MKT 6309 Exam 1

Internal Suppliers

- An entity within the firm supplies marketing research --Most large firms have research departments of their own --Smaller firms may assign a single individual or a committee in charge of Marketing Research

Advantages of Longitudinal Designs

- Detecting change - Large amount of data collection - Accuracy

Disadvantages of Cross-Sectional Designs

- Detecting change - Large amount of data collection - Accuracy

Evolution of the Marketing Research Industry

- Earliest questionnaire surveys began around 1824 - Charles Coolidge Parlin conducted the first continuous and organized marketing research in 1911 for the Curtis Publishing Company - The purpose of Parlin's research was to increase advertising for The Saturday Evening Post magazine - AC Nielsen started his firm in 1922 - Robert Merton introduced focus groups

Growth of the need for marketing research:

- Industrial Revolution led to manufacturers producing goods for distant markets - manufacturers needed to know about faraway consumers - this led to the growing need for marketing research

Primary Scales of Measurement: Ordinal Scale

- Measurement in which numbers are assigned to data on the basis of some order (e.g., more than, greater than) of objects -- Also take on the properties of nominal scale (identification) ▪ Brand Preference: Rank the following mascara brands (1=Most preferred, 4=Least preferred) __ Clinique __ Cover Girl __ Estee Lauder __ Maybelline ▪ Average: Median (midpoint), Mode • A ranking scale in which numbers are assigned to objects to indicate the relative extent to which the objects possess some characteristic. • Can determine whether an object has more or less of a characteristic than some other object, but not how much more or less. • Any series of numbers can be assigned that preserves the ordered relationships between the objects. • In addition to the counting operation allowable for nominal scale data, ordinal scales permit the use of statistics based on centiles, e.g., percentile, quartile, median.

Primary Scales of Measurement: Interval Scale

- Measurement in which the assigned numbers legitimately allow the comparison of the size of the differences among and between numbers - Also take on the properties of nominal (identification) and ordinal (rank order) scales --▪ Brand Attitude: What is your feeling toward each of the following mascara brands (1=Negative, 5=Positive)? --▪ Average: Mean (arithmetic average), Median, Mode • Numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal values in the characteristic being measured. • It permits comparison of the differences between objects. • The location of the zero point is not fixed. Both the zero point and the units of measurement are arbitrary. • Any positive linear transformation of the form y = a + bx will preserve the properties of the scale. • It is not meaningful to take ratios of scale values. • Statistical techniques that may be used include all of those that can be applied to nominal and ordinal data, and in addition the arithmetic mean, standard deviation, and other statistics commonly used in marketing research.

Primary Scales of Measurement: Ratio Scale

- Measurement that has a natural, or absolute, zero and therefore allows the comparison of absolute magnitudes of the numbers - Also take on the properties of nominal (identification), ordinal (rank order), and interval (rating) scales --▪ Units Sold: How many cases of each of the following mascaras were sold last month? - Average: Geometric & Harmonic Means, Mean, Median, Mode • Possesses all the properties of the nominal, ordinal, and interval scales. • It has an absolute zero point. • It is meaningful to compute ratios of scale values. • Only proportionate transformations of the form y = bx, where b is a positive constant, are allowed. • All statistical techniques can be applied to ratio data.

Primary Scales of Measurement

- Nominal: numbers assigned to runners - Ordinal: rank order of winners - Interval: performance rating on a 0-to-10 scale - Ratio: time to finish, in seconds

Primary Scales of Measurement: Nominal Scale

- Numbers are assigned to objects or classes of objects solely for the purpose of identification • The numbers serve only as labels or tags for identifying and classifying objects. • When used for identification, there is a strict one-to-one correspondence between the numbers and the objects. • The numbers do not reflect the amount of the characteristic possessed by the objects. • The only permissible operation on the numbers in a nominal scale is counting. • Only a limited number of statistics, all of which are based on frequency counts, are permissible, e.g., percentages and mode. Examples: -- Gender: 1=Male, 2=Female -- Brand purchase: Did you purchase Cover girl mascara? 1=Yes, 2=No -- Average: mode (most frequent value)

External Suppliers

- Outside firms hired to fulfill a company's marketing research needs - May be organized by: --Function - (data analysis, data collection) -- Type of research application - (customer satisfaction, advertising effectiveness, new-product development) -- Geography - (domestic vs. international) -- Type of customer - (health care, government, telecommunications)

Advantages of Cross-Sectional Designs

- Representative sampling - Response bias

Disadvantages of Longitudinal Design

- Representative sampling - Response bias

Limited Service Suppliers

- Specialize in one or, at most, a few marketing research activities such as eye testing (eye tracking), mystery shopping, field services (data collection), or market segment specialists

Market Research

- Specifies the information necessary to address these issues - Manages and implements the data collection process - Analyzes the results - Communicates the findings and their implications - Helps managers use this information to make decisions

Information

- Used to identify and define market opportunities and problems - Generate, refine, and evaluate marketing performance - Monitor marketing performance - Improve understanding of marketing as a process

Ratio Scale

- Zero has an absolute meaning - Zero = Absence of the property being measured - What is your credit card balance?

Interval Scale

- Zero is just another scale position - Zero = the scale point between -1 and 1 - What is your attitude toward credit cards?

One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design

01 X 02 • A group of test units is measured twice. • There is no control group. • The treatment effect is computed as 02 - 01. • The validity of this conclusion is questionable since extraneous variables are largely uncontrolled.

Key Qualifications of Focus Group Moderators

1. Kindness with firmness: must combine a disciplined detachment with empathy so as to generate the necessary interaction. 2. Permissiveness: must be permissive yet alert to signs that the group's cordiality or purpose is disintegrating. 3. Involvement: must encourage and stimulate intense personal involvement. 4. Incomplete understanding: must encourage respondents to be more specific about generalized comments by exhibiting incomplete understanding. 5. Encouragement: moderator must encourage unresponsive members to participate. 6. Flexibility: must be able to improvise and alter the planned outline amid the distractions of the group process. 7. Sensitivity: must be sensitive enough to guide the group discussion at an intellectual as well as emotional level.

Disadvantages of Focus Groups

1. Misuse 2. Misjudge 3. Moderation 4. Messy 5. Misrepresentation

Advantages of Focus Groups

1. Synergism 2. Snowballing 3. Stimulation 4. Security 5. Spontaneity 6. Serendipity 7. Specialization 8. Scientific scrutiny 9. Structure

Four "Do's" of Question Wording

1. The question should be focused on a single issue or topic. - "What type of hotel do you usually stay in when on a trip?", "Is it a business or pleasure trip?", "Is the hotel at a place en route or at the final destination?" 2. The question should be brief. - Brevity will help the respondent to comprehend the central question and reduce the distraction or wordiness 3. The question should be grammatically simple, if possible. - The more complex the sentence, the greater the potential for respondent error 4. The question should be crystal clear. - All respondents should see the question identically - "How many children do you have?" - is unclear because it can be interpreted in various ways. One respondent might think of only those children living at home, whereas another might include children from a previous marriage. A better question is "How many children under the age of 18 live with you in your home?"

The Marketing Research Process Steps

1: Problem Definition 2: Development of an approach to the problem 3: Research design formulation 4: Fieldwork or data collection 5: Data preparation and analysis 6: Report preparation and presentation

Cross-sectional Design

A fixed sample (or samples) of population elements is measured at one point in time.

Variations in Focus Groups: Dual-moderator group -

A focus group conducted by two moderators: One moderator is responsible for the smooth flow of the session, and the other ensures that specific issues are discussed.

Step 3: Research Design Formulation

A research design is a framework or blueprint for conducting the marketing research project. It details the procedures necessary for obtaining the required information, and its purpose is to design a study that will test the hypotheses of interest, determine possible answers to the research questions, and provide the information needed for decision making. Conducting exploratory research, precisely defining the variables, and designing appropriate scales to measure them are also a part of the research design. The issue of how the data should be obtained from the respondents (for example, by conducting a survey or an experiment) must be addressed. It is also necessary to design a questionnaire and a sampling plan to select respondents for the study. More formally, formulating the research design involves the following steps: 1. Definition of the information needed 2. Secondary data analysis 3. Qualitative research 4. Methods of collecting quantitative data (survey, observation, and experimentation) 5. Measurement and scaling procedures 6. Questionnaire design 7. Sampling process and sample size 8. Plan of data analysis

The Marketing Research Process

A set of six steps defining the tasks to be accomplished in conducting a marketing research study. These include problem definition, development of an approach to the problem, research design formulation, fieldwork, data preparation and analysis, and report preparation and presentation.

Exploratory, Descriptive, and Casual Research

ABC Bank example: • Marketing research at this bank is typical in that it is used to measure: consumer awareness of products, monitor their satisfaction and attitudes associated with the product, track product usage and diagnose problems as they occur. • To accomplish these tasks the bank makes extensive use of exploratory, descriptive, and causal research. • A financial package is being designed for senior citizens. • The following seven-step process was taken by marketing research to help in the design. • 1. A taskforce was created to better define the market parameters, and include all the needs of the bank's branches. ▪ A final decision was made to include Americans 55 and older, retired, and in the upper half of financial strata. 2. Exploratory research in the form of secondary data analysis of the mature or older market was then performed and a study of competitive products was conducted. ▪ Exploratory qualitative research involving focus groups was carried out in order to determine the needs and desires of the market and the level of satisfaction with current products. ▪ In the case of senior citizens, a great deal of diversity was found in the market due to such factors such as affluence, relative age, and the absence or presence of a spouse. 3. The next stage of research was brainstorming. This involved the formation of many different financial packages aimed at the target market. In this case, a total of 10 ideas were generated. 4. The feasibility of the 10 ideas generated in step 3 was then tested. The ideas were tested on the basis of whether they were possible in relation to the business. The following list of questions was used as a series of hurdles that the ideas had to pass to continue on to the next step. ▪ Can the idea be explained in a manner that the target market will easily understand? ▪ Does the idea fit into the overall strategy of ABC bank? ▪ Is there an available description of a specific target market for the proposed product? ▪ Does the research conducted so far indicate a potential match for target market needs, and is the idea perceived to have appeal to this market? ▪ Is there a feasible outline of the tactics and strategies for implementing the program? ▪ Have the financial im

A Classification of Survey Methods

Also: • Mobile interviewing: -- in-app -- SMS/other recruitment

Conditions for Causality

Before making causal inferences or assuming causality, the following 3 conditions must be satisfied: • Concomitant variation - evidence that a strong association exists between an action and an observed outcome. • The time order of occurrence - the causing event must occur either before or simultaneously with the effect; it cannot occur afterwards. • The absence of other possible causal factors - the factor or variable being investigated should be the only possible causal explanation. None of these 3 conditions alone nor all 3 combined can demonstrate decisively that a causal relationship exists.

