mid term study guide
chemical formula for glycolysis
C6H12O6 + 2ATP + 2NAD+ 4ATP + 4Pi ----> 2 ADP + 2NAD+ 4 ATP + Pyruvate acid
what is the balanced chemical equaion for glycolysis
C6H12O6 + 2ATP + 4ADP + 4Pi + 2 NAD+ ---> pyruvate + 4 ATP + 2 NADH
balanced chemical equation for cellular respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2 ----> 34-38 ATP + 6CO2 + 6H2O
Balanced equation of cellular respiration
C6H12O6 -----> 34-36 ATP +6CO2 + 6H2O
what is the balanced chemical equation for photosyntheisis
CO2 + 6H2O ------LIGHT----->>>>> C6H12O6 + 6O2
what is the reactant and what are the products of calvin cycle
CO2 reactant C6H12O6 and
define plasmids
Circular DNA found within bacteria
Extrons
DNAsequence that codes for proteins
When is the trp operon turned on
In the absence of triptophan because the operon is responsible for producing triptophan therefore when there is a lack of it then it knows to turn on - when tryptophan is present, it bonds to the active repressor causing a confomational change that makes the active repressor attracted to the operator. when the active repressor becomes attached to the operator the RNA polymerase can not pass through to the genes
when recording data which asix do independent and dependent variable go on
Independent = x dependent = Y
What is a mutation
It is an error in the DNA or RNA that changes the nitrogenouse base order
what is the final product of one round of the calvin cycle and how many ribulose biphophate are used to create it
* one glyceraldehyde 3 phopshate/ G3P or * one phosphoglycerahyde/ PGAL - and three ribulose biphosphate are used to create the one PGAL/ G3P
what are the base pairs of RNA
- Adenine -uricil - guanime -cytosine
what is the purpose of polymerase chain reaction
- aplified DNA to be studied in criminal/faternity test
what are the results of natural selection
- competition - survival of the fittest - descent with modification
what occurs in the annelaing stage
- cooled to 50-65 degrees celcius in order to allow primers to bond to Denatured DNA
what is mass extintion
- dinosours - catostrophic event
endosymbiotic theory
- evelutoionary theory that poused in 1910 by mereschowky - states that mitochondria were seperate prokaryotes that survived endosytosis and formed a mutually benificial relationship - mitochondria reproduce with the cell and then transfered to the new cell - mitoctochondira alwalys come from mother cell
what are the two primers used in the annealing stage
- forward and reverse the difference is betweeen the leading and lagging strands - both move in the same dirrection
what are linked genes
- genes that are found very close together on the chromosome so they are usually passed down together - goes against law of independent assortment
what are the mechanisms of isolation
- geographic -behavorial - temporal - mechanical
what does ligase do
- glues Okazaki fragments of the lagginging strand together
according to the hardy weinberg equilibrium, what conditions cause a species not to evolve
- large population - no migration - no natural selection - random mating - no new mutation
what does rRNA do
- makes up part of the ribosome
what is gel electrophorsis
- method of seperating DNA by placing it in a porous gel that has an electric current running through it - separates fragments by size - smallest travel farthest
what are the sources of genetic variation
- mutations -genetic recombination - sexual reproductive - migration
rules of evolution (i hope this statement annoys you cause isn't a question)
- mutations and their phenotypes are random - variation must exist in the population before selective pressures occur - individuals can not evolve only species - a fit trait in one environment may be unfit in another
DNA Replication
- semiconservative - in the nucleus //NO SHIT - leading strand is easier to replicate due to the fact that it runs 5prime-3prime and laginging strand is harder
how do the currents run in gel electrophoresis
- since opposites attract and DNA has a negative charge, positive is at the bottom and the DNA is pulled through
vacuole in animals
- small and many - contorl homeosttis -pumps excess water
vacuole in plants
- store materials such as water salts proteins and carbs - creates a stable pressure -large and centeral
what occurs in the denaturing stage
- temperatures are raised to 94-95 degrees Celsius in order to break hydrogen bonds/ split the double helix in half
what happens during prophase
- the chromosomes are created - spindle fibers are being created - nuclear envelope disapears
what restriction enzymes and how do they work
- they are proteins that will break apart the covalent bonds in DNA to seperate the DNA into fragments at certain sequences
what are the types of RNA
- transfer RNA - messenger RNA - ribosomal RNA
decent with modification
- unfit genes do not get passed down as often due to the fact that organisms with fit genes survive more than those with unfit therefore there is a increase in fit genes -future generations will resemble parents but will have best combinations of new mutations of fit genes
what does helicase do
- unwinds DNA strand - breaks hydorgen bonds between nitrogenous base pairs
what does DNA polymerase do in DNA replication
- using parent strand as template + base pairing rules - lays down new nucleotides - proof read DNA
what is gene pool isolation
- when two populations become separated so their genome can no longer mix - mutations and selection occur separate of each other
what are the steps of interphase
-G1 -S -G2
What does RNA primase do in DNA replication
-a little piece of RNA that acts as a little platform that allows the DNA polymerase the have something to latch on to
what are the two types of fossil dating
-absolute- use radioactive organic material- look at a certain organic compound. the materials used have a certain amount of time and then they begin to turn into a radioactive material so scientists look to see how much of that organic molecule has turned into the radioactive material then scientists can get a closer date range to the fossil's date - relative- looking at the fossil record
What are the 3 parts of cell theory?
