mid term study guide

chemical formula for glycolysis

C6H12O6 + 2ATP + 2NAD+ 4ATP + 4Pi ----> 2 ADP + 2NAD+ 4 ATP + Pyruvate acid

what is the balanced chemical equaion for glycolysis

C6H12O6 + 2ATP + 4ADP + 4Pi + 2 NAD+ ---> pyruvate + 4 ATP + 2 NADH

balanced chemical equation for cellular respiration

C6H12O6 + 6O2 ----> 34-38 ATP + 6CO2 + 6H2O

Balanced equation of cellular respiration

C6H12O6 -----> 34-36 ATP +6CO2 + 6H2O

what is the balanced chemical equation for photosyntheisis

CO2 + 6H2O ------LIGHT----->>>>> C6H12O6 + 6O2

what is the reactant and what are the products of calvin cycle

CO2 reactant C6H12O6 and

define plasmids

Circular DNA found within bacteria

Extrons

DNAsequence that codes for proteins

When is the trp operon turned on

In the absence of triptophan because the operon is responsible for producing triptophan therefore when there is a lack of it then it knows to turn on - when tryptophan is present, it bonds to the active repressor causing a confomational change that makes the active repressor attracted to the operator. when the active repressor becomes attached to the operator the RNA polymerase can not pass through to the genes

when recording data which asix do independent and dependent variable go on

Independent = x dependent = Y

What is a mutation

It is an error in the DNA or RNA that changes the nitrogenouse base order

what is the final product of one round of the calvin cycle and how many ribulose biphophate are used to create it

* one glyceraldehyde 3 phopshate/ G3P or * one phosphoglycerahyde/ PGAL - and three ribulose biphosphate are used to create the one PGAL/ G3P

what are the base pairs of RNA

- Adenine -uricil - guanime -cytosine

what is the purpose of polymerase chain reaction

- aplified DNA to be studied in criminal/faternity test

what are the results of natural selection

- competition - survival of the fittest - descent with modification

what occurs in the annelaing stage

- cooled to 50-65 degrees celcius in order to allow primers to bond to Denatured DNA

what is mass extintion

- dinosours - catostrophic event

endosymbiotic theory

- evelutoionary theory that poused in 1910 by mereschowky - states that mitochondria were seperate prokaryotes that survived endosytosis and formed a mutually benificial relationship - mitochondria reproduce with the cell and then transfered to the new cell - mitoctochondira alwalys come from mother cell

what are the two primers used in the annealing stage

- forward and reverse the difference is betweeen the leading and lagging strands - both move in the same dirrection

what are linked genes

- genes that are found very close together on the chromosome so they are usually passed down together - goes against law of independent assortment

what are the mechanisms of isolation

- geographic -behavorial - temporal - mechanical

what does ligase do

- glues Okazaki fragments of the lagginging strand together

according to the hardy weinberg equilibrium, what conditions cause a species not to evolve

- large population - no migration - no natural selection - random mating - no new mutation

what does rRNA do

- makes up part of the ribosome

what is gel electrophorsis

- method of seperating DNA by placing it in a porous gel that has an electric current running through it - separates fragments by size - smallest travel farthest

what are the sources of genetic variation

- mutations -genetic recombination - sexual reproductive - migration

rules of evolution (i hope this statement annoys you cause isn't a question)

- mutations and their phenotypes are random - variation must exist in the population before selective pressures occur - individuals can not evolve only species - a fit trait in one environment may be unfit in another

DNA Replication

- semiconservative - in the nucleus //NO SHIT - leading strand is easier to replicate due to the fact that it runs 5prime-3prime and laginging strand is harder

how do the currents run in gel electrophoresis

- since opposites attract and DNA has a negative charge, positive is at the bottom and the DNA is pulled through

vacuole in animals

- small and many - contorl homeosttis -pumps excess water

vacuole in plants

- store materials such as water salts proteins and carbs - creates a stable pressure -large and centeral

what occurs in the denaturing stage

- temperatures are raised to 94-95 degrees Celsius in order to break hydrogen bonds/ split the double helix in half

what happens during prophase

- the chromosomes are created - spindle fibers are being created - nuclear envelope disapears

what restriction enzymes and how do they work

- they are proteins that will break apart the covalent bonds in DNA to seperate the DNA into fragments at certain sequences

what are the types of RNA

- transfer RNA - messenger RNA - ribosomal RNA

decent with modification

- unfit genes do not get passed down as often due to the fact that organisms with fit genes survive more than those with unfit therefore there is a increase in fit genes -future generations will resemble parents but will have best combinations of new mutations of fit genes

what does helicase do

- unwinds DNA strand - breaks hydorgen bonds between nitrogenous base pairs

what does DNA polymerase do in DNA replication

- using parent strand as template + base pairing rules - lays down new nucleotides - proof read DNA

what is gene pool isolation

- when two populations become separated so their genome can no longer mix - mutations and selection occur separate of each other

what are the steps of interphase

-G1 -S -G2

What does RNA primase do in DNA replication

-a little piece of RNA that acts as a little platform that allows the DNA polymerase the have something to latch on to

what are the two types of fossil dating

-absolute- use radioactive organic material- look at a certain organic compound. the materials used have a certain amount of time and then they begin to turn into a radioactive material so scientists look to see how much of that organic molecule has turned into the radioactive material then scientists can get a closer date range to the fossil's date - relative- looking at the fossil record

What are the 3 parts of cell theory?