Ratio data

Can be put into categories --What is your annual household income? $ ________________

Ordinal data

Cannot determine the exact amount (to the dollar) --What is your annual household income? ▪ $0-15,000 ▪ $15,001-30,000 ▪ $30,001-45,000 ▪ $45,001-60,000 ▪ $60,001-75,000 ▪ $75,001-90,000 ▪ Greater than $90,000

Variations in Focus Groups: Client-participant groups -

Client personnel are identified and made part of the discussion group

Secondary Data:

Collection purpose: for other problems Collection process: rapid and easy Collection cost: relatively low Collection time: short

Primary Data:

Collection purpose: for the problem at hand Collection process: very involved Collection cost: high Collection time: long

Analysis of Qualitative Data: Conclusion drawing and verification

Consider the meaning of analyzed data and assess its implications for the research question at hand

Criteria for Evaluating Survey Methods: Situational Factors -

Control of the Data Collection Environment: • The degree of control a researcher has over the environment in which the respondent answers the questionnaire Control of Field Force: • The ability to control the interviewers and supervisors involved in data collection Potential for Interviewer Bias: • The extent of the interviewer's role determines the potential for bias Speed: • The total time taken for administering the survey to the entire sample Cost: • Total cost of administering the survey and collecting the data

A Comparative Evaluation of Observation Methods

Criteria: - Degree of structure: --Personal observation - low -- Mechanical Observation - low to high --Audit - high --Content Analysis - high --Trace Analysis - medium - Degree of disguise: --Personal observation - medium -- Mechanical Observation - low to high --Audit - low --Content Analysis - high --Trace Analysis - high - Ability to observe in natural setting: --Personal observation - high -- Mechanical Observation - low to high --Audit - high --Content Analysis - medium --Trace Analysis - low - Observation bias: --Personal observation - high -- Mechanical Observation - low --Audit - low --Content Analysis - medium --Trace Analysis - medium - Analysis bias: --Personal observation - high -- Mechanical Observation - low to medium --Audit - low --Content Analysis - low --Trace Analysis - medium - General remarks: --Personal observation - most flexible -- Mechanical Observation - can be intrusive --Audit - expensive --Content Analysis - limited to communications --Trace Analysis - method of last resort

Step 4: Fieldwork or Data Collection

Data collection involves a field force or staff that operates either in the field, as in the case of personal interviewing (in-home, mall intercept, or computer-assisted personal interviewing), from an office by phone (telephone, computer-assisted telephone interviewing, or mobile), through the mail (traditional mail and mail panel surveys with pre-recruited households), or electronically (email or Internet). Proper selection, training, supervision, and evaluation of the field force help minimize data-collection errors.

Observation Methods: Trace Analysis

Data collection is based on physical traces, or evidence, of past behavior. • Erosion of tiles in a museum indexed by the replacement rate to determine the relative popularity of exhibits • Number of different fingerprints on a page to gauge the readership of various ads a magazine. • Position of radio dials in cars brought in for service to estimate share of listening audience of radio stations. • The age and condition of cars in a parking lot were used to assess the affluence of customers. • The magazines people donated to charity were used to determine people's favorite magazines. • Internet visitors leave traces which can be analyzed to examine browsing and usage behavior by using cookies.

Step 5: Data Preparation and Analysis

Data preparation includes the editing, coding, transcription, and verification of data. Each questionnaire or observation form is inspected or edited and, if necessary, corrected. Number or letter codes are assigned to represent each response to each question in the questionnaire. The data from the questionnaires are transcribed or input directly into the computer. The data are analyzed to derive information related to the components of the marketing research problem and, thus, to provide input into the management decision problem.

Analysis of Qualitative Data: Data display

Develop a visual interpretation of the data with the use of such tools as a diagram, chart, or matrix. The display helps to illuminate patterns and interrelationships in the data

Step 2: Development of an Approach to the Problem

Development of an approach to the problem includes formulating an objective or theoretical framework, analytical models, research questions, and hypotheses and identifying the information needed. This process is guided by discussions with management and industry experts, analysis of secondary data, qualitative research, and pragmatic considerations.

Criteria for Evaluating Survey Methods: Task Factors

Diversity of Questions: • the degree of interaction the respondent has with the interviewer and the questionnaire, as well as the ability to actually see the questions. Flexibility of Data Collection: • determined primarily by the extent to which the respondent can interact with the interviewer and the survey questionnaire Use of Physical Stimuli: • such as the product, a product prototype, commercials, or promotional displays during the interview Sample Control: • the ability of the survey mode to reach the units specified in the sample effectively and efficiently Quantity of Data: • the ability to collect large amounts of data Response Rate: • broadly defined as the percentage of the total attempted interviews that are completed

Mechanical Observation

Do not require respondents' direct participation: • Turnstiles that record the number of people entering or leaving a building • On-site cameras (still, or video) • Optical scanners in supermarkets Require respondent involvement: • Eye-tracking monitors • Pupilometers • Psychogalvanometers • Voice pitch analyzers • Devices measuring response latency

Multiple Time Series Design

EG : 01 02 03 04 05 X 06 07 08 09 010 CG : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 010 • If the control group is carefully selected, this design can be an improvement over the simple time series experiment. • Can test the treatment effect twice: against the pretreatment measurements in the experimental group and against the control group.

Posttest-Only Control Group Design

EG : R X 01 CG : R 02 • The treatment effect is obtained by: TE = 01 - 02 • Except for pre-measurement, the implementation of this design is very similar to that of the pretest-posttest control group design.

True Experimental Designs: Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design

EG: R 01 X 02 CG: R 03 04 • Test units are randomly assigned to either the experimental or the control group. • A pretreatment measure is taken on each group. • The treatment effect (TE) is measured as: (02 − 01) − (04 − 03). • Selection bias is eliminated by randomization. • The other extraneous effects are controlled as follows: 02 - 01= TE 04 - 03= EV (Extraneous Variables) • The experimental result is obtained by: (02 − 01) − (04 − 03) = TE + IT • (IT) Interactive testing effect is not controlled.

Static Group Design

EG: X 01 CG: 02 • A two-group experimental design. • The experimental group (EG) is exposed to the treatment, and the control group (CG) is not. • Measurements on both groups are made only after the treatment. • Test units are not assigned at random. • The treatment effect would be measured as 01 - 02.

Internal Secondary Data

Example: Department Store Sales are analyzed: • by product line • by major department (e.g., men's wear, housewares) • by specific stores • by geographical region • by cash versus credit purchases • in specific time periods • by size of purchase • and trends in many of these classifications were also examined

Constant-Sum Comparative-Ratings Scale

Example: Please divide 100 points between the following four attributes regarding women's cosmetics in terms of the relative importance of each attribute to you. Total 100 points

Variations in Focus Groups: Telesession groups:

Focus group sessions by phone using the conference call technique.

Variations in Focus Groups: Online focus groups -

Focus groups conducted online over the Internet.

Focus Groups vs. Depth Interviews

Focus groups: - group synergy - client involvement - generation of innovative ideas - amount of information - bias in moderation and interpretation - cost per respondent - time (interviewing & analysis) Depth interviews: - peer pressure/group influence - in-depth probing of individuals - uncovering hidden motives - discussion of sensitive topics - interviewing respondents who are competitors - interviewing respondents who are professionals - scheduling of respondents

Comparison of Focus Groups, Depth Interviews, and Projective Techniques

Focus groups: • degree of structure: relatively high • probing of individual respondents: low • moderator bias: medium • interpretation bias: relatively low • uncovering subconscious information: low • discovering innovative information: high • obtaining sensitive information: low • involve unusual behavior/questioning: no • overall usefulness: highly useful Depth interviews: • degree of structure: medium • probing of individual respondents: high • moderator bias: relatively high • interpretation bias: medium • uncovering subconscious information: medium to high • discovering innovative information: medium • obtaining sensitive information: medium • involve unusual behavior/questioning: to a limited extent • overall usefulness: useful Projective techniques: • degree of structure: relatively low • probing of individual respondents: medium • moderator bias: low to high • interpretation bias: relatively high • uncovering subconscious information: high • discovering innovative information: low • obtaining sensitive information: high • involve unusual behavior/questioning: yes • overall usefulness: somewhat useful

Advantages of Online Focus Groups

Geographical constraints are removed and time constraints are lessened. • Unique opportunity to re-contact group participants at a later date. • Can recruit people not interested in traditional focus groups: doctors, lawyers, etc. • Moderators can carry on side conversations with individual respondents. • There is no travel, videotaping, or facilities to arrange so the cost is much lower

Overview of Ethical Issues in Marketing Research

I. Problem Definition: • Using surveys as a guise for selling or fundraising • Personal agendas of the researcher or client • Conducting unnecessary research II. Developing an Approach: • Using findings and models developed for specific clients or projects for other projects • Soliciting proposals to gain research expertise without pay III. Research Design: • Formulating a research design more suited to the researcher's rather than the client's needs • Using secondary data that are not applicable or have been gathered through questionable means • Disguising the purpose of the research • Soliciting unfair concessions from the researcher • Not maintaining anonymity of respondents • Disrespecting privacy of respondents • Misleading respondents • Disguising observation of respondents • Embarrassing or putting stress on respondents • Using measurement scales of questionable reliability and validity • Designing overly long questionnaires, overly sensitive questions • Using inappropriate sampling procedures and sample size IV. Fieldwork: • Pressurizing respondents • Using questionable fieldwork procedures V. Data Preparation and Analysis: • Identifying and discarding unsatisfactory respondents • Using statistical techniques when the underlying assumptions are violated • Interpreting the results and making incorrect conclusions and recommendations VI. Report Preparation and Presentation: • Incomplete reporting • Biased reporting • Inaccurate reporting

Depth Interview Techniques: Laddering

In laddering, the line of questioning proceeds from product characteristics (wide body aircraft) to user characteristics I feel good about myself). This technique allows the researcher to tap into the consumer's network of meanings. Wide body aircraft (product characteristic)-->I can get more work done-->I accomplish more-->I feel good about myself (user characteristic) Advertising theme: You will feel good about yourself when flying our airline. "You're the boss."

