive effects. power can energize people and motivate them to achieve goals (i.e. approach motivation). it also can enhance people's motivation to help others, at least for certain people. it is not so much that power corrupts as it reveals. for those with strong moral identities, power actually enhanced their moral awareness

production-oriented leader

emphasized the technical or task aspects of the job, focusing on accomplishing the group's tasks similar to initiating structure

ethical leadership

ethics touches on leadership at a number of junctures efforts have been made to combine ethical and charismatic leadership into an idea of socialized charismatic leadership-leadership that conveys other-centered values by leaders who model ethical conduct leaders who treat their followers with fairness, especially by providing honest, frequent, and accurate information, are seen as more effective the demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationships, and the promotion of such conduct to followers through two-way communication, reinforcement, and decision-making moral person- integrity, honest moral manager- transactional, use communication and a reward system to guide ethical behaviors ethical leaders can influence followers through: behave as a role model (increase employees' ethical behaviors, gain employees' trust), social exchange with followers (two-way communication and reward system) (have high quality relationships with followers), social identity process (identify with the leader, identify with the organization, facilitate cooperation with coworkers) how effective is ethical leadership? ethical leadership--> employees' unit ethical behaviors, job satisfaction, willingness to report problems, high performance other benefits? negative influences?

LMX theory

leader-member exchange theory the theories we've covered to this point assume leaders use a fairly homogeneous style with everyone in their work unit BUT- as one leadership scholar noted, "leaders do not exist in a vacuum"; leadership is a symbiotic relationship between leaders and followers most early leadership theories did not consider how a leader's behavior varies cross individual subordinates LMX theory describes how leaders develop different quality exchange relationships over time with various subordinates quality of exchange relationship is assumed to involve things such as: mutual trust, respect, affection, support, loyalty higher LMX quality is associated with increased subordinate satisfaction, commitment, and performance different relationships with "in group" and "out group" an LMX scale assesses the degree to which leaders and followers have mutual respect for one another's capabilities, feel a deepening sense of mutual trust, and have a strong sense of obligation to one another. taken together, these dimensions tend to influence the extent to which followers will be a part of the leader's "in-group" or "out-group" the LMX theory argues that because of time pressures, leaders establish a special relationship with a small group of their followers (exhibit 12-2). these individuals make up the in-group- they are trusted, get a disproportionate amount of the leader's attention, and are more likely to receive special privileges. the theory proposes that early in the history of the interaction between a leader and a given follower, the leader implicitly categorizes the follower as an "in" or an "out" and that relationship is relatively stable over time. the leaders does the choosing on the basis of the follower's characteristics research to test LMX theory has been generally supportive, with substantive evidence that leaders do differentiate among followers. these disparities are far from random; and followers with in-group status will have higher performance ratings, engage in more helping or "citizenship" behaviors at work, and report greater satisfaction with their superior research to test this theory has also been conducted in different cultures, including Portugal and turkey (exhibit 12-2) leader---- test and high interactions---> in-group (subordinates A, B, and C) in-group<-----> leader (personal compatibility, subordinate competence, and/or extraverted personality) leader---- formal relations---> out-group (subordinates D, E, and F) Dr. D loves LMX!

power versus leadership

leaders use power as a means of attaining group goals goal compatibility -power does not require goal compatibility, merely dependence (in contrast, leadership requires some congruence between the goals of the leader and those being led) the direction of influence -leadership focuses on the downward influence on one's followers leadership research emphasizes style the research on power focuses on tactics for gaining compliance. it goes beyond the individual as the exerciser of power, because groups as well as individuals can use power to control other individuals or groups