-all living things are made up of one or more cells -cells come from pre-existing cells -cells are the basic unit of life

Define restriction enzyme

-an Enzyme that raises the activation energy of a reaction - cuts DNA at specific sequences

What are the types of cell division

-binary fission- prokaryotes -mitosis -mieosis

what does tRNA

-brings amino acids to ribosome

What Occurs during the G1 phase of interphase

-cell growth and developement -organelle growth

deoxyribonucleic acid structure

-double helix - back bone made up of deoxyribose and posphate groups -

DNA structure

-double helix - antiparallel

what does mRNA do

-holds the encoded information to assemble proteins

what are the patterns of evolution

-mass extintion - adaptive radiation -coevolution (shshshshshshshsh)

what are the types of selection

-natural selection * stablizing * diversifying * dirrectional - artificial

who was Charles Darwin

-naturalist -worked on the Galapagos - thought up the idea of evolution by natural selection - wrote ORIGIN OF SPECIES 1850

what types of restriction enzymes

-ones that produce blunt cuts - ones that produce staggered cuts which produce sticky ends- scientists like to use sticky ends because the sticky ends have a place to be bonded with another nitrogenous base so it attracts other strands of DNA or other nucleotides

mitochondria

-power house// -in all eukayotes -convert chemicla energy into ATP -enclosed by 2 membranes -OWN DNA

cholesterol

-produces horomones - vitamin D production -skin protection -bile prodcutoin -

what are the steps of mitosis

-prophase -metaphase -anaphase -telophase

T. H. Morgan

-proved that chromosomes are genes - and that genes influence traits - worked with flies

Rate mutations in order from least detrimental to most

-silent -point -frameshift

what occurs in extending

-temperature is raised to 70-72 degrees celcius in order to allow taq polyerase to add free nucleotides to template strands

why do cells divide

-to grow and reproduce -to specalize in eukaryotes -repair damaged cells -to maintain an adequate ratio between surface area and volume

what are the uses of a pedigree

-to tract a specific genetic disease for a pregnent couple -to determine what type of trait it is, dominant, recessive, you such why are you still studying, or sex linked

true of false- fermentation produces ATP

-true -glycolysis is part of fermentation and it produces 2 ATP -however the pathway that fermentation ends does not produce ATP

saturated fat

. Saturated fats have no double bond between molecules, which means there are no gaps and the fat is saturated with hydrogen molecules solid at room temp

what is needed in order for DNA replication to occur

1. ATP/energy 2. free nucleotides, A T C G 3. specific enzymes - helicase - RNA primase - DNA polymerase -DNA ligase

krebs cycle steps

1. Acetyl- CoA is added combined with Oxaloacetae to form Citrate / a 6 carbon molecule 2. from the 6 Carbon molecule to the 5 cabron molecule, CO2 is released and NAD+ becomes NADH 3. from the 5 carbon molecule to the 4 carbon molecule CO2 is released and NAD+ is reduced to NADH 4. between the four carbon molecules of, one ADP and one Pi are turned into 1 ATP and FAD is reduced into FADH2 and H2O is added and one final NAD+ is reduced into NADH2 to reform oxaloacetate

what are the steps of protein synthesis

1. DNA transcription to RNA 2. RNA translation into proteins

chromatin

1. Deoxyribonuclic acid bound to protein and spread through out until the cell repliacates 2. during replication it condeses into chromosomes Chromosomes condense into Chromatin

electrons carries for PS are

1. NADPH 2.

what are the steps of DNA finger printing

1. amplify DNA through the process of polymerase chain reaction 2. cut DNA into fragments using restriction enzymes 3. separate fragments through gel electroferphoresis

who was gregor mendle

1. austrain monk considered father of genetics 2. studied pea plants

similarities between meiosis and mitosis

1. both occur in eukaryotic cell 2. at least one round of division 3. parent cell are dipoid somatic cells

describe regeneration // in the calvin cycle

1. carbon dioxide is fixed to ribulose bi phospate with the help of the enzyme ribisco 2. this is an unstable 6 carbon structure that

what are the 3 phases of the calvin cycle

1. carbon fixation 2. reuction 3. regeneration

what happens in carbon fixation in PS

1. carbon is fixed by enzyme ribisco 2. 3CO + 3RUBP = 6(3PGAL) carbon is fixed to ribulose bi-phosphate

levels of organization

1. cells 2. tissues- group of cells proforming a function together 3. Organ- groups of tissues working together 4. organ system- group fo organs working together

lysosomes

1. clean up crew 2. filled w/enzymes 3. function- to diguest proteins, lipid, and carbs break down old organells that cell no longer needs 4.

smoothe endoplasmic reticulum

1. contains enzymes that syntheisize phopholipis that are used in membrane 2. detoxification of drugs //liver of cells//

nuclues

1. control center of cell 2. contains DNA instructions from making proteins and other important molecules 3. surrounded by nulcear envelope that consists of two membranes

what are the steps of polymerase chain reaction

1. denaturing stage 2. annealing stage 3. extending

electron transport chain

1. filled electrons dump their electrons here 2. electrons flow down the ETC releasing energy as they go 3. this energy is used to pump H+ into the inner membrane space // active transport 4. this creates a higher concentration of H+ into the inner membrane and according to the concentration gradient they wanted to flow back through to the Matrix which they did by going through the ATP synthase 5. this flowing provides the energy to put a phosphate group onto a molecule of ADP and forms 34 ATP

5 characteristic of cancer cells

1. form tumors because of lack of contact inhibition 2. lack specialization 3. immortal due to the fact that their telomerase never broke or wore down 4. abnormal nucli due to mutation 5. spread to new location - metastasis

"ingredients" for replication of deoxyribonucleic acid

1. free nucleotides 2. energy 3. specidic enzymes

glycolysis

1. glucose is split by 2 ATP into PGAL // this happens when an inorganic phosphate breaks off of each ATP, turning them into ADP , and attaches to each PGAL 2. 2NAD+ comes by and takes two hydrogen, one from each PGAL so two per glucose 3. anohter inorganic phosphate is added to create PEP sugar 4. 2 ADP come to the PEP sugar and obtain the 2 Pi and from 2 ATP on each side 4 in all 5. pyruvate is left

explain alcoholic fermentation

1. glucose is split into two PGAL s by the energy in 2 ATP 2. then 2 NAD+ come, one for each PGAL and pick up a H+ while a phosphate group is being added to each PGAL 3. this leaves you with a PEP sugar which is able to give it's two phosphate groups to four ADP and create ATP 4. the anerobic pathway after wards releases 2CO2 to change the pyruvate into 2 acetyladehyde 5. 2 NADH are oxidized into NAD+ 6. this oxidation turns the acetyladehyde into ethol alcohol

explain lactic acid fermentation

1. glucose is split into two PGAL s by the energy in 2 ATP 2. then 2 NAD+ come, one for each PGAL and pick up a H+ while a phosphate group is being added to each PGAL 3. this leaves you with a PEP sugar which is able to give it's two phosphate groups to four ADP and create ATP 4. the anerobic pathway after wards releases 2CO2 to change the pyruvate into 2 lactate 5. 2 NADH are oxidized into NAD+ 6. this oxidation turns the lactate into lactic acid