-all living things are made up of one or more cells -cells come from pre-existing cells -cells are the basic unit of life
Define restriction enzyme
-an Enzyme that raises the activation energy of a reaction - cuts DNA at specific sequences
What are the types of cell division
-binary fission- prokaryotes -mitosis -mieosis
what does tRNA
-brings amino acids to ribosome
What Occurs during the G1 phase of interphase
-cell growth and developement -organelle growth
deoxyribonucleic acid structure
-double helix - back bone made up of deoxyribose and posphate groups -
DNA structure
-double helix - antiparallel
what does mRNA do
-holds the encoded information to assemble proteins
what are the patterns of evolution
-mass extintion - adaptive radiation -coevolution (shshshshshshshsh)
what are the types of selection
-natural selection * stablizing * diversifying * dirrectional - artificial
who was Charles Darwin
-naturalist -worked on the Galapagos - thought up the idea of evolution by natural selection - wrote ORIGIN OF SPECIES 1850
what types of restriction enzymes
-ones that produce blunt cuts - ones that produce staggered cuts which produce sticky ends- scientists like to use sticky ends because the sticky ends have a place to be bonded with another nitrogenous base so it attracts other strands of DNA or other nucleotides
mitochondria
-power house// -in all eukayotes -convert chemicla energy into ATP -enclosed by 2 membranes -OWN DNA
cholesterol
-produces horomones - vitamin D production -skin protection -bile prodcutoin -
what are the steps of mitosis
-prophase -metaphase -anaphase -telophase
T. H. Morgan
-proved that chromosomes are genes - and that genes influence traits - worked with flies
Rate mutations in order from least detrimental to most
-silent -point -frameshift
what occurs in extending
-temperature is raised to 70-72 degrees celcius in order to allow taq polyerase to add free nucleotides to template strands
why do cells divide
-to grow and reproduce -to specalize in eukaryotes -repair damaged cells -to maintain an adequate ratio between surface area and volume
what are the uses of a pedigree
-to tract a specific genetic disease for a pregnent couple -to determine what type of trait it is, dominant, recessive, you such why are you still studying, or sex linked
true of false- fermentation produces ATP
-true -glycolysis is part of fermentation and it produces 2 ATP -however the pathway that fermentation ends does not produce ATP
saturated fat
. Saturated fats have no double bond between molecules, which means there are no gaps and the fat is saturated with hydrogen molecules solid at room temp
what is needed in order for DNA replication to occur
1. ATP/energy 2. free nucleotides, A T C G 3. specific enzymes - helicase - RNA primase - DNA polymerase -DNA ligase
krebs cycle steps
1. Acetyl- CoA is added combined with Oxaloacetae to form Citrate / a 6 carbon molecule 2. from the 6 Carbon molecule to the 5 cabron molecule, CO2 is released and NAD+ becomes NADH 3. from the 5 carbon molecule to the 4 carbon molecule CO2 is released and NAD+ is reduced to NADH 4. between the four carbon molecules of, one ADP and one Pi are turned into 1 ATP and FAD is reduced into FADH2 and H2O is added and one final NAD+ is reduced into NADH2 to reform oxaloacetate
what are the steps of protein synthesis
1. DNA transcription to RNA 2. RNA translation into proteins
chromatin
1. Deoxyribonuclic acid bound to protein and spread through out until the cell repliacates 2. during replication it condeses into chromosomes Chromosomes condense into Chromatin
electrons carries for PS are
1. NADPH 2.
what are the steps of DNA finger printing
1. amplify DNA through the process of polymerase chain reaction 2. cut DNA into fragments using restriction enzymes 3. separate fragments through gel electroferphoresis
who was gregor mendle
1. austrain monk considered father of genetics 2. studied pea plants
similarities between meiosis and mitosis
1. both occur in eukaryotic cell 2. at least one round of division 3. parent cell are dipoid somatic cells
describe regeneration // in the calvin cycle
1. carbon dioxide is fixed to ribulose bi phospate with the help of the enzyme ribisco 2. this is an unstable 6 carbon structure that
what are the 3 phases of the calvin cycle
1. carbon fixation 2. reuction 3. regeneration
what happens in carbon fixation in PS
1. carbon is fixed by enzyme ribisco 2. 3CO + 3RUBP = 6(3PGAL) carbon is fixed to ribulose bi-phosphate
levels of organization
1. cells 2. tissues- group of cells proforming a function together 3. Organ- groups of tissues working together 4. organ system- group fo organs working together
lysosomes
1. clean up crew 2. filled w/enzymes 3. function- to diguest proteins, lipid, and carbs break down old organells that cell no longer needs 4.
smoothe endoplasmic reticulum
1. contains enzymes that syntheisize phopholipis that are used in membrane 2. detoxification of drugs //liver of cells//
nuclues
1. control center of cell 2. contains DNA instructions from making proteins and other important molecules 3. surrounded by nulcear envelope that consists of two membranes
what are the steps of polymerase chain reaction
1. denaturing stage 2. annealing stage 3. extending
electron transport chain
1. filled electrons dump their electrons here 2. electrons flow down the ETC releasing energy as they go 3. this energy is used to pump H+ into the inner membrane space // active transport 4. this creates a higher concentration of H+ into the inner membrane and according to the concentration gradient they wanted to flow back through to the Matrix which they did by going through the ATP synthase 5. this flowing provides the energy to put a phosphate group onto a molecule of ADP and forms 34 ATP
5 characteristic of cancer cells
1. form tumors because of lack of contact inhibition 2. lack specialization 3. immortal due to the fact that their telomerase never broke or wore down 4. abnormal nucli due to mutation 5. spread to new location - metastasis
"ingredients" for replication of deoxyribonucleic acid
1. free nucleotides 2. energy 3. specidic enzymes