charismatic leaders

leaders who by force of their personal abilities, are capable of having a profound and extraordinary effect on followers charisma- means gift in greek charismatic leaders use referent power characteristics of charismatic leaders include: high need for power, high feelings of self-efficacy, conviction in the moral rightness of their beliefs to influence others, charismatic leaders depend on: 1. the content of what they say (verbal) 2. the delivery mode- a. body gestures b. facial expressions c. animated voice tone Q- can you train someone to be more charismatic? are charismatic leaders born or made? some individuals are born with charismatic traits, others are trained to exhibit charismatic behaviors (most experts believe individuals can also be trained to exhibit charismatic behaviors) -develop the aura of charisma by maintaining an optimistic view, using passion as a catalyst for generating enthusiasm, and communicating with the whole body, not just with words -create a bond that inspired others to follower -bring out the potential in followers by tapping into their emotions how charismatic leaders influence followers- articulating an appealing vision, developing a vision statement, establishing a new set of values, conveying courage and conviction about the vision followers "catch" the emotions their leader is conveying does effective charismatic leadership depend on the situation? -people are especially receptive when they sense a crisis, when they are under stress, or when they fear for their lives charisma appears to be most appropriate when the follower's task has an ideological component or when the environment involves a high degree of stress and uncertainty. people are especially receptive when they sense a crisis, when they are under stress, or when they fear for their lives the dark side of charismatic leadership -many leaders have allowed their personal goals to override the goals of the organization. individuals who are narcissistic are also higher in some behaviors associated with charismatic leadership -some charismatic leaders are too successful at convincing followers to pursue a vision that can be disastrous some charismatic leaders don't necessarily act in the best interest of their companies, allowing their personal goals to override the goals of the organization. the results at companies such as Enron, Tyco, world com, and health south are examples of leaders who recklessly used organizational resources for their personal benefit and executives who violated laws and ethical boundaries to inflate stock prices, allowing leaders to cash in millions of dollars in stock options it's little wonder research has shown that individuals who are narcissistic are also higher in some behaviors associated with charismatic leadership. it's not that charismatic leadership isn't effective; overall, it is. but a charismatic leader isn't always the answer. success depends, to some extent, on the situation and on the leader's vision. some charismatic leaders- hitler, for example- are all too successful at convincing their followers to pursue a vision that can be disastrous the dark side of charismatic leadership: self-serving charismatic leadership- narcissism

transactional leaders

leaders who guide or motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements contingent reward: contracts exchange of rewards for effort, promises rewards for good performance, recognizes accomplishments management by exception (active): watches and searches for deviations from rules and standards, takes correct action management by exception (passive): intervenes only if standards are not met laissez-faire: abdicates responsibilities, avoids making decisions a stream of research has focuses on differentiating between this and transformational leaders the ohio state studies, fiedler's model, path-goal theory, and the leader participation model are all concerned with transactional leaders. these kinds of leaders guide or motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirement transformational leadership builds on transactional leadership and produces levels of follower effort and performance beyond what transactional leadership alone can do. transactional and transformational leadership complement each other; they aren't opposing approaches to getting things done. the best leaders are transactional and transformational

transformational leadership (4 components)

leaders who inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests and who are capable of having a profound and extraordinary effect on followers idealized influence: provides vision and sense of mission, instills pride, gains respect and trust inspirational motivation: communicates high expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts, expresses important purposes in simple ways intellectual stimulation: promotes intelligence, rationality, and careful problem solving individualized consideration: gives personal attention, treats each employee individually, coaches, advises transformational leaders inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests for the good of the organization. they change followers' awareness of issues by helping them to look at old problems in new ways; and they are able to excite, arouse, and inspire followers to put out extra effort to achieve group goals transformational leadership builds on transactional leadership and produces levels of follower effort and performance beyond what transactional leadership alone can do. transactional and transformational leadership complement each other; they aren't opposing approaches to getting things done. the best leaders are transactional and transformational leaders are generally more effective when they regularly use the four I's -individualized consideration -intellectual stimulation -inspirational motivation -idealized influence how transformational leadership works- creativity (theirs and others), decentralization of responsibility, propensity to take risks, compensation is geared toward long-term results, greater agreement among top managers about the organization's goals, increase follower self-efficacy giving the group a "can do" spirit the dark side of transformational leadership: pseudo-transformational leadership- exploitation and deception of followers

political skills

people differ in terms of their political skill- their ability to influence others to enhance their own objectives -the politically skilled are more effective users of all influence tactics political skill also appears more effective when the stakes are high cultures within organizations differ markedly: some are warm, relaxed, and supportive; others are formal and conservative. some cultures encourage participation and consultation, some encourage reason, and still others rely on pressure -people who fit the culture of the organization tend to obtain more influence specifically, extraverts tend to be more influential in team-oriented organizations, and highly conscientious people are more influential in organizations that value working alone on technical tasks. part of the reason people who fit the culture are influential is that they are able to perform especially well in the domains deemed most important for success. in other words, they are influential because they are competent. so the organization itself will influence which subset of power tactics is viewed as acceptable for use

the negotiation process (5 steps)

preparation -> relationship building -> exchange of task-related information -> persuasion -> concessions and agreement