3 steps of celular repsiration

1. glycolysis krebs cycle ETC

what are the enzymes used in replication

1. helicase 2. RNA primase 3. DNA polymerase 4. DNA ligase

michrotubuole

1. hollow strucutres 2. made of tubulines 3. functions: - helps maintains shape - imporant in cell division - builds flagella/ cilla

what are Mendel's three laws

1. independent assortment 2. law of segregation 3. law of incomplete dominance

characteristics of mitosis

1. is asexual 2. creates identical diploid cells 3. one round of division 4. come from/ create somatic cells

how are the leading and lagging strand assemeble and why

1. laggins strand is assembled in short Okarsaki fragments 2. leading strand is assembled continuously 3. Because DNA is anti-parallel so the leading strand runs 5prime-3prime and nucleotides can only be added to the 3prime side. the lagging strand runs 3prime-5prime so it must add nucleotides going in the reverse order of helicase so it has to be replicated in short fragments that are then bonded together

what are the 2 stages of photosynthesis

1. light dependents 2. light independednt // calvin cycle

characteristics of meiosis

1. not asexual because it does not produce identical cells 2. produces haploid gamete cells 3. begins with a somatic cell 4. two rounds of division

what are the assumptions of natural selection

1. not enough resources for all organisms to survive - genetic variation exists in all population

descirbe the steps of protein synthesis

1. nucleus gives dirrection for how to make proteins 2. rough ER uses materials in ribosomes to make amino acids 3. smooth ER modifies the protein 4. Golgi apparatus packages, modifies, and tansport proeins

scienfic method

1. observe -gather info//research//use senses 2. question 3. hypothesise 4. design/ carry out experiement 5. analyze data 6. write a conclusion

what are the 5 levels of biotic factors

1. organism 2. population 3. community 4. ecosystem 5. bioshere

chlororplasts

1. own genetic material 2. only in plant cells 3. function: -capture sun energy//photons// -convert suns energy to chemical energy

how does ATP synthase of photosynthesis work

1. photosystem 2 breaks apart water and H+ is in the thylakoid 2. due to contraation graident H+ want to go from theylakoid into the stroma 3. this motion of H+ passing through ATP synthase is like water passing through turbines creating energy 4. This energy is used to bond a phosphate group to the ADP

what are the growth patters

1. pretatorial 2. logistic (S curve) 3. expodention

what are the steps of meiosis

1. prophase 1 2. metaphase1 3. anaphase1 4. telophase/cytokinesis1 5. prohase 2 6. metaphase 2 7. anaphase 2 8. telophase 2

cell membrane

1. regulates what movess in and out 2. provides containment 3. phospolipid bilayer and protein pumps and carbohydrate markers

mendles laws

1. segregation 2. independent assortment 3. complete dominance

nucleolus

1. small dense region where ribosomes are made 2. inside nucleus

what are the four polysacchrides

1. starch 2. glycogen 3. cellulose 4. chitin

rough endoplamsic reticulum

1. sythesiszes proteins 2. newly made proteins leave ribosomes and insert into the rough ER to be modifid and exported

reduction in calvin cycle described

1. the 6 PGA or 6 molecules of 3 phosphoglycerate are turned into 6 glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate or G3P // PGAL which is phosphoflycerahyde 3. this reaction requires the energy from 6 ATP and 6 NADPH

regeneration explained // calvin cycle

1. the 6 phosphoglecerahyde / PGAL or Glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate/ G3P lose one PGAL to go be made into cellulose starch or most importantly glucose 2. the other five are turned back into 3 ribulose bi phosphate to restart the cycle once more 3. this reaction takes the energy of 3 ATP

What are the steps of Binary fission

1. the cell replicates it's nucleoid is repicated , 2. the cytoplasmic membrane elongates seperation the DNA 3. Crosswall froms , membrane comes together 4. daughter cells form

what is photosynthesis

1. the process that plants overgo that transformed the suns energy to glucose which is then used in cellular respiration

describe carbon fixation in the calvin cycle for 1/2 molecules of glucose

1. three carbons molecules are fixed to three ribulose biphosphate w/ help of the enzyme ribisco 2. this is an unstable 6 carbon molecule that splits into 6 PGA or 6 molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate

what are the special properties of water

1. water expands when frozen//this is a special prperties becasue solids have more condensed atoms compared to liquids 3. cohesion 4. addhesion 5. cappilary action 6. surface tension 7. water gains and release heat slowly//HIGH SPECIFC HEAT 8. universal solvent//because of polarity

cytoskeleton

1.found in ctoplams 2. gives shape and allows movement 3. composed of michrofiliments and michrotublues

what is the purpose of photosystem 2 in light dependent reaction of PS

1/ split water

how much glucose is made in one round of calvin cycle

1/2

third energy level has how many electrons

16

Frederick Griffith

1928 bacterial transformation dead smooth bacterial transformed the DNA of the rough bacteria

Avery, McCarty, MAcLeoad

1944 proved that deoxyribonucleic acid was the genetic material with in chromosomes