glycolysis
1. glucose is split by 2 ATP into PGAL // this happens when an inorganic phosphate breaks off of each ATP, turning them into ADP , and attaches to each PGAL 2. 2NAD+ comes by and takes two hydrogen, one from each PGAL so two per glucose 3. anohter inorganic phosphate is added to create PEP sugar 4. 2 ADP come to the PEP sugar and obtain the 2 Pi and from 2 ATP on each side 4 in all 5. pyruvate is left
explain alcoholic fermentation
1. glucose is split into two PGAL s by the energy in 2 ATP 2. then 2 NAD+ come, one for each PGAL and pick up a H+ while a phosphate group is being added to each PGAL 3. this leaves you with a PEP sugar which is able to give it's two phosphate groups to four ADP and create ATP 4. the anerobic pathway after wards releases 2CO2 to change the pyruvate into 2 acetyladehyde 5. 2 NADH are oxidized into NAD+ 6. this oxidation turns the acetyladehyde into ethol alcohol
explain lactic acid fermentation
1. glucose is split into two PGAL s by the energy in 2 ATP 2. then 2 NAD+ come, one for each PGAL and pick up a H+ while a phosphate group is being added to each PGAL 3. this leaves you with a PEP sugar which is able to give it's two phosphate groups to four ADP and create ATP 4. the anerobic pathway after wards releases 2CO2 to change the pyruvate into 2 lactate 5. 2 NADH are oxidized into NAD+ 6. this oxidation turns the lactate into lactic acid
3 steps of celular repsiration
1. glycolysis krebs cycle ETC
what are the enzymes used in replication
1. helicase 2. RNA primase 3. DNA polymerase 4. DNA ligase
michrotubuole
1. hollow strucutres 2. made of tubulines 3. functions: - helps maintains shape - imporant in cell division - builds flagella/ cilla
what are Mendel's three laws
1. independent assortment 2. law of segregation 3. law of incomplete dominance
characteristics of mitosis
1. is asexual 2. creates identical diploid cells 3. one round of division 4. come from/ create somatic cells
how are the leading and lagging strand assemeble and why
1. laggins strand is assembled in short Okarsaki fragments 2. leading strand is assembled continuously 3. Because DNA is anti-parallel so the leading strand runs 5prime-3prime and nucleotides can only be added to the 3prime side. the lagging strand runs 3prime-5prime so it must add nucleotides going in the reverse order of helicase so it has to be replicated in short fragments that are then bonded together
what are the 2 stages of photosynthesis
1. light dependents 2. light independednt // calvin cycle
characteristics of meiosis
1. not asexual because it does not produce identical cells 2. produces haploid gamete cells 3. begins with a somatic cell 4. two rounds of division
what are the assumptions of natural selection
1. not enough resources for all organisms to survive - genetic variation exists in all population
descirbe the steps of protein synthesis
1. nucleus gives dirrection for how to make proteins 2. rough ER uses materials in ribosomes to make amino acids 3. smooth ER modifies the protein 4. Golgi apparatus packages, modifies, and tansport proeins
scienfic method
1. observe -gather info//research//use senses 2. question 3. hypothesise 4. design/ carry out experiement 5. analyze data 6. write a conclusion
what are the 5 levels of biotic factors
1. organism 2. population 3. community 4. ecosystem 5. bioshere
chlororplasts
1. own genetic material 2. only in plant cells 3. function: -capture sun energy//photons// -convert suns energy to chemical energy
how does ATP synthase of photosynthesis work
1. photosystem 2 breaks apart water and H+ is in the thylakoid 2. due to contraation graident H+ want to go from theylakoid into the stroma 3. this motion of H+ passing through ATP synthase is like water passing through turbines creating energy 4. This energy is used to bond a phosphate group to the ADP
what are the growth patters
1. pretatorial 2. logistic (S curve) 3. expodention
what are the steps of meiosis
1. prophase 1 2. metaphase1 3. anaphase1 4. telophase/cytokinesis1 5. prohase 2 6. metaphase 2 7. anaphase 2 8. telophase 2
cell membrane
1. regulates what movess in and out 2. provides containment 3. phospolipid bilayer and protein pumps and carbohydrate markers
mendles laws
1. segregation 2. independent assortment 3. complete dominance
nucleolus
1. small dense region where ribosomes are made 2. inside nucleus
what are the four polysacchrides
1. starch 2. glycogen 3. cellulose 4. chitin
rough endoplamsic reticulum
1. sythesiszes proteins 2. newly made proteins leave ribosomes and insert into the rough ER to be modifid and exported
reduction in calvin cycle described
1. the 6 PGA or 6 molecules of 3 phosphoglycerate are turned into 6 glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate or G3P // PGAL which is phosphoflycerahyde 3. this reaction requires the energy from 6 ATP and 6 NADPH
regeneration explained // calvin cycle
1. the 6 phosphoglecerahyde / PGAL or Glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate/ G3P lose one PGAL to go be made into cellulose starch or most importantly glucose 2. the other five are turned back into 3 ribulose bi phosphate to restart the cycle once more 3. this reaction takes the energy of 3 ATP
What are the steps of Binary fission
1. the cell replicates it's nucleoid is repicated , 2. the cytoplasmic membrane elongates seperation the DNA 3. Crosswall froms , membrane comes together 4. daughter cells form
what is photosynthesis
1. the process that plants overgo that transformed the suns energy to glucose which is then used in cellular respiration
describe carbon fixation in the calvin cycle for 1/2 molecules of glucose
1. three carbons molecules are fixed to three ribulose biphosphate w/ help of the enzyme ribisco 2. this is an unstable 6 carbon molecule that splits into 6 PGA or 6 molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate
what are the special properties of water
1. water expands when frozen//this is a special prperties becasue solids have more condensed atoms compared to liquids 3. cohesion 4. addhesion 5. cappilary action 6. surface tension 7. water gains and release heat slowly//HIGH SPECIFC HEAT 8. universal solvent//because of polarity