dependence

probably the most important aspect of power is that it is a function of dependence (the greater B's dependence on A, the greater is A's power in the relationship. dependence, in turn, is based on alternatives that B perceives and the importance that B places on the alternatives that A controls) a person can have power over you only if he or she controls something you desire what creates dependence? -importance (to create dependence, the things you control must be perceived as being important. organizations actively seek to avoid uncertainty. therefore, those individuals or groups who can absorb an organization's uncertainty will be perceived as controlling as important resource), scarcity (a resource also needs to be perceived as scare to create dependence. the scarcity-dependency relationship can further be seen in the power of occupational categories. individuals in occupations in which the supply of personnel is low relative to demand can negotiate compensation and benefit packages far more attractive than can those in occupations where there is an abundance of candidates), non substitutability (means the fewer viable substitutes for a resource, the more power control that resource provides)

follower readiness

readiness= the extent to which people have the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task hersey-blanchard situational leadership model <-R4--R3-R2--R1-> high: R4- able and willing or confident moderate: R3- able but unwilling or insecure, R2- unable but willing or confident low: R1- unable and unwilling or insecure R4 & R3- follower directed R2 & R1- leader directed

servant leadership theory (end ch. 12)

scholars have recently considered ethical leadership from a new angle by examining servant leadership. because servant leadership focuses on serving the needs of others, research has focused on its outcomes for the well-being of followers they don't use power to achieve ends; they emphasize persuasion. characteristic behaviors include listening, empathizing, persuading, accepting stewardship, and actively developing followers' potential the relationship between servant leadership and follower OCB appears to be stronger when followers are focused on being dutiful and responsible. second, servant leadership increases team potency (a belief that one's team has above-average skills and abilities), which in turn leads to higher levels of group performance. third, a study with a nationally representative sample found higher levels of citizenship associated with a focus on growth and advancement, which in turn was associated with higher levels of creative performance servant leadership may be more prevalent and more effective in certain cultures. when asked to draw images of leaders, U.S. subjects tend to draw them in front of the group, giving orders to followers. singaporeans tend to draw leaders at the back of the group, acting more to gather a group's opinions together and then unify them from the rear. this suggests the eat asian prototype is more like a servant leader, which might mean servant leadership is more effective in these cultures

servant leadership

servant leaders go beyond their self-interest and instead focus on opportunities to help followers grow and develop- emphasize persuasion characteristic behaviors include listening, empathizing, persuading, accepting stewardship, and actively developing followers' potential awareness, building community, conceptualization, commitment to the growth of people, empathy, foresight, healing, listening, persuasion, stewardship (ex. mother teresa) two antecedents- the need to serve, the motivation to lead can influence followers through- positive psychological climate (followers' trust to the leader, followers' perceived fairness of the leader), social exchange with followers (followers' positive affect, followers' respect, followers' loyalty) how effective is servant leadership? servant leadership --> employees' empowerment, engagement, OCBs, corporate social responsibility, team effectiveness other benefits? negative influences?

close-up charismatic

should demonstrate -sociability -expertise -humor -dynamism, activity -physical appearance -intelligence -high standards -originality both distant and close-up should demonstrate -self-confidence -honesty -authoritativeness -sacrifice

nonverbal negotiating behaviors

silent periods- number of silent periods greater than 10 seconds, per 30 minutes (3.5 Americans, 0 brazilians, 5.5 japanese) conversational overlaps- number of overlaps per 10 minutes (10.3 americans, 28.6 brazilians, 12.6 japanese) facial gazing- minutes of gazing per 10 minutes (3.3 americans, 5.2 brazilians, 1.3 japanese) touching- not including handshaking, per 30 minutes (0 americans, 4.7 brazilians, 0 japanese)

persuasion

stage four dirty tricks are in the eye of the beholder -false information -ambiguous authority -uncomfortable rooms -rudeness, threats -calculated delays

preparation (4 tasks)

stage one develop profiles of counterparts- negotiating styles and expectations find out likely demands, team composition, and counterpart authority, etc. understand one's own negotiating style and how it likely differs from others' gear one's own strategy to the other side choose a negotiation site four important tasks that negotiators need to do when preparing for negotiation 1. identify interests & priorities 2. identify resources & capabilities 3. identify objectives 4. identify your BATNA