Mobile Marketing Research - Social Media

MMR firms have created Software Development Kits for app publishers to integrate the survey tool into their apps. Alternatively, the sample of mobile users is sent a SMS containing a survey invitation. • Mobile surveys share many of the features of other selfadministered surveys (mail, mail panel, email, and Internet). These include control of the data collection environment, control of the field force, potential for interviewer bias, and all the respondent factors (perceived anonymity, social desirability, obtaining sensitive information, low incidence rate and respondent control). In terms of speed, they are similar (or better) than Internet surveys but can cost more. • The main disadvantages of mobile surveys lie in the task factors. The diversity of questions and flexibility are low given the limited size of the mobile device, especially smart phones. The use of physical stimuli is low to moderate. • Sample control is low to moderate. Sample representativeness may be another serious issue. • The quantity of data is low. Surveys must be kept short and simple. The norm is to ask no more than 15 questions and the entire process to take less than 15 minutes. • MMR can be combined with other survey modes, particularly CAPI and CATI.

Level of Measurement: Metric Measurement

Metric measures have: - Order: meaning that responses can be arranged from lesser to greater - Distance: responses can be compared to see how many units separate them

A Classification of Observation Methods:

Observation Methods: • personal observation • mechanical observation • audit • content analysis • trace analysis

Criteria for Evaluating Survey Methods: Respondent Factors -

Perceived Anonymity: • refers to the respondents' perceptions that their identities will not be discerned by the interviewer or the researcher. Social Desirability/Sensitive Information: • the tendency of the respondents to give answers that are socially acceptable, whether or not they are true. With some exceptions, obtaining sensitive information is inversely related to social desirability Incidence Rate: • refers to rate of occurrence of persons eligible to participate in the study Respondent Control: • Methods that allow respondents control over the interviewing process will solicit greater cooperation and are therefore desirable

Measurement: Operational Definition

Properties: - gender - age -income level - brand preference - evaluation of brand - likely to buy Operational Definition: - male, female - 1-20, 26-50K, 51-75K, 76-100K, >100K - Samsung, Sony, LG, Toshiba, Philips - Poor, fair, good, very good, excellent - Not likely, somewhat likely, very likely

Four "Do Not's" of Questionnaire Wording

Questions should not be: - Leading - Loaded - Double-barreled - Overstated 1. Do not "lead" the respondent to a particular answer - A leading question gives the respondent a strong cue or expectation as to how to answer, therefore biasing responses - Questions can be leading based on structure, content, and/or delivery. - Example: Don't you think fast food has too many calories? 2. Do not have "loaded" wording or phrasing. - "Since our founding fathers gave us the right to own guns, are you in favor of proposed laws restricting gun ownership?" - Loaded questions are biased but they differ from leading questions in that they contain wording elements that make reference to universal beliefs or rules of behavior 3. Do not use "double-barreled" questions - A double-barreled question is really two questions posed in one question --"Were you satisfied with the restaurant's food and service?" - Sometimes, double-barreled questions are not obvious --How can someone who is retired and a full-time student answer if they can only choose one? 4. Do not use words to overstate the condition. - An overstated question is one that places undue emphasis on some aspect of the topic. It uses what might be considered "dramatics" to describe the topic - "How much do you think you would pay for a pair of sunglasses that will protect your eyes from the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays, which are known to cause blindness?"

Problem-Solving Research

Research that is undertaken to help solve specific marketing problems. - segmentation research - product research - pricing research - promotion research - distribution research

Expressive Techniques: Role playing

Respondents are asked to play the role or assume the behavior of someone else.

Word Association

Respondents are presented with a list of words, one at a time, and asked to respond to each with the first word that comes to mind. The words of interest, called test words, are interspersed throughout the list which also contains some neutral, or filler words to disguise the purpose of the study. Responses are analyzed by calculating: (1) the frequency with which any word is given as a response; (2) the amount of time that elapses before a response is given; and (3) the number of respondents who do not respond at all to a test word within a reasonable period of time.

Scaling

Scaling involves creating a continuum upon which measured objects are located. Consider an attitude scale from 1 to 10. Each respondent is assigned a number from 1 to 10, with 1 = Extremely Unfavorable, and 10 = Extremely Favorable. Measurement is the actual assignment of a number from 1 to 10 to each respondent. Scaling is the process of placing the respondents on a continuum with respect to their attitude toward department stores.

Analysis of Qualitative Data: Data reduction

Select which aspects of the data are to be emphasized, minimized, or set aside for the project at hand.

Marketing Research & Social Media: Surveys

Short surveys can be administered on the social media site itself, e.g., a Facebook page. For longer surveys, a link can be provided on the site that directs the user to the survey site.

Hypotheses

Since hypotheses are essentially statements of the decision alternative's assumed consequences, they can be very helpful in determining the research objective.

Criteria for the Selection of Test Markets:

Test Markets should have the following qualities: • Be large enough to produce meaningful projections. They should contain at least 2% of the potential actual population. • Be representative: - demographically - with respect to product consumption behavior - with respect to media usage- with respect to competition • Be relatively isolated in terms of media and physical distribution. • Have normal historical development in the product class. • Have marketing research and auditing services available. • Not be over-tested.

Step 6: Report Preparation and Presentation

The entire project should be documented in a written report that addresses the specific research questions identified; describes the approach, the research design, data collection, the data analysis procedures adopted, and presents the results and the major findings. The findings should be presented in a comprehensible format so that management can readily use them in the decisionmaking process. In addition, an oral presentation should be made to management using tables, figures, and graphs to enhance clarity and impact. The Internet is also being used to disseminate marketing research results and reports, which can be posted on the Web and made available to managers on a worldwide basis. - Although we have described the research process as a sequence of steps, it should be noted that these steps are interdependent and iterative. Thus, at each step, the researcher should not only look back at the previous steps but also look ahead to the following steps. As indicated by the Marriott example that follows, our description of the marketing research process is typical of the research being done by major corporations.

Step 1: Problem Definition

The first step in any marketing research project is to define the problem. In defining the problem, the researcher should take into account the purpose of the study, the relevant background information, the information needed, and how it will be used in decision making. Problem definition involves discussion with the decision makers, interviews with industry experts, analysis of secondary data, and, perhaps, some qualitative research, such as focus groups. Once the problem has been precisely defined, the research can be designed and conducted properly.

Variations in Focus Groups: Respondent-moderator group -

The moderator asks selected participants to play the role of moderator temporarily to improve group dynamics.

Paired Comparison

The most common method of taste testing is paired comparison. The consumer is asked to sample two different products and select the one with the most appealing taste. The test is done in private and a minimum of 1,000 responses is considered an adequate sample. A blind taste test for a soft drink, where imagery, self-perception and brand reputation are very important factors in the consumer's purchasing decision, may not be a good indicator of performance in the marketplace. The introduction of New Coke illustrates this point. New Coke was heavily favored in blind paired comparison taste tests, but its introduction was less than successful, because image plays a major role in the purchase of Coke.

Expressive Techniques: Third-person technique

The respondent is presented with a verbal or visual situation and the respondent is asked to relate the beliefs and attitudes of a third person rather than directly expressing personal beliefs and attitudes. This third person may be a friend, neighbor, colleague, or a "typical" person.

Variations in Focus Groups: Dueling-moderator group -

There are two moderators, but they deliberately take opposite positions on the issues to be discussed.

Variations in Focus Groups: Mini groups -

These groups consist of a moderator and only 4 or 5 respondents

Variations in Focus Groups: Two-way focus group -

This allows one target group to listen to and learn from a related group. For example, a focus group of physicians viewed a focus group of arthritis patients discussing the treatment they desired.

Commonly Used Synthetic Metric Scales

We measure: - Objective properties, which are physically verifiable characteristics such as age, gender, number of bottles purchased, or last store visited - Subjective properties, which cannot be directly observed because they are mental constructs such as a person's attitudes, opinions, or intentions --▪ The marketing researcher must ask a respondent to translate his or her mental constructs onto an intensity continuum

One-Shot Case Study

X 01 • A single group of test units is exposed to a treatment X. • A single measurement on the dependent variable is taken (01). • There is no random assignment of test units. • The one-shot case study is more appropriate for exploratory than for conclusive research.

Likert Scales

are commonly used by marketing researchers - respondents are asked to indicate their degree or agreement or disagreement on a symmetric agree-disagree scale for each of a series of statements - A statement is made and the respondent is asked to what degree they agree or disagree with the statement

Measurement and Scaling - Measurement:

assigning numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects according to certain pre-specified rules

Depth Interview Techniques: Symbolic Analysis

attempts to analyze the symbolic meaning of objects by comparing them with their opposites. The logical opposites of a product that are investigated are: non-usage of the product, attributes of an imaginary "non-product," and opposite types of products. "What would it be like if you could no longer use airplanes?" "Without planes, I would have to rely on emails, letters, and long-distance calls." Airlines sell to the managers face-to-face communication Advertising theme: The airline will do the same thing for a manager as Federal Express does for a package

Construction techniques: cartoon tests

cartoon characters are shown in a specific situation related to the problem. The respondents are asked to indicate what one cartoon character might say in response to the comments of another character. Cartoon tests are simpler to administer and analyze than picture response techniques.