Charagaff

1950 1. A = T C= G 2. amount of DNA varied from species to species

Hershey and Chase

1952 1. showed that it was definitely the deoxyribonucleic acid that held the genes by blending bacteriophages with healthy bacteria 2. grew the bacteria with radioactive phosphorous and sulfur 3. protein has sulfur in it and Deoxyribonucleic acid does not and Deoxyribonucleic acid has phosphorous and protein does not so whichever one showed up after the viruses were injected would indicate what the virus injects 4. phosphorous was found so DNA is the genealogical compondent

Franklin, Watson, Crick

1953 Franklin- shattered DNA using X-ray diffration to show its double helix structure Watson and Crick- complete metal model of DNA

Meselson and stalh

1958 discovered if replication is conservative semiconservative or dispersive it is semiconservative

how many electrons does the 1 energy level hold

2

how many times does the calvin cycle have to go around in order to form one molecule of glucose and why

2 cause each one makes one PGAL of 3G3P and 2 PGAL or G3P make one glucose // PGAL or G3P are 3 carbon molecules and glucose is 6

what is a disaccride composed of

2 saccride

Define centrioless

2 tiny structures located in the cytoplasm near the nuclear envelope - they are attached to an end of the spindle fibers and help to pull the chromosomes away from each other during anaphase

how many types of amino acids are there and why

20 // cause R group changes

what is produced in krebs cycle

3 NAD+ become 3 NADH 1 FAD becomes FADH2 one ADP + Pi becomes ATP 2 Co2 are released one H2O is added

how many carbon dioxide are used in one round of the Calvin cycle

3 and it makes 1/2 glucose

what dirrection is DNA read

3prime-5prime

how many bonds/ open valence spots/ does carbon have

4

what are the results of nondisjunction during meiosis 1

4 abnormal gametes 1/2 gametes will have extra chromosomes 1/2 will have one missing

what does mieosis produce

4 haploid gametes

steriod

4-ring structure make horomones

define telophase

4th and final step of mitosis chromosomes are at opposite ends of the cell spindle fibers disappear nuclear envelopes reappear - opposite of prophase

regeneration

5 PGAL are condensed into 3 RuBP

what dirrection is DNA replicate

5 prime- 3 prime

how many ribucolse bi phosphate or RuBP are needed at the begining of the calvin cycle in order to make one molecule of glucose

6

how many ribulose bi phosphate are needed to form one glucose molecule

6 3 per round of cycle

how many codons exist

64

how many electrons does the 2 energy level hold

8

how many ATP and NADPH are used in one round of the calvin cycle how many to make one glucose molecule

9 ATP and 6 NADPH in one round 18 ATP and 12 NADPH in one glucose molecule

Define a silent mutation

A change in the codon that results in the same protein being produced becasue multiple codons code for the same amino acid

what is a carrier

A heterozyote that has the allele for a certain trait but is not exhibiting it because that allele is recessive to the other

Define Antigens

Molecules that trigger its specific antibody molecule theese are makrers on your blood cells

your gonna fail?

NOOOOOO okay well maybe

what are the four nucleotides for DNA

adenenine - thymine cytosine - gunanime

purine characteristics and ex.

adenine and guanine double ringed sturcture can not bond together

what are the four nitrogenous bases and who do they pair with

adenine- thymine cytosine- guanime

ADP name state of mind and structure

adosine bi-phosphate released enegy emtied battery

ATP name function and stucture

adosine tri phosphate energy that the cell can use to store energy

biosphere

all ecosystems (biotic and abiotic) combined through out the world // the global sum of all the ecosystems

define the independent assortment

alleles of different traits will be passed on independently of each other

nuclear pores

allow info to get into and out nucleus

surface tension

allows rresist and extermal force due to cohesion

capilary action

allows water to move up small tubular spaces against gravity // due to addhesion and cohesion

dependednt

altered by the independent vairble you measure // your data

population

amount of a specific species at a specific time and location

calorie

amount of energy need to raise the temp of one gram of water one degree C

What is Taq polymerase

an enzyme taken from thermophyllic bacteria

heterotroph

an organism that eats other organism

kingdoms

animal plant fungi protista eubacteria archaebacteria

what are the differences between animal cytokenisis and plant cytokenisis

animal cells : -cell membrane forms a barrier -cytoplasm is pinched to from 2 equal parts - cleavage furrow is formed plant: -cell plate forms a barrier between the forming cells -cell plate gradually forms the cell membrane and then cell wall

Define somatic cell

any cell that is not a reproductive cell

define operon

any gene in prokaryotes that can be regulated

temporal

are fertile at different times of the year

smallest piece of matter while keeping properties

atoms

autotroph vrs. heterotroph

autotroph- makes own food sun or chemical energy heterotroph- obtains energy through consuming both have mitochondira

examples convergent and divergent evolution

bat wings and bird wings= convergent wales losing their hind legs = divergent

why is DNA transcripted into RNA

becasue DNA is the "Master Plan" it can not leave the nucleus and is too valuable to be out where it can be damaged also too big

why does fermentation occur?

because the filled electron carrier NADH produced in Glycolysis have would other wise have no where to dump their electrons and Glycolysis would run out of NAD+

differece between abiotic and biotic

biotic is made of cells responds to stimuli maintain homeostasis ability to grow and develop contain DNA ability to evolve reproduce themselves b abiotic basically do not do those things

codominance

both alleles are present, both traits visible

what are the similarities between animal cytokenisis and plant cytokenisis

both occur at the same time as telpophase in both it is the division of the cytoplasum

hydrolosis

break down water molecules by adding water

funciton of proteins

build structure transport molecules through body signinaling between cells defending agiainst dease facilitate reaction ex. Enzymes transport

what did theodore schwann do

came up with cell theory in 1839

facultative anerobic cell

can do both areobic and anaerobic respiration ex. mucel cells

mechanical

can not physically reproduce

obligate anerobic cell

can only do anerobci respiration

organic compound

carbon based compound

what are the parts of an amino acids

carboxide gorup anime group R group

4 major polymers

carbs proteins nucleic acids lipids

what are the monomers

carbs- monosaccride nuelcic acids- nucleitotides protiens- amino acids lipids- none