cytoskeleton
1.found in ctoplams 2. gives shape and allows movement 3. composed of michrofiliments and michrotublues
what is the purpose of photosystem 2 in light dependent reaction of PS
1/ split water
how much glucose is made in one round of calvin cycle
1/2
third energy level has how many electrons
16
Frederick Griffith
1928 bacterial transformation dead smooth bacterial transformed the DNA of the rough bacteria
Avery, McCarty, MAcLeoad
1944 proved that deoxyribonucleic acid was the genetic material with in chromosomes
Charagaff
1950 1. A = T C= G 2. amount of DNA varied from species to species
Hershey and Chase
1952 1. showed that it was definitely the deoxyribonucleic acid that held the genes by blending bacteriophages with healthy bacteria 2. grew the bacteria with radioactive phosphorous and sulfur 3. protein has sulfur in it and Deoxyribonucleic acid does not and Deoxyribonucleic acid has phosphorous and protein does not so whichever one showed up after the viruses were injected would indicate what the virus injects 4. phosphorous was found so DNA is the genealogical compondent
Franklin, Watson, Crick
1953 Franklin- shattered DNA using X-ray diffration to show its double helix structure Watson and Crick- complete metal model of DNA
Meselson and stalh
1958 discovered if replication is conservative semiconservative or dispersive it is semiconservative
how many electrons does the 1 energy level hold
2
how many times does the calvin cycle have to go around in order to form one molecule of glucose and why
2 cause each one makes one PGAL of 3G3P and 2 PGAL or G3P make one glucose // PGAL or G3P are 3 carbon molecules and glucose is 6
what is a disaccride composed of
2 saccride
Define centrioless
2 tiny structures located in the cytoplasm near the nuclear envelope - they are attached to an end of the spindle fibers and help to pull the chromosomes away from each other during anaphase
how many types of amino acids are there and why
20 // cause R group changes
what is produced in krebs cycle
3 NAD+ become 3 NADH 1 FAD becomes FADH2 one ADP + Pi becomes ATP 2 Co2 are released one H2O is added
how many carbon dioxide are used in one round of the Calvin cycle
3 and it makes 1/2 glucose
what dirrection is DNA read
3prime-5prime
how many bonds/ open valence spots/ does carbon have
4
what are the results of nondisjunction during meiosis 1
4 abnormal gametes 1/2 gametes will have extra chromosomes 1/2 will have one missing
what does mieosis produce
4 haploid gametes
steriod
4-ring structure make horomones
define telophase
4th and final step of mitosis chromosomes are at opposite ends of the cell spindle fibers disappear nuclear envelopes reappear - opposite of prophase
regeneration
5 PGAL are condensed into 3 RuBP
what dirrection is DNA replicate
5 prime- 3 prime
how many ribucolse bi phosphate or RuBP are needed at the begining of the calvin cycle in order to make one molecule of glucose
6
how many ribulose bi phosphate are needed to form one glucose molecule
6 3 per round of cycle
how many codons exist
64
how many electrons does the 2 energy level hold
8
how many ATP and NADPH are used in one round of the calvin cycle how many to make one glucose molecule
9 ATP and 6 NADPH in one round 18 ATP and 12 NADPH in one glucose molecule
Define a silent mutation
A change in the codon that results in the same protein being produced becasue multiple codons code for the same amino acid
what is a carrier
A heterozyote that has the allele for a certain trait but is not exhibiting it because that allele is recessive to the other
Define Antigens
Molecules that trigger its specific antibody molecule theese are makrers on your blood cells
your gonna fail?
NOOOOOO okay well maybe
what are the four nucleotides for DNA
adenenine - thymine cytosine - gunanime
purine characteristics and ex.
adenine and guanine double ringed sturcture can not bond together
what are the four nitrogenous bases and who do they pair with
adenine- thymine cytosine- guanime
ADP name state of mind and structure
adosine bi-phosphate released enegy emtied battery
ATP name function and stucture
adosine tri phosphate energy that the cell can use to store energy
biosphere
all ecosystems (biotic and abiotic) combined through out the world // the global sum of all the ecosystems
define the independent assortment
alleles of different traits will be passed on independently of each other
nuclear pores
allow info to get into and out nucleus
surface tension
allows rresist and extermal force due to cohesion
capilary action
allows water to move up small tubular spaces against gravity // due to addhesion and cohesion
dependednt
altered by the independent vairble you measure // your data
population
amount of a specific species at a specific time and location
calorie
amount of energy need to raise the temp of one gram of water one degree C
What is Taq polymerase
an enzyme taken from thermophyllic bacteria
heterotroph
an organism that eats other organism
kingdoms
animal plant fungi protista eubacteria archaebacteria
what are the differences between animal cytokenisis and plant cytokenisis
animal cells : -cell membrane forms a barrier -cytoplasm is pinched to from 2 equal parts - cleavage furrow is formed plant: -cell plate forms a barrier between the forming cells -cell plate gradually forms the cell membrane and then cell wall
Define somatic cell
any cell that is not a reproductive cell
define operon
any gene in prokaryotes that can be regulated
temporal
are fertile at different times of the year
smallest piece of matter while keeping properties
atoms
autotroph vrs. heterotroph
autotroph- makes own food sun or chemical energy heterotroph- obtains energy through consuming both have mitochondira
examples convergent and divergent evolution
bat wings and bird wings= convergent wales losing their hind legs = divergent
why is DNA transcripted into RNA
becasue DNA is the "Master Plan" it can not leave the nucleus and is too valuable to be out where it can be damaged also too big
why does fermentation occur?