Classification of Computerized Databases: Bibliographic databases

composed of citations to articles

Statistical Designs:

consist of a series of basic experiments that allow for statistical control and analysis of external variables and offer the following advantages: • The effects of more than one independent variable can be measured. • Specific extraneous variables can be statistically controlled. • Economical designs can be formulated when each test unit is measured more than once. The most common statistical designs are the randomized block design, the Latin square design, and the factorial design.

Classification of Computerized Databases: Numeric databases

contain numerical and statistical information

Classification of Computerized Databases: Full-text databases

contain the complete text of the source documents comprising the database

Secondary data

data that have already been collected for purposes other than the problem at hand

Basic Measurement Concepts - Measurement:

determining the description or amount of some element of interest to the researcher; assigning numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects according to certain pre-specified rules. - We measure properties (sometimes called attributes or qualities) of objects - Objects include consumers, brands, stores, advertisements, or other constructs of interest to the researcher working with a particular manager - Properties are the specific features or characteristics of an object that can be used to distinguish it from another object Example: - object: --adult heads of household - properties: -- a. awareness of our new product --b. Intention to buy our new product --c. Age --d. Gender --e. Media Habits

noncomparative scales

each object is scaled independently of the others in the stimulus set. The resulting data are generally assumed to be interval or ratio scaled.

Comparative scales

involve the direct comparison of stimulus objects. Comparative scale data must be interpreted in relative terms and have only ordinal or rank order properties.

Natural Observation

involves observing behavior as it takes places in the environment. For example, one could observe the behavior of respondents eating fast food at a Burger King.

Questionnaire Design Process: Questionnaire design

is a systematic process in which the researcher: - contemplates various question formats - considers a number of factors characterizing the survey at hand - words the various questions very carefully, and - organizes the questionnaire's layout.

Measurement and Scaling - Origin

means that the scale has a unique or fixed beginning or true zero point.

Primary data

originated by a researcher for the specific purpose of addressing the problem at hand

Question Flow

pertains to the sequencing of questions or blocks of questions, including any instructions, on the questionnaire

Classification of Computerized Databases: Directory databases

provide information on individuals, organizations, and services

Classification of Computerized Databases: Special-purpose databases

provide specialized information

Coding the Questionnaire

refers to the use of numbers associated with question response options to facilitate data analysis after the survey has been conducted

Scale Development

requires the marketing researcher to develop response formats that are very clear and that are used identically by the various respondents so that the respondents translate their mental constructs onto an intensity continuum

Problem-identification Research

research that is undertaken to help identify problems that are not necessarily apparent on the surface and yet exist or are likely to arise in the future. - market potential research - market share research - image research - market characteristics research - sales analysis research - forecasting research business trends research

Completion techniques: sentence completion

respondents are given incomplete sentences and asked to complete them. Generally, they are asked to use the first word or phrase that comes to mind. A variation of sentence completion is paragraph completion, in which the respondent completes a paragraph beginning with the stimulus phrase. i.e., A person who shops at Sears is _______________________________.

Completion techniques: story completion

respondents are given part of a story - enough to direct attention to a particular topic but not to hint at the ending. They are required to give the conclusion in their own words.

expressive techniques

respondents are presented with a verbal or visual situation and asked to relate the feelings and attitudes of other people to the situation

Contrived Observation

respondents' behavior is observed in an artificial environment, such as a test kitchen.

Measurement and Scaling - Distance

the absolute differences between the scale descriptors

Depth Interview: Hidden Issue Questioning

the focus is not on socially shared values but rather on personal "sore spots;" not on general lifestyles but on deeply felt personal concerns. work lives and social lives Advertising theme: communicate aggressiveness, high status, and competitive heritage of the airline

AMA definition of marketing

the function that links the customers and the public to the marketer through information

Unstructured observation:

the observer monitors all aspects of the phenomenon that seem relevant to the problem at hand, e.g., observing children playing with new toys.

Developing Questions: Question development

the practice of selecting appropriate response formats and wording questions so that they are understandable, unambiguous, and unbiased.

Measurement and Scaling - Order

the relative sizes or positions of the descriptors. Denoted by descriptors such as greater than, less than, and equal to.

Structured observation:

the researcher specifies in detail what is to be observed and how the measurements are to be recorded, e.g., an auditor performing inventory analysis in a store.

Construction techniques: picture response

the respondents are asked to describe a series of pictures of ordinary as well as unusual events. The respondent's interpretation of the pictures gives indications of that individual's personality

Undisguised Observation

the respondents are aware that they are under observation.

Disguised Observation

the respondents are unaware that they are being observed. Disguise may be accomplished by using one-way mirrors, hidden cameras, or inconspicuous mechanical devices. Observers may be disguised as shoppers or sales clerks.

Marketing Research

the systematic and objective identification, collection, analysis, dissemination, and use of information for the purpose of improving decision-making related to the identification and solution of problems and opportunities in marketing

Measurement and Scaling - Description

the unique labels or descriptors that are used to designate each value of the scale.

Types of Data Collection Forms: Observation Forms

used to collect data in observation studies

Types of Data Collection Forms: Survey Questionnaires

used when collecting responses to surveys

Longitudinal Designs

• A fixed sample (or samples) of population elements is measured repeatedly on the same variables • A longitudinal design differs from a cross-sectional design in that the sample or samples remain the same over time

Performing the Pretest of the Questionnaire

• A pretest involves conducting a dry run of the survey on a small, representative set of respondents in order to reveal questionnaire errors before the survey is launched. • It is important to pretest on respondents that are representative of the target population to be studied.

Research Design Definition

• A research design is a framework or blueprint for conducting the marketing research project. • It details the procedures necessary for obtaining the information needed to solve marketing research problems.

Personal Observation

• A researcher observes actual behavior as it occurs. • The observer does not attempt to manipulate the phenomenon being observed but merely records what takes place. • For example, a researcher might record traffic counts and observe traffic flows in a department store.

Comparative Scaling Techniques: Paired Comparison Scaling

• A respondent is presented with two objects and asked to select one according to some criterion. • The data obtained are ordinal in nature. • Paired comparison scaling is the most widely used comparative scaling technique. • With n brands, [n(n − 1) /2] paired comparisons are required. • Under the assumption of transitivity, it is possible to convert paired comparison data to a rank order.

The Impact of Cultural and Environmental Factors on the Selection of Survey Methods

• A survey that takes 20 minutes in the United States could take more than twice as long in Germany. The German language is not as concise as English, and Germans like to talk more than Americans do. For similar reasons, the interviewing time could be longer in other countries as well, such as in Brazil. • Telephone directories are unreliable in some countries (e.g., some African nations, such as Sierra Leone), because they are updated infrequently. • The incidence of unlisted telephones can vary widely across countries and across segments. For example, in Colombia, the numbers of some members of the elite and upper classes are never listed. • In some countries, such as Japan, China, Thailand, Malaysia, and those in Southeast Asia, telephone interviews are considered rude. In contrast, in some South American countries, such as Argentina and Peru, the response rates to telephone surveys is high given the low levels of telemarketing and the element of surprise in receiving an unexpected long-distance or local call. • Traditional personal interviewing methods remain popular in some European countries (e.g., Switzerland, Sweden, France), Asian countries (e.g., China, India, Hong Kong), African countries (e.g., Nigeria, Kenya), and South American countries (e.g., Colombia, Mexico) due to the prevalence of face-to-culture. • Low literacy rates and/or the lack of a reliable postal system in rural areas might make mail surveys infeasible in some countries (e.g., Ghana, Ivory Coast, El Salvador, Uruguay, Paraguay). • Mall interviews are limited due to the lack of shopping malls in many developing countries and some developed countries (e.g., Germany). In addition, domestic laws might prohibit or make it more difficult to interview people while shopping. • Telephone penetration is low in some countries, particularly in rural areas. In some countries, such as Cambodia, multiple families might share a phone line because of high phone rates. • In countries with high cellular/mobile phone penetration and low hard/wired-line penetration (e.g., Thailand, Malaysia), the use of traditional phone surveys is unappealing. • Poor access to computers and the Internet makes the use of electronic interviewing infeasible in some

Nonsymmetric Synthetic Scales

• A symmetric scale is sometimes called "balanced," as it has equal amounts of positive and negative positions • Not all constructs that researchers deal with have counteropposing ends - The one-way labeled scale is one where the researcher is measuring some construct attribute with the use of labels that restrict the measure to the "positive" side

Scales and Social Media

• All the primary scales and all the comparative scales can be easily implemented in social media. • An analysis of social media content can shed light on the level of measurement that is appropriate in a given project and provide guidance on the type of scaling techniques to use. • Specific measures have been developed to evaluate social media sites based on information that is publicly available, e.g., longevity, output (frequency, quantity), inbound links, technorati, bloglines or blogpulse rankings, number of friends or followers, number of comments, and media citations.

Scales and Mobile Marketing Research

• All the primary scales can be implemented in mobile marketing research (MMR). • However, the smaller screen sizes of mobile devices do impose limitations on comparative scaling. • For example, rank order scaling of many brands may be confusing as respondents would have to scroll vertically and may not be able to see all the brands on the screen simultaneously. This limitation would also apply to constant sum scaling and paired comparisons.

Latin Square Design:

• Allows the researcher to statistically control two non-interacting external variables as well as to manipulate the independent variable. • Each external or blocking variable is divided into an equal number of blocks, or levels. • The independent variable is also divided into the same number of levels. • A Latin square is conceptualized as a table with the rows and columns representing the blocks in the two external variables. • The levels of the independent variable are assigned to the cells in the table.