exchanging task-related information

stage three each side typically makes a presentation and states its position. then, there is a question-and-answer period, and alternatives are discussed cultural differences remain an issue- mexicans can be suspicious and indirect, the french enjoy debate and conflict, the chinese ask many questions, but provide ambiguous information in return show understanding of the other viewpoint

leadership

the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or set of goals the source of this influence may be formal, such as that provided by managerial rank in an organization -not all leaders are managers, nor are all managers leaders just because an organization provides its managers with certain formal rights is no assurance they will lead effectively non sanctioned leadership- the ability to influence that arises outside the formal structure of the organization- is often as important or more important than formal influence in other words, leaders can emerge from within a group as well as by formal appointment strong leadership and strong management are needed for optimal effectiveness leaders: challenge the status quo, create visions of the future, inspire organizational members to want to achieve the visions selecting leaders: identifying effective leaders- review specific requirements for the position (such as knowledge, skills, and abilities that are needed to do the job effectively), consider personality tests to identify leadership traits (extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness to experience), situation-specific experience is relevant. plan for a change in leadership candidates with high emotional intelligence should have an advantage, especially in situations requiring transformational leadership. experience is a poor predictor of leader effectiveness, but situation-specific experience is relevant training leaders- leadership training is likely to be more successful with high self-monitors, teach implementation skills, teach trust building, mentoring, and situational-analysis, behavioral training through modeling exercises can increase an individual's charismatic leadership qualities, review leadership after key organizational events, train in transformational leadership skills (that have bottom-line results) leadership plays a central part in understanding group behavior, because it's the leader who usually directs us toward our goals. knowing what makes a good leader should thus be valuable in improving group performance

initiating structure

the extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure his role and those of employees in the search for goal attainment it includes behavior that attempts to organize work, work relationships, and goals. a leader high in initiating structure is someone who "assigns group members to particular tasks", "expects workers to maintain definite standards of performance", and "emphasizes the meeting of deadlines" similar to production-oriented leadership

consideration

the extent to which a person's job relationships are characterized by mutual trust, respect for employees' ideas, and regard for their feelings a leader high in consideration helps employees with personal problems, is friendly and approachable, treats all employees as equals, and expresses appreciation and support similar to employee-oriented leadership

impression management (IM)

the process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them -mostly high self-monitors (low self-monitors tend to present images of themselves that are consistent with their personalities, regardless of the beneficial or detrimental effects on them. high self-monitors are good at reading situations and molding their appearances and behavior to fit each situation) -impressions people convey are not necessarily false- they might truly believe them -intentional misrepresentation may have a high cost studies show the effectiveness of IM depends on the situation, such as job interviews and performance evaluations techniques: ingratiation- conformity (agreeing), favors (being nice). defensive- excuses (minimize severity), apologies (get pardon). self-focused- self-promotion (highlight one's strengths), enhancement (exaggerate value). assertive- flattery (compliments), exemplification (doing more than you need to) most effective? ingratiation usually always works consider the situation: self-promotion= more important for interviews. ingratiation= more important for performance appraisals

personal power bases (2)

this group comes from an individual's unique characteristics *referent power- source is identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal traits. if I admire and identify with you, you can exercise power over me because I want to please you. develops out of admiration of another and a desire to be like that person; it is a lot like charisma. it also explains why celebrities are paid millions of dollars to endorse products in commercials. some people who are not in formal leadership positions nonetheless have referent power and exert influence over others because of their charismatic dynamism, like ability, and emotional effects on us (likely reaction- commitment) *expert power- influence wielded as a result of expertise, special skill, or knowledge. as jobs become more specialized, we become increasingly dependent on experts to achieve goals (likely reaction- commitment) which bases of power are most effective? -personal sources are most effective. both expert and referent power are positively related to employees' satisfaction with supervision, their organizational commitment, and their performance, whereas reward and legitimate power seem to be unrelated to these outcomes. coercive power usually backfires