why is bottle neck genetic drift bad

cause if only unfit genes survived then the entire species may go extinct

what happens when a cell is submerged in a saline

causes cells to burst in hypo-tonic solutions because they become so filled with water // that picture is supposed to be abt hypotonic. I does not follow the example i described

muliticellular organism

cell specialization -develope ways to do different tasks es. stoma in plant cells open and close to help in photosynthesis

define contact inhibition

cells will stop dividing so that they do not become over crowded

list of organization of living things

cells, tissues, organs, organ system, organism

michrotubuoles condense into __________

centrioles ONLY IN ANIMAL CELLS

semi permentable membrane

certain substances can pass through the phospholips other must go through protein pumps

hydrocarbon

chain with hydrogen and carbon

define evolution

change in allele frequency

what occurs at the G1 checkpoint

check to see if DNA is whole, that it is all in one piece

what occurs at the G2 checkpoint

check to see if DNA replicated correctly during G2 stage to make sure DNA is not damaged

Define homologouse chromasomes

chromasome that have carry the same type of infor but are non identical - have the centromere on the same locous

Define anaphase

chromasomes are pulled apart as spindle fibers shorten

what occurs in the s phase of interphse

chromasomes replicate/ repair themselves

define metaphase

chromosomes line up and attach to spindles via their cetromeres at their kinetochure

how can a small seed turn into a big tree where does the mass come from

comes from the water

ecosystem

community working with its abiotic surroundings

how is gel electrophoresis used in forensic

comparing DNA from crime scene with suspects and victums

acid

compound donates H+ to a solution when dissolved by water

base

compound that released hydroxide when dissolved by water

steriods

contain a four ring structure hydrophobic ex. colestrol

what is convergent and divergent evolution

convergent- two species develope a similiar trait indpenedly of eachoteher divergent- a species specializes

what are the "fold" in the mitochondria and what is their purpose

cristae and more fold=more surface energy

where does glycolysis occur

cytoplasm

how do you build deoxyribonucleic acid

dehydration synthesis

test cross

determines the genotype of a dominant parent - cross the unknown dominant parent with a recessive parent and then analyze the offspring

quaternary structure of proteins

different polypetide cahins come together to form a final protein

Are somatic cells haploid or diploid

diploid

slovent

dissolves other substances

anaerobic

does no require oxygen

hyrophobic

doesnt like water ex. oil uncharged and non polar does not disove in water

do cells have souls

don't do drugs, kids

strand of DNA is a

double helix

inside choloroplast there is a what

double membrane \ thylakoid // stacks gama stroma // cytoplasm

what is co evolution

due to a close relationship, when one evolves so does the other

why is water good at breaks bonds

due to waters polarity, water can separate molecules because opposites attract and the hydrogen is attracted to the - areas of the other substance while the O is attracted to the + parts of the other molecule.

what occurs at the M checkpoint

during mitosis - check for alignment of chromosomes checks to assure that nondisjunction has not occured

describe the shuttle step of cellular repsiration

each pyruvate// two per glucose// has 1. a carbon removed from it and released from the cell as CO2, 2. one NAD+ comes through and takes one hydrogen ion forming NADH //again two per glucose 3. coenzyme A is added the final result is Acettyl Coenzyme A

tumor suppressor genes

encode for proteins that inhibt the cell cycle and promote apoptosis *becomes under exposed in cancer cells

glycogen

energy storage in animals tightly compacted branched

what is the hardy wienberg equilibrium

equation used to look at whether or not a species is evolving

what are by products and examples of organisms that use them, of fermentation

ethol Alcohol- yeast lactic acid- human muscel cells

what are the two main products of fermentation

ethol alcohol fermintation

inheritance patterns

every gene demonstrates a distint phenotype in the heterozygote

what is genetic drift

evolution with out natural selection usually in small populations

true or false ATP is good for long term energy storage

false

true or false mendles law of incomplete dominance is always true

false because other types of dominance were discovered later

true or false mendle's law of independent assortment is always true

false due to linked genes

True or false the introns are never transcribed

false the DNA introns are tranzscribed but before the mrna leas the nucleous restriction enzymes cut out the introns and the extrons are then spliced back together

where do nuclotides that are needed for deoxyribonucleic acid replication come from

food we eat

what do nucleic acids form

form DNA and RNA

tertiary structure of proteins

further folding of polypeptide chains due to the properties of the r side chain not all chains go past this step

reductions

gain electrons

Define structural Genes

genes that code for evey protein besides regulatory genes

proto-oncogenes

genes that encode for proteins that promote cell cycle and apoptosis *becomes over exposed in cancer cells

RNA primase

get DNA ready for replication by prividing a place for nucleotides to sit and be bonded

what makes up sucrose //table sugar

glucose + fructose

what is the back bone that the fatty acids in trigleceride bond to

glycercol

what are the steps of Cellular Respiration

glycolysis krebs cycle electron transport chain

what happens to cellular respiration when oxygen is not present

glycolysis leads to fermentation instead of krebs cycle and ETC fermentation empties the NADH and provides NAD+ for glycolysis to continue

what is the bond betweeen saccahrides

glycositic

cilla

hair like sturctures help with movement just prokaryotic

what did Robert Hook do and when?

he discovered cork cells in 1665

What did Anton Van Leewenhoek do and when?

he observed living organisums in pond water using a simple microscope in 1674

are fungi and protists herotroph or autoroph

heteoroph

concentration gradeint move from ___ to ____

high to low

define heredity

how genes are passed on from generation to generations

what type of bond is between nitrogenous bases of deoxyribonucleic acid

hydrogen

four major element s

hydrogen oxygen nitrogen CARBON

Define 2 sister chromatid

identical copies of chomasome/the one half version of a chromasome/

why is it important that ice is less dense thatn water

in lake ecosytems life is allowed to continue becasue ice floats on water

Where does translation occur

in the cytoplasm

where does calvin cycle take place

in the stroma// outside the thylakoid

where does photosystem 2 occur

in thylakoid membrane

what are the 2 main parts of the cell cycle

interphase and the mitotic phase

What are the steps of the cell cycle

interphase, mitosis/ mieosis, and cytokenisis

what is cancer

is a diseased caused by uncontrollable cell division. A metastasized tumor is one that spread to another part of the body.