because the filled electron carrier NADH produced in Glycolysis have would other wise have no where to dump their electrons and Glycolysis would run out of NAD+
differece between abiotic and biotic
biotic is made of cells responds to stimuli maintain homeostasis ability to grow and develop contain DNA ability to evolve reproduce themselves b abiotic basically do not do those things
codominance
both alleles are present, both traits visible
what are the similarities between animal cytokenisis and plant cytokenisis
both occur at the same time as telpophase in both it is the division of the cytoplasum
hydrolosis
break down water molecules by adding water
funciton of proteins
build structure transport molecules through body signinaling between cells defending agiainst dease facilitate reaction ex. Enzymes transport
what did theodore schwann do
came up with cell theory in 1839
facultative anerobic cell
can do both areobic and anaerobic respiration ex. mucel cells
mechanical
can not physically reproduce
obligate anerobic cell
can only do anerobci respiration
organic compound
carbon based compound
what are the parts of an amino acids
carboxide gorup anime group R group
4 major polymers
carbs proteins nucleic acids lipids
what are the monomers
carbs- monosaccride nuelcic acids- nucleitotides protiens- amino acids lipids- none
why is bottle neck genetic drift bad
cause if only unfit genes survived then the entire species may go extinct
what happens when a cell is submerged in a saline
causes cells to burst in hypo-tonic solutions because they become so filled with water // that picture is supposed to be abt hypotonic. I does not follow the example i described
muliticellular organism
cell specialization -develope ways to do different tasks es. stoma in plant cells open and close to help in photosynthesis
define contact inhibition
cells will stop dividing so that they do not become over crowded
list of organization of living things
cells, tissues, organs, organ system, organism
michrotubuoles condense into __________
centrioles ONLY IN ANIMAL CELLS
semi permentable membrane
certain substances can pass through the phospholips other must go through protein pumps
hydrocarbon
chain with hydrogen and carbon
define evolution
change in allele frequency
what occurs at the G1 checkpoint
check to see if DNA is whole, that it is all in one piece
what occurs at the G2 checkpoint
check to see if DNA replicated correctly during G2 stage to make sure DNA is not damaged
Define homologouse chromasomes
chromasome that have carry the same type of infor but are non identical - have the centromere on the same locous
Define anaphase
chromasomes are pulled apart as spindle fibers shorten
what occurs in the s phase of interphse
chromasomes replicate/ repair themselves
define metaphase
chromosomes line up and attach to spindles via their cetromeres at their kinetochure
how can a small seed turn into a big tree where does the mass come from
comes from the water
ecosystem
community working with its abiotic surroundings
how is gel electrophoresis used in forensic
comparing DNA from crime scene with suspects and victums
acid
compound donates H+ to a solution when dissolved by water
base
compound that released hydroxide when dissolved by water
steriods
contain a four ring structure hydrophobic ex. colestrol
what is convergent and divergent evolution
convergent- two species develope a similiar trait indpenedly of eachoteher divergent- a species specializes
what are the "fold" in the mitochondria and what is their purpose
cristae and more fold=more surface energy
where does glycolysis occur
cytoplasm
how do you build deoxyribonucleic acid
dehydration synthesis
test cross
determines the genotype of a dominant parent - cross the unknown dominant parent with a recessive parent and then analyze the offspring
quaternary structure of proteins
different polypetide cahins come together to form a final protein
Are somatic cells haploid or diploid
diploid
slovent
dissolves other substances
anaerobic
does no require oxygen
hyrophobic
doesnt like water ex. oil uncharged and non polar does not disove in water
do cells have souls
don't do drugs, kids
strand of DNA is a
double helix
inside choloroplast there is a what
double membrane \ thylakoid // stacks gama stroma // cytoplasm
what is co evolution
due to a close relationship, when one evolves so does the other
why is water good at breaks bonds
due to waters polarity, water can separate molecules because opposites attract and the hydrogen is attracted to the - areas of the other substance while the O is attracted to the + parts of the other molecule.
what occurs at the M checkpoint
during mitosis - check for alignment of chromosomes checks to assure that nondisjunction has not occured
describe the shuttle step of cellular repsiration
each pyruvate// two per glucose// has 1. a carbon removed from it and released from the cell as CO2, 2. one NAD+ comes through and takes one hydrogen ion forming NADH //again two per glucose 3. coenzyme A is added the final result is Acettyl Coenzyme A
tumor suppressor genes
encode for proteins that inhibt the cell cycle and promote apoptosis *becomes under exposed in cancer cells
glycogen
energy storage in animals tightly compacted branched
what is the hardy wienberg equilibrium
equation used to look at whether or not a species is evolving
what are by products and examples of organisms that use them, of fermentation
ethol Alcohol- yeast lactic acid- human muscel cells
what are the two main products of fermentation
ethol alcohol fermintation
inheritance patterns
every gene demonstrates a distint phenotype in the heterozygote
what is genetic drift
evolution with out natural selection usually in small populations
true or false ATP is good for long term energy storage
false
true or false mendles law of incomplete dominance is always true
false because other types of dominance were discovered later
true or false mendle's law of independent assortment is always true
false due to linked genes
True or false the introns are never transcribed
false the DNA introns are tranzscribed but before the mrna leas the nucleous restriction enzymes cut out the introns and the extrons are then spliced back together
where do nuclotides that are needed for deoxyribonucleic acid replication come from
food we eat
what do nucleic acids form
form DNA and RNA
tertiary structure of proteins
further folding of polypeptide chains due to the properties of the r side chain not all chains go past this step
reductions
gain electrons
Define structural Genes
genes that code for evey protein besides regulatory genes
proto-oncogenes
genes that encode for proteins that promote cell cycle and apoptosis *becomes over exposed in cancer cells
RNA primase
get DNA ready for replication by prividing a place for nucleotides to sit and be bonded
what makes up sucrose //table sugar
glucose + fructose
what is the back bone that the fatty acids in trigleceride bond to
glycercol
what are the steps of Cellular Respiration
glycolysis krebs cycle electron transport chain
what happens to cellular respiration when oxygen is not present
glycolysis leads to fermentation instead of krebs cycle and ETC fermentation empties the NADH and provides NAD+ for glycolysis to continue
what is the bond betweeen saccahrides
glycositic
cilla
hair like sturctures help with movement just prokaryotic
what did Robert Hook do and when?
he discovered cork cells in 1665
What did Anton Van Leewenhoek do and when?
he observed living organisums in pond water using a simple microscope in 1674
are fungi and protists herotroph or autoroph
heteoroph
concentration gradeint move from ___ to ____
high to low
define heredity
how genes are passed on from generation to generations
what type of bond is between nitrogenous bases of deoxyribonucleic acid
hydrogen
four major element s
hydrogen oxygen nitrogen CARBON
Define 2 sister chromatid
identical copies of chomasome/the one half version of a chromasome/
why is it important that ice is less dense thatn water
in lake ecosytems life is allowed to continue becasue ice floats on water
Where does translation occur
in the cytoplasm
where does calvin cycle take place
in the stroma// outside the thylakoid
where does photosystem 2 occur
in thylakoid membrane
what are the 2 main parts of the cell cycle
interphase and the mitotic phase
What are the steps of the cell cycle
interphase, mitosis/ mieosis, and cytokenisis
what is cancer
is a diseased caused by uncontrollable cell division. A metastasized tumor is one that spread to another part of the body.