transformational leadership theory

transformational leaders inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests for the good of the organization. they change followers' awareness of issues by helping them to look at old problems in new ways; and they are able to excite, arouse, and inspire followers to put out extra effort to achieve group goals transformational leadership builds on transactional leadership and produces levels of follower effort and performance beyond what transactional leadership alone can do. transactional and transformational leadership complement each other; they aren't opposing approaches to getting things done. the best leaders are transactional and transformational transformational leaders are more effective because they are more creative, but also because they encourage those who follow them to be creative, too. companies with transformational leaders have greater decentralization of responsibility, mangers have more propensity to take risks, and compensation plans are geared toward long-term results- all of which facilitate corporate entrepreneurship one study of information technology workers in china found empowering leadership behavior led to feelings of positive personal control among workers, which increased their creativity at work companies with transformational leaders also show greater agreement among top managers about the organization's goals, which yields superior organizational performance the israeli military has seen similar results, showing that transformational leaders improve performance by building consensus among group members. transformational leaders are able to increase follower self-efficacy, giving the group a "can do" spirit evaluation of transformational leadership- transformational leadership has been supported at diverse job levels and occupations (school principals, teachers, marine commanders, ministers, presidents of MBA associations, military cadets, union shop stewards, sales reps), but isn't equally effective in all situations- it has a greater impact on the bottom line in smaller, privately held firms than in more complex organizations. the personal nature of transformational leadership may be most effective when leaders can directly interact with the workforce and make decisions than when they report to an external board of directors or deal with a complex bureaucratic structure. another study showered transformational leaders were more effective in improving group potency in teams higher in power distance and collectivism. other recent research using a sample of employees both in china and the united states found that transformational leadership had a more positive relationship with perceived procedural justice among individuals who were lower in power-distance orientation, which in turn related to a stronger transformational leadership-citizenship behavior relationship among those higher in power distance another study looking at employee creativity and transformational leadership more directly found employees with transformational leaders had more confidence in their ability to be creative at work and higher levels of creative performance a review of 117 studies testing transformational leadership found it was related to higher levels of individual follower performance, team performance, and organizational performance research on charismatic and transformational leadership has made major contributions to our understanding of leadership effectiveness

negotiator's interest

what a negotiator (party) really cares about a basic concern, an underlying need -for a buyer, staying within budget (job promotion, etc.) -for a consultant, client satisfaction (steady fees, golden reputation, etc.) not just: what does A want? but: why does A want it? what will getting it do for A? it is also very important to know the priorities of the interests types: tangible (ex. improving profitability, customer satisfaction) intangible (e.g. process, relationship, principles) (ex. trust, fair play) to negotiate successfully, you not only have to know what the other party wants, but also what you want benefits of knowing about interests and priorities 1. opens up a range of options 2. increases the probability of finding common group between parties (facilitates agreement) 3. leads to greater satisfaction with negotiation process and outcome (real concerns are met)

behavioral theory

what behaviors make a successful leaders? the failures of early trait studies led researchers in the late 1940s through the 1960s to wonder whether there was something unique in the way effective leaders behave. behavioral theories examine what leaders actually do while trait theories provides a basis for selecting the right people for leadership, behavioral theories of leadership implied we could train people to be leaders assumptions: leaders can be made, rather than are born. successful leadership is based in definable, learnable behavior this is easier to teach and learn, opens the floodgates to leadership development imply we can train people to be leaders the most comprehensive theories resulted from the ohio state studies in the late 1940s, which sought to identify independent dimensions of leader behavior. beginning with more than a thousand dimensions, the studies narrowed the list to two that substantially accounted for most of the leadership behavior described by employees: -initiating structure: the extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure his role and those of employees in the search for goal attainment -consideration: the extent to which a person's job relationships are characterized by mutual trust, respect for employees' ideas, and regard for their feelings leadership studies at the university of michigan survey research center had similar objectives: to locate behavioral characteristics of leaders that appeared related to performance effectiveness. also identified two behavioral types: -the employee-oriented leader emphasized interpersonal relationships by taking a personal interest in the needs of employees and accepting individual differences among them. similar to consideration -the production-oriented leader emphasized the technical or task aspects of the job, focusing on accomplished the group's tasks. similar to initiating structure summary of trait theories and behavioral theories- leaders who have certain traits and who display consideration and structuring behaviors do appear to be more effective. future research is needed to integrate these approaches. as important as traits and behaviors are in identifying effective or ineffective leaders, they do not guarantee success (the context matters, too) the behavioral approach's major contribution was narrowing leadership into task-oriented (initiating structure) and people-oriented (consideration) styles

negotiation

why? to advance one's "interests" to obtain from someone else what you cannot provide for yourself as well or at all the process of discussion by which two or more parties aim for mutually acceptable agreement negotiation is not just a matter of what a negotiator wants, but also what a negotiator has to offer better not to negotiate when... you're ill-prepared, you have nothing to offer (or negotiate with), the counterpart is not committed to negotiation, the counterpart does not have authority at least to make a preliminary decision