Marketing Research Associations Online (Domestic)

• American Association for Public Opinion Research • American Marketing Association • The Advertising Research Foundation • Insights Association • Qualitative Research Consultants Association • Mobile Marketing Research Association

Published External Secondary Sources: Guides

• An excellent source of standard or recurring information • Helpful in identifying other important sources of directories, trade associations, and trade publications • One of the first sources a researcher should consult • Examples: Qualtrics, etc

Projective Techniques

• An unstructured, indirect form of questioning that encourages respondents to project their underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings regarding the issues of concern. Sentence Completion can be implemented by asking community members to complete sentences like, "When you talk to yourself, you refer to yourself as .........

Sources of International Secondary Data: Foreign Sources

• Australia • France • Japan • Norway • South Africa • U.K.

Full Service Suppliers: Syndicated Data Service Firms

• Collect information that is available to multiple firms - The information is provided in a standardized form (not tailored to any one company) to a large number of companies, known as a syndicate -- Example, Nielsen collects information on what is sold in supermarkets by SKU. This information is sold to manufacturers of those products who wish to know how their products are selling as well as the sales of competitors' products.

Full Service Suppliers: Standardized Service Firms

• Data collected for each firm is different but the method to collect data is standardized - Standardized services include: test marketing; selecting brand names for new products; measuring advertising effectiveness, etc. - Burke's Customer Satisfaction Associates provide the service of measuring customer satisfaction. - Maritz offers a service to help firms develop customer loyalty programs

Components of a Research Design

• Define the information needed • Design the exploratory, descriptive, and/or causal phases of the research • Specify the measurement and scaling procedures • Construct and pretest a questionnaire or an appropriate form for data collection • Specify the sampling process and sample size • Develop a plan of data analysis

Type of Individual/Household Level Data Available from Syndicated Firms

• Demographic Data -- Identification (name, address, email, telephone) -- Gender -- Marital status -- Names of family members -- Age (including ages of family members) -- Income -- Occupation -- Number of children present -- Homeownership -- Length of residence -- Number and make of cars owned • Psychographic Lifestyle Data -- Interest in golf -- Interest in snow skiing -- Interest in book reading -- Interest in running -- Interest in bicycling -- Interest in pets -- Interest in fishing -- Interest in electronics -- Interest in cable television There are also firms such as Dun & Bradstreet and American Business Information which collect demographic data on businesses.

Sources of International Secondary Data: U.S. Gov't Sources for International Secondary Data:

• Department of Commerce • Agency for International Development • Small Business Administration • Export-Import Bank of the United States • Department of Agriculture • Department of State • Department of Labor • Port Authority of NY & NJ

Procedure for Planning and Conducting Focus Groups

• Determine the objectives of the marketing research project and define the problem • Specify the objectives of qualitative research • State the objectives/questions to be answered by focus groups • Write a screening questionnaire • Develop a moderator's outline • Conduct the focus group interviews • Review tapes and analyze the data • Summarize the findings and plan follow-up research or action

Ethical Issues

• Ethical issues related to the respondents and the general public are of primary concern. • Disguise can violate the respondents' right to know and result in psychological harm. • In debriefing sessions, respondents should be informed about the true purpose and given opportunities to ask questions. • The use of qualitative research results for questionable purposes raises ethical concerns. • Deceptive procedures that violate respondents' right to privacy and informed consent should be avoided. • Video or audio recording the respondents without their prior knowledge or consent raises ethical concerns. • The comfort level of the respondents should be addressed.

Marketing Research Associations Online (International)

• European Society for Opinion and Marketing Research • The Market Research Society (UK) • The Australian Market & Social Research Society • The Marketing Research and Intelligence Association (Canada)

Basic Rules of Question Coding

• Every closed-ended question should have a code number associated with every possible response • Use single-digit code numbers, beginning with 1, incrementing them by one and using the logical direction of the response scale • Use the same coding system for questions with identical response options regardless of where these questions are positioned in the questionnaire • When possible, set up the coding system before the questionnaire is finalized • Remember that a "check all that apply" question is simply a special case of "yes" or "no" question, so use a 1 (yes) and 0 (no) coding system. You will want to consider each concept being tested as a separate question

Marketing Research Proposal

• Executive Summary • Background • Problem Definition/Objectives of the Research • Approach to the Problem • Research Design • Fieldwork/Data Collection • Data Analysis • Reporting • Cost and Time • Appendices

Limitations of Experimentation

• Experiments can be time consuming, particularly if the researcher is interested in measuring the long-term effects. • Experiments are often expensive. The requirements of experimental group, control group, and multiple measurements significantly add to the cost of research. • Experiments can be difficult to administer. It may be impossible to control for the effects of the extraneous variables, particularly in a field environment. • Competitors may deliberately contaminate the results of a field experiment.

International Marketing Research

• Field experiments pose even greater challenges in international markets than those faced in the United States. The researcher might lack the flexibility to vary marketing content and expenditures. • The internal and external validity of field experiments conducted overseas is generally lower than in the United States.

Uses of Exploratory Research

• Formulate a problem or define a problem more precisely • Identify alternative courses of action • Develop hypotheses • Isolate key variables and relationships for further examination • Gain insights for developing an approach to the problem • Establish priorities for further research

Issues in International Marketing Research

• Given environmental and cultural differences, a research design appropriate for one country might not be suitable for another. • In developing countries, consumer panels often are not available, which makes it difficult to conduct descriptive longitudinal research. • In many countries, the marketing support infrastructure - retailing, wholesaling, advertising, and promotion development - is often lacking, which makes it difficult to implement a causal design involving a field experiment. • In formulating a research design, considerable effort is required to ensure the equivalence and comparability of secondary and primary data obtained from different countries.

International Observation Research

• Given the differences in the economic, structural, informational, technological, and sociocultural environments, the feasibility and popularity of the different interviewing methods vary widely across countries. • In the United States and Canada, nearly all households have telephones and telephone interviewing is the dominant mode of administering questionnaires. This is also true in some European countries, such as Sweden. • In-home personal interviews are the dominant mode of collecting survey data in many European countries, such as Switzerland, and in newly industrialized countries (NICs) or developing countries. • Although mall intercepts are being conducted in some European countries, such as Sweden, they are not popular in other European countries or in developing countries. • Central location/street interviews constitute the dominant method of collecting survey data in France and the Netherlands. • Due to their low cost, mail surveys continue to be used in most developed countries where literacy is high and the postal system is well developed. In Africa, Asia, and South America, however, the use of mail surveys and mail panels is low because of illiteracy and the large proportion of the population living in rural areas. • Access to the Web or email is limited in many countries, particularly developing countries. Hence, the use of electronic surveys is not feasible, especially for interviewing households in rural areas. • Different incentives are more or less effective in improving response rates in different countries. In Japan, it is more appropriate to use gifts with business surveys rather than cash as incentives. The same is true for household surveys in Mexico. • When collecting data from different countries, it is desirable to use survey methods with equivalent levels of reliability rather than necessarily using the identical method.

Online vs. Traditional Focus Groups - Online Focus Groups

• Group size: 4-6 participants • Group composition: anywhere in the world • Time duration: 1-1.5 hours • Physical setting: researcher has little control • Respondent identity: difficult to verify • Respondent attentiveness: respondents can engage in other tasks • Respondent recruiting: easier. can be recruited online, by mail, by panel, or by traditional means • Group dynamics: limited • Openness of respondents: respondents are more candid due to lack of face-to-face contact • Nonverbal communication: body language cannot be observed, emotions expressed by using symbols • Use of physical stimuli: limited to those that can be displayed on the internet • Transcripts: available immediately • Observers' communication with moderator: observers can communication with the moderator on a split-screen • Unique moderator skills: typing, computer usage, familiarity with chat-room slang • Turnaround time: can be set up and completed in a few days • Client travel costs: none • Client involvement: limited • Basic focus-group costs: much less expensive

Characteristics of Focus Groups

• Group size: 8 to 19 • Group composition: homogeneous; respondents prescreened • Physical setting: relaxed, informal atmosphere • Time duration: 1 to 3 hours • Recording: audio and video • Moderator: observational, interpersonal, and communication skills of the moderator

Online vs Traditional Focus Groups - Traditional Focus Groups

• Group size: 8-12 participants • Group composition: drawn from the local area • Time duration: 1-3 hours • Physical setting: under the control of the researcher • Respondent identity: can be easily verified • Respondent attentiveness: attentiveness can be monitored • Respondent recruiting: recruited by traditional means (telephone, mail, mail panel) • Group dynamics: synergistic, snowballing (bandwagon) effect • Openness of respondents: respondents are candid, except for sensitive topics • Nonverbal communication: easy to observe body language and emotions • Use of physical stimuli: A variety of stimuli (products, advertising, demonstrations, and so on) can be used • Transcripts: time-consuming and expensive to obtain • Observers' communication with moderator: observers can manually send notes to the focus-group room • Unique moderator skills: observational • Turnaround time: takes many days for setup and completion • Client travel costs: can be expensive • Client involvement: high • Basic focus-group costs: more expensive due to facility rental, food, video/audio taping, and transcript reparation

Full Service Suppliers

• Have the ability to conduct the entire marketing research project for the buyer • Most of the firms listed in the AMA Gold 25 would qualify as Full-service research firms • Although many companies specialize, they are large enough to offer a full range of services

Published External Secondary Sources: Directories

• Helpful for identifying individuals or organizations that collect specific data • Examples: Consultants and Consulting Organizations Directory, Encyclopedia of Associations, FINDEX: The Directory of Market Research Reports, Studies and Surveys, and Research Services Directory

Published External Secondary Sources: Indices

• Helpful in locating information on a particular topic in several different publications

Extraneous Variables:

• History (H) refers to specific events that are external to the experiment but occur at the same time as the experiment. • Maturation (MA) refers to changes in the test units themselves that occur with the passage of time. • Testing effects are caused by the process of experimentation. Typically, these are the effects on the experiment of taking a measure on the dependent variable before and after the presentation of the treatment. • The main testing effect (MT) occurs when a prior observation affects a latter observation. • In the interactive testing effect (IT), a prior measurement affects the test unit's response to the independent variable. • Instrumentation (I) refers to changes in the measuring instrument, in the observers, or in the scores themselves. • Statistical regression effects (SR) occur when test units with extreme scores move closer to the average score during the course of the experiment. • Selection bias (SB) refers to the improper assignment of test units to treatment conditions. • Mortality (MO) refers to the loss of test units while the experiment is in progress.