hydrophyllic

is attracted to water // charged and polar

what happens to the unstable 6 carbon structure during carbon fixation in the cavlin cycle

it breaks into two PGA or two 3-phophoglyerate molecules

what is a pedigree

it is a chart that is used to show the occurrence of a particular trait throughout particular generations of a family

What is the central dogam of biology

it is the rules for the flow of information -DNA to RNA to Protein

DNA ligase

joins Okazaki fragments together glue

what are short tandum repeats

junk DNA that repeats the same number of times in a certain length of DNA that makes us different - what foresnic scientists study to determine if DNA is a match

classification of animals in order

kingdom phylum class order family Genus species

what are the parts of a ribosome

larger top half smaller bottom half top part has aceptor site polypetide site and exit site

what is the fossil record

layers of sedimentary rock that contains fossils in the order at which that organism was alive farther down the fossil is the older it is

DNA polymerase

lays down new nucleotides by using parent strand as a template and following complementory base pairing rules - moves 5-3 prime// new nucleotides are added onto the 3 prime side - proof reads new strand

light dependednt PS requires _______ and _____

light and water

glycosilic

link or bond between 2 monosacchrides // forms disacchrides

primary structure of proteins

linked together in a long chain

anolgy for enzyme and substrate

lock and key lock= enzyme key = substrate

starch

long term energy in plants chain of glucose bonded together by glycositic bonds

function of lipids

long term energy storage form membranes provide insilation cushion protection

oxidation

lose electrons

golgi apparatus

mail room sorts packages and modifies materials from rough ER for storage or secretino // waste proteins come here after ER

autotroph

make own good through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis

limode

make up white blood cells/immune system

what are PGAL or G3P used for // calvin cycle

making starch glucose or cellulose

who are sex linked traits exhibited in mostly

males because they only adopt one X chromosome so whatever they have they express there is no possibility for a pattern of inheritance in males because males cannot be heterozygous for a sex linked trait

multicellular organism

many organs working together to form an indicidual living thing

tumor

mass of cells

concentration

mass of solute /divided by/ volume of liquid

qualitive

measured by quality rather than quanity ex. leaf color

parts of thylakoid

membrane and lumen and stacks of them make grana

when do men/women begin/end producing viable gametes

men- after puberty till death women- from birth to metapause

what is the Rhesus factor

molecule that can be on human blood cells, you are either positive or negative

moleucle vrs. compound

molecule- mulitple atoms bonded together compounds- multiple atoms of different elements bonded together

define antibodies

molecule/ protein in your body that detect foreign molecules and attack

amphiphilic

molecules that have hydrophoic and phydrophyllic regions

what make up polymers

monomers

what makes something a better energy source in organic chemistry

more carbon

control groups

most natural//used to compare

chemiosmosis

movement of ions across a semipermeable membrane, the generation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by the movement of hydrogen ions across a membrane

what does the elctron transport chain do // the one between phtosystem 2 anbd photosystem 1 in light dependednt raction

moves high energy electrons from PS 2 to PS 1

what does the amount of codons and the amount of amino acids say about their relationship

multiple codons can code for the same allele

are hydrocarbon chains polar?

no

are organells living

no

Can Y chromosomes carry sex linked traits

no a sex linked trait is one that is only located on the X chromosome

true of false calvin cycle is nesseary for life to continue

no because glucose is long term energy storage but the ATP from the light dependent reaction allows life to continue with temporary energy storage

if I were to take 2 monomers and combine them would I just mulitply the chemical formula by 2 to get the products.

no because water is being taken out due to dehydration synthesis

is energy required in diffusion

no due to concentration gradient

in spermogenesis and oogenesis are the same number of viable gametes produces

no there is one egg cell and four sperm

non polar molecules can only dissolve _____

non polar moecules

isotonic

normal // healthy flow across a semi permetable membrane

what type of macromoleucle is deoxyribonucleic acid and what is its monomer

nucleotide nucleic acid

replication occurs in the

nucleus

define atomic number

number of protons//electrons THE TOP ONE

Where do amino acids attach to on the tRNA

on the 3 prime end that does not have a loop

reduction

one PGAL leaves the cell and the other five go back to be regenerated

complete dominance

one pattern of inheritance when both alleles are present only the dominant one is seen what mendle said in his law

what does semi conservative mean

one strand is being replicated it is split in half, the two helixes are separated, one helix is used for telling the DNA polymerase what nitrogenous base to bond to it then the other is used for that same purpose. In the end, two new strands of DNA are created and each one is half the parent strand and half a newly created strand.

define law of segregation

only one allele from each parent gets passed on to the offspring

what ocurs in the G2 stage of interphase

organells and molecules for cell division are produced

Define transgenic organisms

organisms that is expressing a gene from another organism - the gene for this desired trait is inserted into the organisms DNA which it then exhibits

valence elctrons

outermost elctrons//can bond

what are the products of light dependent photosynthesis

oxygen ATP NADPH

within a water molecule which atom has the stronger electronegativity therfore making it negative

oxygen // hydrogen is +

what is the hardy wienberg equilbrium equation

p^2 + 2pq +q^2 = 1

antiparallel

parallel but moving in opposite directions.