hydrophyllic
is attracted to water // charged and polar
what happens to the unstable 6 carbon structure during carbon fixation in the cavlin cycle
it breaks into two PGA or two 3-phophoglyerate molecules
what is a pedigree
it is a chart that is used to show the occurrence of a particular trait throughout particular generations of a family
What is the central dogam of biology
it is the rules for the flow of information -DNA to RNA to Protein
DNA ligase
joins Okazaki fragments together glue
what are short tandum repeats
junk DNA that repeats the same number of times in a certain length of DNA that makes us different - what foresnic scientists study to determine if DNA is a match
classification of animals in order
kingdom phylum class order family Genus species
what are the parts of a ribosome
larger top half smaller bottom half top part has aceptor site polypetide site and exit site
what is the fossil record
layers of sedimentary rock that contains fossils in the order at which that organism was alive farther down the fossil is the older it is
DNA polymerase
lays down new nucleotides by using parent strand as a template and following complementory base pairing rules - moves 5-3 prime// new nucleotides are added onto the 3 prime side - proof reads new strand
light dependednt PS requires _______ and _____
light and water
glycosilic
link or bond between 2 monosacchrides // forms disacchrides
primary structure of proteins
linked together in a long chain
anolgy for enzyme and substrate
lock and key lock= enzyme key = substrate
starch
long term energy in plants chain of glucose bonded together by glycositic bonds
function of lipids
long term energy storage form membranes provide insilation cushion protection
oxidation
lose electrons
golgi apparatus
mail room sorts packages and modifies materials from rough ER for storage or secretino // waste proteins come here after ER
autotroph
make own good through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis
limode
make up white blood cells/immune system
what are PGAL or G3P used for // calvin cycle
making starch glucose or cellulose
who are sex linked traits exhibited in mostly
males because they only adopt one X chromosome so whatever they have they express there is no possibility for a pattern of inheritance in males because males cannot be heterozygous for a sex linked trait
multicellular organism
many organs working together to form an indicidual living thing
tumor
mass of cells
concentration
mass of solute /divided by/ volume of liquid
qualitive
measured by quality rather than quanity ex. leaf color
parts of thylakoid
membrane and lumen and stacks of them make grana
when do men/women begin/end producing viable gametes
men- after puberty till death women- from birth to metapause
what is the Rhesus factor
molecule that can be on human blood cells, you are either positive or negative
moleucle vrs. compound
molecule- mulitple atoms bonded together compounds- multiple atoms of different elements bonded together
define antibodies
molecule/ protein in your body that detect foreign molecules and attack
amphiphilic
molecules that have hydrophoic and phydrophyllic regions
what make up polymers
monomers
what makes something a better energy source in organic chemistry
more carbon
control groups
most natural//used to compare
chemiosmosis
movement of ions across a semipermeable membrane, the generation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by the movement of hydrogen ions across a membrane
what does the elctron transport chain do // the one between phtosystem 2 anbd photosystem 1 in light dependednt raction
moves high energy electrons from PS 2 to PS 1
what does the amount of codons and the amount of amino acids say about their relationship
multiple codons can code for the same allele
are hydrocarbon chains polar?
no
are organells living
no
Can Y chromosomes carry sex linked traits
no a sex linked trait is one that is only located on the X chromosome
true of false calvin cycle is nesseary for life to continue
no because glucose is long term energy storage but the ATP from the light dependent reaction allows life to continue with temporary energy storage
if I were to take 2 monomers and combine them would I just mulitply the chemical formula by 2 to get the products.
no because water is being taken out due to dehydration synthesis
is energy required in diffusion
no due to concentration gradient
in spermogenesis and oogenesis are the same number of viable gametes produces
no there is one egg cell and four sperm
non polar molecules can only dissolve _____
non polar moecules
isotonic
normal // healthy flow across a semi permetable membrane
what type of macromoleucle is deoxyribonucleic acid and what is its monomer
nucleotide nucleic acid
replication occurs in the
nucleus
define atomic number
number of protons//electrons THE TOP ONE
Where do amino acids attach to on the tRNA
on the 3 prime end that does not have a loop
reduction
one PGAL leaves the cell and the other five go back to be regenerated
complete dominance
one pattern of inheritance when both alleles are present only the dominant one is seen what mendle said in his law
what does semi conservative mean
one strand is being replicated it is split in half, the two helixes are separated, one helix is used for telling the DNA polymerase what nitrogenous base to bond to it then the other is used for that same purpose. In the end, two new strands of DNA are created and each one is half the parent strand and half a newly created strand.
define law of segregation
only one allele from each parent gets passed on to the offspring
what ocurs in the G2 stage of interphase
organells and molecules for cell division are produced
Define transgenic organisms
organisms that is expressing a gene from another organism - the gene for this desired trait is inserted into the organisms DNA which it then exhibits
valence elctrons
outermost elctrons//can bond
what are the products of light dependent photosynthesis
oxygen ATP NADPH
within a water molecule which atom has the stronger electronegativity therfore making it negative
oxygen // hydrogen is +
what is the hardy wienberg equilbrium equation
p^2 + 2pq +q^2 = 1
antiparallel
parallel but moving in opposite directions.