Whether to Use a Symmetric or a Nonsymmetric Scale

• Ideally, when a synthetic scale is used in a survey, the researcher wants respondents to use all of the scale positions • If the researcher believes there will be very few respondents who will make use of the negative side of a symmetric scale, the researcher should opt for a nonsymmetric scale - When in doubt, a researcher can pretest both the twosided and one-sided versions to see whether the negative side will be used by respondents

Uses of Secondary Data

• Identify the problem • Better define the problem • Develop an approach to the problem • Formulate an appropriate research design (for example, by identifying the key variables) • Answer certain research questions and test some hypotheses • Interpret primary data more insightfully

Questionnaire Introduction

• If the introduction is written to accompany a mail survey or online survey, it is normally referred to as a cover letter • If the introduction is to be verbally presented, as in the case of a personal interview, it may be referred to as the "opening comments"

Choice of scales in International Marketing Research

• In developing countries, the respondents might have difficulty using interval and ratio scales. Consumer preferences in these countries are best measured with ordinal scales. • The primary scales should be matched to the profile of the target respondents.

Definitions & Concepts:

• Independent variables are variables or alternatives that are manipulated and whose effects are measured and compared, e.g., price levels. • Test units are individuals, organizations, or other entities whose response to the independent variables or treatments is being examined, e.g., consumers or stores. • Dependent variables are the variables which measure the effect of the independent variables on the test units, e.g., sales, profits, and market share. • Extraneous variables are all variables other than the independent variables that affect the response of the test units, e.g., store size, store location, and competitive effort. • Experiment is formed when the researcher manipulates one or more independent variables and measures their effect on one or more dependent variables while controlling for the effect of extraneous variables. • Experimental design is a set of procedures specifying: -- the test units and how these units are to be divided into homogeneous subsamples, -- what independent variables or treatments are to be manipulated, -- what dependent variables are to be measured; and -- how the extraneous variables are to be controlled.

InfoUSA

• InfoUSA markets subsets of its data in a number of forms, including the professional online services (LEXIS-NEXIS and DIALOG), and general online services (CompuServe and Microsoft Network). • The underlying database on which all these products are based contains information on over 115 million residential listings and 14 million business listings. These are verified annually. • The products derived from these databases include sales leads, mailing lists, business directories, mapping products, and also delivery of data on the Internet.

Validity in Experimentation

• Internal validity refers to whether the manipulation of the independent variables or treatments actually caused the observed effects on the dependent variables. - Control of extraneous variables is a necessary condition for establishing internal validity. • External validity refers to whether the cause-and-effect relationships found in the experiment can be generalized. - To what populations, settings, times, independent variables, and dependent variables can the results be projected?

International Marketing Research

• International marketing research should be sensitive to differences in customs, communication, and culture. • The environment in the countries or international markets that are being researched influences the way the steps of the marketing research process should be performed. • These environmental factors include laws and regulations, economic, structural, informational, technological, and sociocultural factors.

Mobile Marketing Research

• Internet-based search for secondary data can be conducted on mobile devices. • Research firms maintaining mobile panels are equipped to provide panel-based syndicated services. Mobile diaries can richly supplement paper-based diaries. • MMR is particularly appropriate for conducting audits of point of sale, shelf displays, and promotional material as it can capture visual proof to support the other parameters being collected.

Cross-Sectional Designs

• Involve the collection of information from any given sample of population elements only once. • In single cross-sectional designs, there is only one sample of respondents and information is obtained from this sample only once. • In multiple cross-sectional designs, there are two or more samples of respondents, and information from each sample is obtained only once.

Concept of Causality: Direction of Causation -

• Is one of the variables fixed and unalterable? • Is there a time lag between cause and effect?

Factorial Design:

• Is used to measure the effects of two or more independent variables at various levels. • A factorial design may also be conceptualized as a table. • In a two-factor design, each level of one variable represents a row and each level of another variable represents a column.

Randomized Block Design:

• Is useful when there is only one major external variable, such as store patronage, sales, store size, or income that might influence the dependent variable. • The test units are blocked, or grouped, on the basis of the external variable. • By blocking, the researcher ensures that the various experimental and control groups are matched closely on the external variable. • Therefore, randomized block designs are more useful than completely random designs.

6 Functions of a Questionnaire

• It translates research objectives into specific questions. • It standardizes those questions and response categories. • It fosters cooperation and keeps respondents motivated. • serves as permanent record of the research. • may speed up the process of data analysis. • may be used in reliability assessments and respondent participation validation.

Marketing Research & Social Media - Focus Groups and Depth Interviews:

• Just being a part of different types of social media and analyzing what people are talking about can yield a basic understanding of customers. • Companies are creating private online communities, which can play the role of extended focus groups. The members are carefully recruited and membership is only by invitation. • Another way to conduct focus group type of research involves participant blogs. The general approach is to define a specific topic and then recruit participants to blog about that topic. Each participant is given his/her own blog to maintain. The number of participants typically range from 8 to 60. Blog projects tend to last from one to four weeks. • Depth interviews can be conducted by engaging individual respondents in one-on-one conversations.

Ethics and Scale Development

• Knowingly using inappropriate scales raises ethical questions. • It is the obligation of the researcher to obtain the data that are most appropriate given the research questions. • Researchers face an ethical dilemma in scale development -- Most marketing researcher practitioners do not have the time and their clients are unwilling to supply the monetary resources necessary to thoroughly develop scales - --Consequently, the vast majority of marketing researchers are forced to design their measures by relying on face validity alone, meaning that the researcher simply judges that the question developed to measure the marketing construct at hand "looks like" an adequate measure -- A conscientious market researcher will devote as much time and energy as possible to ensure the reliability and validity of the research throughout the entire process

Marketing Research & Social Media

• Laboratory type of experiments can also be conducted in virtual space such as Second Life • All of the experimental designs that we have discussed in this chapter: - can be implemented within the context of virtual world. This is also true of test marketing. - can also be implemented within the context of social media. • As compared to the field, experimentation in social media (real and virtual) offers the advantages of ease of implementation and lower cost. The internal validity may be satisfactory but external validity will not be as high as that of field experiments.

Advantages of Mobile Marketing Research

• MMR has the potential to reach a broader audience, get results faster, lower costs, and elicit higher-quality responses • Global Positioning System (GPS) and other location technologies can deliver surveys to the target audience based on their current or past locations • MMR is appealing in many developing economies, where the mobile phone is often the most frequently used information-gathering, computing, and communication device for consumers and businesses.

Symmetric Synthetic Scales

• Many scales are designed to measure psychological properties that exist on a continuum ranging from one extreme to another in the mind of the respondents -- The neutral point is not considered zero or an origin; instead, it is considered a midpoint along the continuum

Limited Service Suppliers: Other Types

• Market Segment Specialists: - Specialize in collecting data from specific market segments such as Hispanics or children • Sample Design and Distribution Firms: -- firms such as Survey Sampling Inc. and Scientific Telephone Samples • Data Analysis Firms: -- provide assistance needed to analyze and interpret data using sophisticated techniques • Specialized Research Technique Firms: -- provide assistance through expertise in special techniques

Mobile Marketing Research

• Mobile marketing research (MMR) can be conducted to implement any of the basic research designs. • The use of MMR to implement exploratory research is discussed in Chapters 4 and 5. • The use of MMR to implement surveys and observation research, the major methodologies of descriptive research, is covered in Chapter 6. • Finally, the use of MMR for conducting causal research, is presented in Chapter 7.

Mobile Marketing Research

• Most of the experimental designs that we have discussed in this chapter can be easily implemented using mobile marketing research (MMR). • The considerations involved in conducting experiments using mobile are similar to those discussed earlier for the Internet. • Mobile Internet can provide a mechanism for controlled experimentation, although in a laboratory type of environment.

Qualitative Research

• Objective: To gain a qualitative understanding of the underlying reasons and motivations • Sample: Small number of nonrepresentative cases • Data Collection: Unstructured data collection • Data analysis: Nonstatistical Data analysis Outcome: Develop an initial understanding

Quantitative Research

• Objective: To quantify the data and generalize the results from the sample to the population of interest • Sample: Large number of representative cases • Data collection: Structured • Data analysis: Statistical • Outcome: Recommend a final course of action

Unanchored N-point Scales

• Occasionally, a researcher will opt to not provide the anchors, in which case it will be an unanchored n-point scale - An example is, "On a scale of 1 - 5, how do you rate the friendliness of Olive Garden's wait staff?" - As a general rule, anchors are desirable as they stipulate concrete ends of the scale to respondents, but anchors are not mandatory

Full Service Suppliers: Customized Service Firms

• Offer a variety of research services tailored to meet the client's specific needs

Quasi-Experimental Designs: Time Series Design

• Offer the researcher more control than preexperimental designs but there is no random assignment of subjects as there is for true experimental designs -- 01 02 03 04 05 X 06 07 08 09 010 • Series of periodic measurements on the dependent variable for a group of test units • The timing of treatment presentation, as well as which test units are exposed to the treatment, may not be within the researcher's control • Provide more measurements and more information than a typical preexperimental design

Marketing Research & Social Networks

• One reason why social networks can be suitable for conducting marketing research is that they eliminate the cost of building and maintaining traditional panels. • The key is to analyze the characteristics of each social network and choose the network that most closely matches your research objectives. • Social network communities can be used to recruit marketing research panels and are distinguished by some key characteristics. - Membership is voluntary and reputations are earned by winning the trust of other members. The community's mission and governance is defined by the community's members themselves. • These social network communities are in contrast to traditional marketing research panels in which users' roles are determined by the researcher and governed by well-defined regulations. • Online communities range from being open to the public to completely private, closed, by invitation-only. • Private communities are primarily built for discovery and insight purposes and are called MROCs (Marketing Research Online Communities). • Unlike public communities with no limit on the number of members, MROCs generally restrict membership. • Disney set up the Walt Disney Moms Panel featuring moms who answer questions about the company's theme parks and vacation resorts from prospective visitors.