what is an anti-codon

part of the tRNA that matches up with mRNA sequence's codon

define polygenic inheritance

pattern of inheritance in which two genes determine one trait -results of vast range of phenotypes

what links amino acids together to form a protien

peptide bonds

phospohlipid composition

phosphate group and fatty acid chains

what is the bond between the phosphate group and deoxyribose

phosphodiester covalent bond

what does a cell membrane consist of

phospholipid bi layer protein pumps Carbohydrate chainsd that help with signalling

what make up cell membranes

phospholipids, carbohydrate pumps, and protein pumps

what is an ex of an amphiphilic

phospolipids

first step of light dependent reaction of PS

photosystem 2

biomolecule organic compound macromoleculesa are all what

polymer

another name for protein//1 stage of folding

polypeptide

4 levels of protein folding

primary secondary teriary qatenary

secondary structure of protein

primary stucture chains folding ontop of one another

what are the results of nondisjunction in meiosis 2

produces 2 normal gametes 1 with one too many 1 with one too less

What are the lac operon and trp operon examples of

prokaryotic regulation of gene expression

what makes up chromosomes

protein and Deoxyribonucleic acid

define cyclins

proteins that trigger or shut down cell division

elctronegativity

pull on electrons

where do the products of glycolysis go?

pyruvate ----- krebs cycle 2 ATP --------- cells to be used however needed 2 NADH --------etc

________ yield _______ in a chemical reaction

reactand; products

reactants and products of the calvin cycle

reactants: 1. 3 CO2 2. 3 ribulose biphosphate products 1. one glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate 2. 3 ribulose biphophate

Deoxyribonucleic acid is read ___ to ____ and replicated ___ to ___

read 3-5 replicated 5-3

dyhration synthesis// condensation

removal of one -H from 1 molecule and ..... the removal of a -OH from another in order to form a polymer // removing water in order to build

benign tumor

safe does not grow

what is a codon

safe sex sequence of 3 nucleic acids that codes for anti-codons that hold specific amino acids

isotope

same # of prtons but different number of nuetrons// usually makes unstable

isomer

same chemical formula but structurally different

mixture

seperable by hand

glucose

short term energy storage in plants// longer than ATP but shorter than starch

what is an example of polygenic inheritance

skin color

monomer

small parts that repeate to form polymer

what is the organell that is most abundant in liver cell s

smoothe ER due to detoxification of drugs

What type of cells undergo mitosis

somatic cells

what type of cells undergo mieosis

somatic cells that form gametes

define incomplete dominance

some alleles over power other alleles when they are in the same cell

multiple alleles

some genes have more than 2 variations that exist because there are mutiple alleles even tho we only inherit one allele from each parent

carcinogen

something in your environment that causes cancer

catalyst definition

something that increases the rate of a chemical reaction lowers the reactions activation energy enables reactions to ooccur faster

quantitive data

specific results that can be measured using scienfic tools //quantity rather than quality ex. speed temp growth

define metatisized

spread

what are the main types of structure of carbon backrounds

straight chains, ringed, and branch chains

Define Chromatin

strings of DNA wrapped around HIstones -the uncondensed for - DNA is in this form most of the time

what is the bond between the deoxyribose and phosphate groups in the double helix of deoxyribonucleic acid

strong covalent bond

amino acid bond

strong covalent//peptide

cellulose

structure in plants

cellulose function

structure in plants // long strands of glucose

chitin

strucutral material for fui and eoskelelton

genetics

study of heredity

define ecology

study of interaction between organisms and organisms interacting with their environment

solute

substrance that is dissoveld

what are the properties of water

surface tension- adhesion- cohesion- high sepecific heat- Ice density- Capppilatryy action

flegela

tail of prokaryotic cell helps with movement

characteristics of eukoarotes

* large more comply than P * nucleus contains genetic material * can be specialized cells * can be uni cellular or multi cellular

characteristsics of prokaryotic cell

* no nuclues * smaller than EU * less complex than EU * gentic material is free flowing through out cytoplams //one big thing * never have cell wall

what is a vestual organ (its a tail you cant hide)

Oh no where shall I put my vestigal tail an structure that served a purpose at some point in our evolutionary history but no longer does

What is the basis of somatic cell nuclear transfer

the nucleolus of a somatic cell is transferred and used to replace the nucleolus of an unfertilized egg cell, that egg cell becomes a zygote without going through sexual reproduction because the nucleolus of the somatic cell is diploid which then grows and developes within the mother

what occurs during the mitotic phase

the nucleous divides

function groups

the part of the monomer that helps it do the monomer's specific job

active site

the place where a substrate and reactant meet

osmotic pressure

the pressure applied to a membrane due concentration gradient

facilitated diffusion

the process of diffusion using protein pumps when particles are too large to pass through the semi permaetable membrame

Substrate

the reaactant in an enzyme reaction

how is glycolysis like investing money

the reaction "invests" or uses two ATP in order to create 4 for a net gain of 2

what is transcription

the transfer of information from DNA to RNA

what is the central dogma of bio

the transfer of information from DNA to RNA to amino acid/protein through transcription then translation

What occurs at the aceptor site in the large ribosomial sub unit

the trna fits into the ribosome

What occurs at the e site

the trna prepares to depart

define atomic mass

the weight of the protons and nuetrons P+N

explain blood typing

there are three alleles Ia Ib i there are four phenotypes type A type B type AB type O

unsaturated fat

there is a double bond which leads to a crooked shape

where do "dead" electrons go at the end of the Cellular Respiration Electron transport chain

they get attached to H+ to make them stable hydrogen atoms that then combine with oxygen to form water

types of mutations

Silent- no effect on the protein because the change forms a codon that codes for the same amino acid Point- mutation that only affects one amino acid, can possibly terminate protein too early Frameshift- either an insertion or deletion that damages every codon and therefore every amino acid after the point of mutation

Why do chromasome exist

So that everything is split evently and organised durring cell division

what is chargaffs rule

The amount of adenine and thymine should be the same just as cytosine and thymine should be. Ratio between pyrimidines and purines should be the same.

what is a karyotype

The chromosomes are organized by size largest to smallest. You could see if a person has any chromosomal disorders or if they are a male or female.// 23rd pair of homologous chromosomes will be the sex chromosomes which are not homologous in boys because one is the y chromosomes smaller and one is the x chromosome which is much larger