what is an anti-codon
part of the tRNA that matches up with mRNA sequence's codon
define polygenic inheritance
pattern of inheritance in which two genes determine one trait -results of vast range of phenotypes
what links amino acids together to form a protien
peptide bonds
phospohlipid composition
phosphate group and fatty acid chains
what is the bond between the phosphate group and deoxyribose
phosphodiester covalent bond
what does a cell membrane consist of
phospholipid bi layer protein pumps Carbohydrate chainsd that help with signalling
what make up cell membranes
phospholipids, carbohydrate pumps, and protein pumps
what is an ex of an amphiphilic
phospolipids
first step of light dependent reaction of PS
photosystem 2
biomolecule organic compound macromoleculesa are all what
polymer
another name for protein//1 stage of folding
polypeptide
4 levels of protein folding
primary secondary teriary qatenary
secondary structure of protein
primary stucture chains folding ontop of one another
what are the results of nondisjunction in meiosis 2
produces 2 normal gametes 1 with one too many 1 with one too less
What are the lac operon and trp operon examples of
prokaryotic regulation of gene expression
what makes up chromosomes
protein and Deoxyribonucleic acid
define cyclins
proteins that trigger or shut down cell division
elctronegativity
pull on electrons
where do the products of glycolysis go?
pyruvate ----- krebs cycle 2 ATP --------- cells to be used however needed 2 NADH --------etc
________ yield _______ in a chemical reaction
reactand; products
reactants and products of the calvin cycle
reactants: 1. 3 CO2 2. 3 ribulose biphosphate products 1. one glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate 2. 3 ribulose biphophate
Deoxyribonucleic acid is read ___ to ____ and replicated ___ to ___
read 3-5 replicated 5-3
dyhration synthesis// condensation
removal of one -H from 1 molecule and ..... the removal of a -OH from another in order to form a polymer // removing water in order to build
benign tumor
safe does not grow
what is a codon
safe sex sequence of 3 nucleic acids that codes for anti-codons that hold specific amino acids
isotope
same # of prtons but different number of nuetrons// usually makes unstable
isomer
same chemical formula but structurally different
mixture
seperable by hand
glucose
short term energy storage in plants// longer than ATP but shorter than starch
what is an example of polygenic inheritance
skin color
monomer
small parts that repeate to form polymer
what is the organell that is most abundant in liver cell s
smoothe ER due to detoxification of drugs
What type of cells undergo mitosis
somatic cells
what type of cells undergo mieosis
somatic cells that form gametes
define incomplete dominance
some alleles over power other alleles when they are in the same cell
multiple alleles
some genes have more than 2 variations that exist because there are mutiple alleles even tho we only inherit one allele from each parent
carcinogen
something in your environment that causes cancer
catalyst definition
something that increases the rate of a chemical reaction lowers the reactions activation energy enables reactions to ooccur faster
quantitive data
specific results that can be measured using scienfic tools //quantity rather than quality ex. speed temp growth
define metatisized
spread
what are the main types of structure of carbon backrounds
straight chains, ringed, and branch chains
Define Chromatin
strings of DNA wrapped around HIstones -the uncondensed for - DNA is in this form most of the time
what is the bond between the deoxyribose and phosphate groups in the double helix of deoxyribonucleic acid
strong covalent bond
amino acid bond
strong covalent//peptide
cellulose
structure in plants
cellulose function
structure in plants // long strands of glucose
chitin
strucutral material for fui and eoskelelton
genetics
study of heredity
define ecology
study of interaction between organisms and organisms interacting with their environment
solute
substrance that is dissoveld
what are the properties of water
surface tension- adhesion- cohesion- high sepecific heat- Ice density- Capppilatryy action
flegela
tail of prokaryotic cell helps with movement
characteristics of eukoarotes
* large more comply than P * nucleus contains genetic material * can be specialized cells * can be uni cellular or multi cellular
characteristsics of prokaryotic cell
* no nuclues * smaller than EU * less complex than EU * gentic material is free flowing through out cytoplams //one big thing * never have cell wall
what is a vestual organ (its a tail you cant hide)
Oh no where shall I put my vestigal tail an structure that served a purpose at some point in our evolutionary history but no longer does
What is the basis of somatic cell nuclear transfer
the nucleolus of a somatic cell is transferred and used to replace the nucleolus of an unfertilized egg cell, that egg cell becomes a zygote without going through sexual reproduction because the nucleolus of the somatic cell is diploid which then grows and developes within the mother
what occurs during the mitotic phase
the nucleous divides
function groups
the part of the monomer that helps it do the monomer's specific job
active site
the place where a substrate and reactant meet
osmotic pressure
the pressure applied to a membrane due concentration gradient
facilitated diffusion
the process of diffusion using protein pumps when particles are too large to pass through the semi permaetable membrame
Substrate
the reaactant in an enzyme reaction
how is glycolysis like investing money
the reaction "invests" or uses two ATP in order to create 4 for a net gain of 2
what is transcription
the transfer of information from DNA to RNA
what is the central dogma of bio
the transfer of information from DNA to RNA to amino acid/protein through transcription then translation
What occurs at the aceptor site in the large ribosomial sub unit
the trna fits into the ribosome
What occurs at the e site
the trna prepares to depart
define atomic mass
the weight of the protons and nuetrons P+N
explain blood typing
there are three alleles Ia Ib i there are four phenotypes type A type B type AB type O
unsaturated fat
there is a double bond which leads to a crooked shape
where do "dead" electrons go at the end of the Cellular Respiration Electron transport chain
they get attached to H+ to make them stable hydrogen atoms that then combine with oxygen to form water
types of mutations
Silent- no effect on the protein because the change forms a codon that codes for the same amino acid Point- mutation that only affects one amino acid, can possibly terminate protein too early Frameshift- either an insertion or deletion that damages every codon and therefore every amino acid after the point of mutation
Why do chromasome exist
So that everything is split evently and organised durring cell division
what is chargaffs rule
The amount of adenine and thymine should be the same just as cytosine and thymine should be. Ratio between pyrimidines and purines should be the same.