Disadvantages of Online Focus Groups

• Only people that have access to the Internet can participate. • Verifying that a respondent is a member of a target group is difficult. • There is lack of general control over the respondent's environment. • Only audio and visual stimuli can be tested. Products can not be touched (e.g., clothing) or smelled (e.g., perfumes).

Level of Measurement: Open-Ended Measurement

• Open-ended measures are not standardized, each respondent's response is unique -- Example: why did you buy a drone? • Used when conducting exploratory research

Relative Disadvantages of Comparative Scales

• Ordinal nature of the data • Inability to generalize beyond the stimulus objects scaled

Relative Advantages of Observation

• Permits measurement of actual behavior rather than reports of intended or preferred behavior. • No reporting bias, and potential bias caused by the interviewer and the interviewing process is eliminated or reduced. • Certain types of data can be collected only by observation. • If the observed phenomenon occurs frequently or is of short duration, observational methods may be cheaper and faster than survey methods.

A Classification of Experimental Designs

• Pre-experimental designs do not employ randomization procedures to control for extraneous factors: the one-shot case study, the one-group pretest-posttest design, and the static-group. • In true experimental designs, the researcher can randomly assign test units to experimental groups and treatments to experimental groups: the pretest-posttest control group design, the posttest-only control group design, and the Solomon four-group design. • Quasi-experimental designs result when the researcher is unable to achieve full manipulation of scheduling or allocation of treatments to test units but can still apply part of the apparatus of true experimentation: time series and multiple time series designs. • A statistical design is a series of basic experiments that allows for statistical control and analysis of external variables: randomized block design, Latin square design, and factorial designs.

Question

• Pretesting in a research context is similar to test marketing in a new product development context. - Strongly Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree

International Marketing Research

• Problems with data compatibility are even more pronounced when dealing with secondary data from international sources. • Differences in units of measurement for such common economic statistics as personal disposable income make comparisons between two countries difficult. • The accuracy of secondary data might also vary with the level of industrialization in a country. • The taxation structure and the extent of tax evasion affect reported business and income statistics. • The measurement frequency of population census data varies considerably. • For companies considering expansion internationally or managing existing international ventures, one of the first steps toward understanding and monitoring these markets can be through syndicated sources. • Many of the same major syndicated firms operating in the United States, e.g., Gallup, have invested heavily in creating data collection systems to support their internationally operating clients. - Nielsen has made huge investments in European markets over the past 30-plus years, introducing scanner and tracking services at the retail level.

International Marketing Research

• Qualitative research is crucial. • The moderator should be familiar with the language, culture, and patterns of social interaction. • Nonverbal cues (voice intonations, inflections, gestures) are important. • The size of the focus group could vary across cultures. • Focus groups may not be appropriate in some cultures. • Equivalence of meaning of stimuli across cultures should be established. • Line drawings subject to fewer problems of interpretation than photographs.

Controlling Extraneous Variables:

• Randomization refers to the random assignment of test units to experimental groups by using random numbers. Treatment conditions are also randomly assigned to experimental groups. • Matching involves comparing test units on a set of key background variables before assigning them to the treatment conditions. • Statistical control involves measuring the extraneous variables and adjusting for their effects through statistical analysis. • Design control involves the use of experiments designed to control specific extraneous variables.

Criteria for Selecting a Research Supplier

• Reputation of the supplier • Do they complete projects on schedule? • Are they known for maintaining ethical standards? • Are they flexible? • Are their research projects of high quality? • What kind and how much experience does the supplier have? • Has the firm had experience with projects similar to this one? • Do the supplier's personnel have both technical and non-technical expertise? • Can they communicate well with the client? • Are competitive bids comparable on the basis of quality as well as price?

Comparative Scaling Techniques Constant Sum Scaling

• Respondents allocate a constant sum of units, such as 100 points to attributes of a product to reflect their importance. • If an attribute is unimportant, the respondent assigns it zero points. • If an attribute is twice as important as some other attribute, it receives twice as many points. • The sum of all the points is 100. Hence, the name of the scale

Comparative Scaling Techniques Rank Order Scaling

• Respondents are presented with several objects simultaneously and asked to order or rank them according to some criterion. • It is possible that the respondent may dislike the brand ranked 1 in an absolute sense. • Furthermore, rank order scaling also results in ordinal data. • Only (n − 1) scaling decisions need be made in rank order scaling

Natural Metric Scales

• Respondents provide a number that is appropriate or natural to the property being measured • Examples: - Number of times you have purchased Brand A - $ you spend in restaurants per month - Age in years

Methods of Descriptive Research

• Secondary data analyzed in a quantitative, as opposed to a qualitative, manner • Surveys • Panels • Observational and other data

Guidelines for Using Projective Techniques

• Should be used when the required information cannot be accurately obtained by direct methods. • Should be used for exploratory research to gain initial insights and understanding. • Given their complexity, should not be used naively.

Relative Advantages of Comparative Scales

• Small differences between stimulus objects can be detected. • Same known reference points for all respondents. • Easily understood and can be applied. • Involve fewer theoretical assumptions. • Tend to reduce halo or carryover effects from one judgment to another.

Marketing Research and Social Media

• Social media can be a rich source of both internal as well as external secondary data • Blogs, Facebook pages, or Twitter accounts can generate rich secondary data. • Social media tools and sites provide a valuable database that researchers can sieve through in a bid to analyze relevant consumer information. • The archival information and posts from social media such as blogs or Facebook "fan" pages give an informative account of consumer perception and preference with regard to the problem at hand. • Social media are relevant to marketing research in that audiences all over the world can be reached, in a real-time, controlled, multi-media setting • Information gathered from social media is used by syndicated firms to understand the market, answer clients' concerns, connect to consumers, as well as to conduct online research and publicize their reports and company information.

Marketing Research & Social Media

• Social media should be used as an additional domain in which to conduct marketing research to supplement and complement, but not to replace, the traditional ways in which research is conducted • Social media are marked by user-generated content. • Users are able to rate, rank, comment on, review and respond to the new world of media • Social communities open up new avenues for understanding, explaining, influencing, and predicting the behaviors of consumers in the marketplace

Limited Service Suppliers: Field Service Firms

• Specialize in collecting data • Typically operate in a particular area conducting telephone surveys, focus group interviews, mall-intercept surveys and door-to-door surveys - Some firms, such as Mktg Inc., are known as phone banks because they specialize in telephone surveying

Full Service Suppliers: Online Research Service Firms

• Specialize in providing services online - to assist in any phase of the marketing research process including development of the problem, research design, data gathering, analysis, and report distribution

Criteria for Evaluating Secondary Data

• Specifications: Methodology Used to Collect the Data • Error: Accuracy of the Data • Currency: When the Data Were Collected • Objective(s): The Purpose for Which the Data Were Collected • Nature: The Content of the Data • Dependability: Overall, How Dependable Are the Data?

Disadvantages of Projective Techniques

• Suffer from many of the disadvantages of unstructured direct techniques, but to a greater extent. • Require highly-trained interviewers. • Skilled interpreters are also required to analyze the responses. • risk of interpretation bias. • tend to be expensive. • May require respondents to engage in unusual behavior.

Marketing Research & Social Media: Disadvantages of Social Media for Conducting Surveys

• Surveys do not address the responses from nonusers of social media, especially the older consumers. • Survey administration is difficult to control and content may be accessible to competitors. • Response rate may be low because of the clutter involved through the use of virtual communities. Surveys may be dismissed as spam. • Confidentiality is an issue to consumers because of the relatively insecure features of virtual media, thus discouraging the release of sensitive information.

Disadvantages of Mobile Marketing Research

• Surveys must be kept short, succinct, and simple. The norm is to ask no more than 15 questions and the entire process to take less than 15 minutes • The questions that can be asked are definitely more limited than those suitable on web sites accessed by PC or other modes of survey administration • Another serious limitation is the use of video due to bad streaming and other technical difficulties • Sample representativeness may be another serious issue

Ethics in Marketing Research - Surveys

• Surveys often are used as a cover for a targeted sales effort. This practice, called "sugging" in the trade language, is unethical. • A similar unethical practice is "frugging" and involves fundraising under the guise of research. • Respondents' anonymity, discussed in the context of qualitative research, is an important issue also in survey as well as observational search. • The researcher has the responsibility to use an appropriate survey method in an ethical and legal way. • Researchers often observe people's behavior without their consent, arguing that informing the respondents might alter their behavior. This can be considered an invasion of the respondents' privacy. Such observation should only be conducted in places where people would expect to be observed by the public. After observing their behavior, the researcher is still obligated to obtain the necessary permission from the subjects. • The common practice of placing cookies on devices raises ethical concerns.

Mobile Marketing Research (MMR)

• Surveys that are conducted or administered to potential respondents on their mobile devices • The mobile user base is huge and is only expected to continue growing • Mobile internet usage has eclipsed desktop • MMR can be conducted via international survey platforms such as Confirmit, through mobile services of access panels such as Research Now, or through a specialist provider such as Locately

The NYT on the Web: A New Way to Target Customers

• The New York Times created a separate unit, The New York Times Electronic Media Co. • The New York Times on the Web (www.nytimes.com) has drawn millions of users. • The database contains demographic information, such as age, gender, income, and zip code, that ties to an e-mail address for each of the members. • This new database marketing system can identify and customize user groups, target Web messages to specific segments of the population, and adjust the message based on audience reaction. • It can also increase targeting opportunities through third-party data or additional information supplied by the user. • For example, the database enables an automobile firm to emphasize safety to older customers, luxury to affluent ones, and roominess to families. • The system is set up so that near real-time data can be received from the Web that indicates how well ads are performing relative to age, gender, and income characteristics. • Thus, this system allows a firm to maintain up-to-date information on audiences in order to position its products effectively.