When is the lac operon turned on

When in the presence of lactose the active repressor undergoes a confromational change and breaks off of the operator allowing for the production of the protein, lactase that processes lactose

complementary base pairing

a = t c = g

Frame shift mutation

a change in the number of nuceyotides wich results in a change in every codon after the mutation -ex insertion/ deletion

define speciataion

a change that causes a species to sub divide into two species

enzyme definition

a class of proteins that are catalysts that only aid specific reactions due to their specific shape very PH and temperature sensitive

Define Genetic generating

a deliberate manipulation of the genes of an organism in order to make transgenic organisms, clone organisms, or perform gene therapy

Define spindle fibers

a fan like structure that helps seperate the chromasomes

Define zygote

a fertilized egg cell

define regulatory gene

a gene that produces a repressor protein that prevents gene expression

Define point mutation

a mistake that occurs at one point in the DNA strand -ex substitution -changes one amino acid

Define karyotype

a picture of chromasomes

Define operator

a region of DNA that blocks the action of RNA polymerase if ocupied by a repressor protein

Define promoter region

a region of DNA where Rna polymersae starts tranzscription

Define Telomere

a repetitive piece of DNA at the end of each chromosome that serves as protection during replication

what is a gene

a section of DNA that codes for a specific protein

What is an intron

a sequence f nucleotydes in Dna of eukaryotic genes that are not involved in protein coding - stays in the nucleous

define gamete

a sex cell

define artificial embryo twining

a sperm and egg cell are fertilized in a peatri dish

what happens to empied electron carries after they drop off their H+ and charged electrons at the ETC ex. FADH2 ---> FAD NADH ------> NAD+

they go back to the Krebs cycle and glycolysis to be recharged

behavoiral

they have different mating rituals

Is a virus alive?

this is a controvesial topic but officially it is not because it can not respond to it's environment until it senses a cell to attach to

how many carbon atoms and phosphate groups are in one molecule of PGAL or G3P / calvin cycle

three carbon atomsvand one phosphate group

pyrimideines

thymine cytosine single ringed can not bond together // CuT the PY

define denaturing

to break down, see denaturing of enzymes FIND IT

thermal energy

total amount enegy associated w/ movement of atoms

define sex linked trait

traits that can only be passed down by the mother because they are located on the X chromosome,

what is trisomy and what is monsomy

tri= three so one extra chromosome mono= one so one missing

Is RNA modified in all organisms

trick question you idiots its only modified in the nucleous and prokaryotes dont have nuclius

which climate is most moderate and why//another name for this property is _____

tropical becasue water gains and release heat slowly//tropical is by water//high-specific heat

true or false every cell in an organism contains all DNA even DNA that that specific cell is not using

true

Eukaryota

true nucleus- membrane bound membrane containing DNA

solution

two or more substances// can not sperate by hand

osmosis

type of diffusion specifically WATER through a semi permatable membrane

job of helicase

un twin double helix split hydrogen bonds between nitrogenous bases

cancer

unregulated cell growth

are oils saturated or un

unsaturated because they are liqiud at room temp

geographic

uphysical barrier between species ex. ocean

bacteriophages

viruses that infect bacteria

if every cell has all the DNA then why are some cells different from others

Because different genes are turned on or off depending on the cells needs/jobs/functions/ why am i still typing

how do you set up a dihybrid cross

FOIL to get the gametes then a 4 by 4 box

polarity

For ex. in water the oxygen atom has a stronger electronegativity on electrons which causes the electrons in the cavalent bond to hang out around oxygen making it slightly more - than the hydrogen

what are the checkpoints of the cell cycle

G1/S G2/S M

hydrogen ion

H+ acidic

two types of choloresterol and their difference

HDL- more protein than lipid // good LDL- more lipid than protein // bad

independent variable

I the scientists change it

what happens to RNA after its job

IT DIES LIKE YOUR DREAM, it is less important/more disposable

HYDROXIDE

OH- basic

what can a polar molecule dissolve

ONLY other polar molecules

Define Kinetiture

Point of attachment of spindle fibers at the cetromere

Who invented cell theory and when?

Theodor Schwann in 1839

Activation energy

the amount of energy needed for a reaction to occur

What occurs at the P site

the anticodon is momentarially bonded to the Mran codon and the amino acid that the trna held is added to the growing polypetide chain

Define Centromere

the center of a chromasome - the divider between the p and q regions

reactant

the chemicals that go into a chemical reaction before it changeds

fermenration

the combined process of glycolysis and the pathway that follows when oxygen is not present

define cloneing

the creation of an organisum that is genetically identical to its parent

what is the stroma

the cytoplasm of chloroplast

what DNA gets transcribed into RNA

the genes necessary to provide that cells particular function "can you keep typing" -yanya

where does the Krebs cycle occur

the mitochondira

diffences between cell membrane and cell wall

wall- * function- provide support and protection * composed of cellulose and proteins * found in plant cells along with cell membrane * rigid Membrane- * regulates flow of materials into and out of cell * thing and flexible * found in all cells * composed of phospolips/ protein pumps/ carbohydrate markers

cohesion

water is attracted to water

aerobic

water is needed

addhesion

water molecules stick to other molecules

what is the bottle drift genetic drift

when a catastrophic event occurs and the survivors are the only one that can affect the gene pool of future generations, results in less variation and if the survivors all contain unfit genes, the species could die out.

Define gene expression

when a gene is turned on or transcribed so that the protein it codes for is made

what is the founders effect

when a group of organisms migrate to a new area that is geographically separated from the rest of the species and that gene pool becomes isolated

denature

when a protien breaks down and can no longer function due to a change in its enviorment

incomplete dominance

when both alleles are present the 2 traits blend together and create and intermediate trait

diffusion

when particles move from high concentrated to low concentrated

what is adaptive radiation

when single species evolves into several species due to adaptations -the diversification of a group of organisms into forms filling different ecological niches.

what are lumen

where pigments are contained within thylakoid

p + q + 1

yall should know that by now

are PGAL and G3P the same molecule

yes, phosphoglycerahyde glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate same molecule