what is a karyotype
The chromosomes are organized by size largest to smallest. You could see if a person has any chromosomal disorders or if they are a male or female.// 23rd pair of homologous chromosomes will be the sex chromosomes which are not homologous in boys because one is the y chromosomes smaller and one is the x chromosome which is much larger
When is the lac operon turned on
When in the presence of lactose the active repressor undergoes a confromational change and breaks off of the operator allowing for the production of the protein, lactase that processes lactose
complementary base pairing
a = t c = g
Frame shift mutation
a change in the number of nuceyotides wich results in a change in every codon after the mutation -ex insertion/ deletion
define speciataion
a change that causes a species to sub divide into two species
enzyme definition
a class of proteins that are catalysts that only aid specific reactions due to their specific shape very PH and temperature sensitive
Define Genetic generating
a deliberate manipulation of the genes of an organism in order to make transgenic organisms, clone organisms, or perform gene therapy
Define spindle fibers
a fan like structure that helps seperate the chromasomes
Define zygote
a fertilized egg cell
define regulatory gene
a gene that produces a repressor protein that prevents gene expression
Define point mutation
a mistake that occurs at one point in the DNA strand -ex substitution -changes one amino acid
Define karyotype
a picture of chromasomes
Define operator
a region of DNA that blocks the action of RNA polymerase if ocupied by a repressor protein
Define promoter region
a region of DNA where Rna polymersae starts tranzscription
Define Telomere
a repetitive piece of DNA at the end of each chromosome that serves as protection during replication
what is a gene
a section of DNA that codes for a specific protein
What is an intron
a sequence f nucleotydes in Dna of eukaryotic genes that are not involved in protein coding - stays in the nucleous
define gamete
a sex cell
define artificial embryo twining
a sperm and egg cell are fertilized in a peatri dish
what happens to empied electron carries after they drop off their H+ and charged electrons at the ETC ex. FADH2 ---> FAD NADH ------> NAD+
they go back to the Krebs cycle and glycolysis to be recharged
behavoiral
they have different mating rituals
Is a virus alive?
this is a controvesial topic but officially it is not because it can not respond to it's environment until it senses a cell to attach to
how many carbon atoms and phosphate groups are in one molecule of PGAL or G3P / calvin cycle
three carbon atomsvand one phosphate group
pyrimideines
thymine cytosine single ringed can not bond together // CuT the PY
define denaturing
to break down, see denaturing of enzymes FIND IT
thermal energy
total amount enegy associated w/ movement of atoms
define sex linked trait
traits that can only be passed down by the mother because they are located on the X chromosome,
what is trisomy and what is monsomy
tri= three so one extra chromosome mono= one so one missing
Is RNA modified in all organisms
trick question you idiots its only modified in the nucleous and prokaryotes dont have nuclius
which climate is most moderate and why//another name for this property is _____
tropical becasue water gains and release heat slowly//tropical is by water//high-specific heat
true or false every cell in an organism contains all DNA even DNA that that specific cell is not using
true
Eukaryota
true nucleus- membrane bound membrane containing DNA
solution
two or more substances// can not sperate by hand
osmosis
type of diffusion specifically WATER through a semi permatable membrane
job of helicase
un twin double helix split hydrogen bonds between nitrogenous bases
cancer
unregulated cell growth
are oils saturated or un
unsaturated because they are liqiud at room temp
geographic
uphysical barrier between species ex. ocean
bacteriophages
viruses that infect bacteria
if every cell has all the DNA then why are some cells different from others
Because different genes are turned on or off depending on the cells needs/jobs/functions/ why am i still typing
how do you set up a dihybrid cross
FOIL to get the gametes then a 4 by 4 box
polarity
For ex. in water the oxygen atom has a stronger electronegativity on electrons which causes the electrons in the cavalent bond to hang out around oxygen making it slightly more - than the hydrogen
what are the checkpoints of the cell cycle
G1/S G2/S M
hydrogen ion
H+ acidic
two types of choloresterol and their difference
HDL- more protein than lipid // good LDL- more lipid than protein // bad
independent variable
I the scientists change it
what happens to RNA after its job
IT DIES LIKE YOUR DREAM, it is less important/more disposable
HYDROXIDE
OH- basic
what can a polar molecule dissolve
ONLY other polar molecules
Define Kinetiture
Point of attachment of spindle fibers at the cetromere
Who invented cell theory and when?
Theodor Schwann in 1839
Activation energy
the amount of energy needed for a reaction to occur
What occurs at the P site
the anticodon is momentarially bonded to the Mran codon and the amino acid that the trna held is added to the growing polypetide chain
Define Centromere
the center of a chromasome - the divider between the p and q regions
reactant
the chemicals that go into a chemical reaction before it changeds
fermenration
the combined process of glycolysis and the pathway that follows when oxygen is not present
define cloneing
the creation of an organisum that is genetically identical to its parent
what is the stroma
the cytoplasm of chloroplast
what DNA gets transcribed into RNA
the genes necessary to provide that cells particular function "can you keep typing" -yanya
where does the Krebs cycle occur
the mitochondira
diffences between cell membrane and cell wall
wall- * function- provide support and protection * composed of cellulose and proteins * found in plant cells along with cell membrane * rigid Membrane- * regulates flow of materials into and out of cell * thing and flexible * found in all cells * composed of phospolips/ protein pumps/ carbohydrate markers
cohesion
water is attracted to water
aerobic
water is needed
addhesion
water molecules stick to other molecules
what is the bottle drift genetic drift
when a catastrophic event occurs and the survivors are the only one that can affect the gene pool of future generations, results in less variation and if the survivors all contain unfit genes, the species could die out.
Define gene expression
when a gene is turned on or transcribed so that the protein it codes for is made
what is the founders effect
when a group of organisms migrate to a new area that is geographically separated from the rest of the species and that gene pool becomes isolated
denature
when a protien breaks down and can no longer function due to a change in its enviorment
incomplete dominance
when both alleles are present the 2 traits blend together and create and intermediate trait
diffusion
when particles move from high concentrated to low concentrated
what is adaptive radiation
when single species evolves into several species due to adaptations -the diversification of a group of organisms into forms filling different ecological niches.
what are lumen
where pigments are contained within thylakoid
p + q + 1
yall should know that by now
are PGAL and G3P the same molecule
yes, phosphoglycerahyde glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate same molecule