Stapel Scales

• The basis of the Stapel scale format is numerical rather than verbal or visual - It has numbers that range from a minus end to a corresponding plus end, and typically include "0" as the midpoint. - The respondent circles the number that best corresponds to his or her feelings on the topic - Using a Stapel scale, a respondent would be asked to rate his or her feelings toward Best Buy on "competitive prices" on the following scale: ▪ -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3

Ethics in Marketing Research

• The choice of a research design has ethical overtones for both the client and the research firm. • Researchers must ensure that the research design will provide the information needed to address the marketing research problem. • The client should have the integrity not to misrepresent the project, should describe the constraints under which the researcher must operate, and should not make unreasonable demands. • It would be unethical for a client to extract details from a proposal submitted by one research firm and pass them to another who actually would do the project for the client. • The client should not take advantage of the research firm by making false promises of future research contracts in order to solicit concessions for the current project.

Why Scales are important

• The choice of the level of measurement for a scale affects which analyses should or should not be performed • The analysis, in turn, greatly affects what may or may not be said about the property being measured • Examples -- If you wish to calculate an average, you must use a metric scale -- If you use a categorical scale, you must summarize the results with a percent or frequency distribution

Marketing Research & Social Media: Observation

• The comments, photos, videos, audio, and other stimuli posted voluntarily by consumers on their social media sites are traces of their behaviors. An analysis of these constitutes a form of observation known as trace analysis. • Some researchers consider participant blogs and online research communities to be examples of e-ethnography or netnography (ethnographic research online). • It is also possible to more directly observe the behavior of interest to the researcher in the virtual world, e.g., Second Life.

The Marketing Research Proposal

• The marketing research proposal serves several functions: -- It states the problem -- It specifies the research objectives -- It details the research method proposed by the researcher to accomplish the research objectives -- It contains a time table -- It contains a budget

N-point Scale

• The n-point scale, meaning a 5-point, 7-point, or 10-point scale format, is a popular choice for researchers measuring constructs on nonsymmetric attributes - Remember that synthetic numbers have meaning only in the context of the scale in which they are used

Observation Methods: Content Analysis

• The objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of a communication. • The unit of analysis may be words, characters (individuals or objects), themes (propositions), space and time measures (length or duration of the message), or topics (subject of the message). • Analytical categories for classifying the units are developed and the communication is broken down according to prescribed rules.

Relative Disadvantages of Observation

• The reasons for the observed behavior may not be determined since little is known about the underlying motives, beliefs, attitudes, and preferences. • Selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception) can bias the data. • Observational data are often time-consuming and expensive, and it is difficult to observe certain forms of behavior. • In some cases, the use of observational methods may be unethical, as in observing people without their knowledge or consent. • It is best to view observation as a complement to survey methods, rather than as being in competition with them.

Ethics in Marketing Research

• The research firm has the ethical responsibility to use only secondary data that are relevant and appropriate to the problem. • evaluate quality and completeness • Data collection might be unethical if the data are generated without the respondents' knowledge or consent and if their use raises ethical questions. • When generating primary data, researchers and syndicated firms should not engage in any questionable or unethical practices, such as abuse of respondents' privacy. • After a detailed analysis of secondary data has been conducted, the researcher should reexamine the collection of primary data stipulated in the proposal to see if it is still appropriate. • Respondents' rights, particularly their privacy, are a salient issue. Obtaining data from respondents without their full knowledge or consent is an invasion of privacy. • Researchers have the ethical responsibility to avoid both uninformed and misinformed participation by respondents in market research projects. • Syndicated firms are playing a significant role in researching ethical issues and sensitizing marketing firms, the marketing research industry, and the general public about these concerns.

Observation Methods: Audit

• The researcher collects data by examining physical records or performing inventory analysis. • Data are collected personally by the researcher. • The data are based upon counts, usually of physical objects. • Retail and wholesale audits conducted by marketing research suppliers were discussed in the context of syndicated data.

Semantic Differential Scales

• The semantic differential scale is a symmetric scale - The semantic differential scale contains a series of bipolar adjectives for the various properties of the object under study, and respondents indicate their impressions of each property by indicating locations along its continuum

Errors in Marketing Research

• The total error is the validation between the true mean value in the population of the variable of interest and the observed mean value obtained in the marketing research project • Random sampling error is the variation between the true mean value for the population and the true mean value for the original sample • Non-sampling errors can be attributed to sources other than sampling, and they may be random or nonrandom: including errors in problem definition, approach, scales, questionnaire design, interviewing methods, and data preparation and analysis. Non-sampling errors consist of non-response errors and response errors • Non-response error arises when some of the respondents included in the sample do not respond • Response error arises when respondents give inaccurate answers or their answers are misrecorded or misanalysed

Marketing Research & Social Media - Projective Techniques:

• The unstructured and indirect form of questioning on social media has consumers willing to project their underlying thoughts, motivations, and feelings regarding the issues of concern • Sentence completion can be implemented by asking community members to complete sentences like, "When you talk to yourself, you refer to yourself as.....?" • Picture-Response Technique can be implemented by analyzing photos posted on photo sharing sites including Instagram, Flickr, PhotoBucket, Shutterfly, Smugmug, Snapfish etc. When analyzing these photos, look for tags, descriptive labels applied by photographers to their own work as well as the work of others. • Role Playing can be implemented by asking consumers to play various roles, e.g., to play the role of a TV commercial producer and post the commercials they have created.

Use of Descriptive Research

• To describe the characteristics of relevant groups, such as consumers, salespeople, organizations, or market areas • To estimate the percentage of units in a specified population exhibiting a certain behavior • To determine the perceptions of product characteristics • To determine the degree to which marketing variables are associated • To make specific predictions

Uses of Causal Research

• To understand which variables are the cause (independent variables) and which variables are the effect (dependent variables) of a phenomenon • To determine the nature of the relationship between the causal variables and the effect to be predicted

Goals of Scale Development

• Two goals of scale development: reliability and validity • A reliable scale is one in which a respondent responds in the same or in a very similar manner to an identical or nearly identical question • A valid scale is one that truly measures the construct under study

Sources of International Secondary Data: Non-Gov't Sources for International Secondary Data:

• United Nations • Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development • International Monetary Fund • World Bank • International Chambers of Commerce • Commission of the European Union to the U.S. • Japanese External Trade Organization

Synthetic Metric Measure

• Utilizes artificial descriptors or numbers to indicate the amount of a property possessed by an object - Synthetic number scales: use of number range, such as 1-5 - Synthetic label metric scale: uses words to indicate different gradations or levels or respondent's opinion such as "poor", "good", or "excellent"

Ethics in Marketing Research

• When disguising the purpose of the research, tell respondents about the existence of disguise at the start of the experiment and allow them to inquire about it at the conclusion of the experiment. • Explaining the purpose and details at the conclusion of the experiment is called debriefing. • The researcher should disclose to the client any problems that arise during the course of the experiment and jointly work out a solution.

Marketing Research and Social Media: Limitations of Social Media

• While the standard for objectivity is high for journalists, expectations about objectivity among bloggers and other social media users are lower • Social media users may not be representative of the target population in many marketing research applications • Social media as a source of samples suffers from at least two biases: from self-selection and from advocacy • Yet, as long as these limitations are understood, insights from social media analysis can uncover useful information that can inform marketing decisions

Marketing Research & Social Media: Advantages of Social Media for Conducting Surveys

• Wider coverage through virtual nature of outreach • Simplicity in implementing surveys due to easy to use social media tools • Ability to field more complex questions with aid from interactive multimedia computing • Responses are more candid due to the veil of anonymity and lack of physical interaction thus encouraging honest feedback • Improved accessibility - Nature of Internet allows tags and URLS to be linked to other sites of interest, thus content of surveys are more accessible. • Lower cost of research - no need to maintain large field force of interviewers and supervisors • Ability to use multiple survey methods. For example, social media worlds such as Second Life allow one-to-one internet phone surveys to be made. • No interviewer bias • Low social desirability • High-speed, instantaneous results of polling

Classification Questions

• almost always include demographic questions used to classify respondents into various groups for purposes of analysis - The placement of classification questions at the end of the questionnaire is useful because some respondents will consider certain demographic questions "personal"

Screening Questions

• are used to ferret out respondents who do not meet research study qualifications. • Research objectives should specify who should and should not be included in the research study.

Mobile Marketing Research

• can be appropriate for certain types of qualitative research including focus groups, depth interviews, and many of the projective techniques. The online versions of these techniques can, in a similar manner, be implemented on the mobile web. • Respondents can be invited to become research collaborators by using their phone or other mobile device to record and send photos, audio recordings, and videos of interest. • Mobile qualitative research does lead to challenges in the area of analysis, as it generates great amounts of data that can be time consuming and difficult to process and analyze.

Concept of Causality

• causation means that a change in one variable will produce a change in another • if two variables are causally linked they should be associated • if association provides evidence of causation, then lack of association suggest an absence of causation • thus, an association between attitude and behavior is evidence of a causal relationship

Syndicated Services

• companies that collect and sell common pools of data of known commercial value designed to serve a number of clients • Syndicated sources can be classified based on the unit of measurement (households/consumers or institutions) -- Household/consumer data may be obtained from surveys, diary panels, or electronic scanner services -- Institutional data may be obtained from retailers, wholesalers, or industrial firms

Advantages of Projective Techniques

• may elicit responses that subjects would be unwilling or unable to give if they knew the purpose of the study. • Helpful when the issues to be addressed are personal, sensitive, or subject to strong social norms. • Helpful when underlying motivations, beliefs, and attitudes are operating at a subconscious level.

Single-Source Data

• provide integrated information on household variables, including media consumption and purchases, and marketing variables, such as product sales, price, advertising, promotion, and in-store marketing effort • Survey households periodically on what they read • Grocery purchases are tracked by UPC scanners • Track retail data, such as sales, advertising, and promotion

Skip Questions

• questions whose answer affects which question will be asked next - If the researcher has a great number of transition and skip questions, it may be a good idea to create a flow chart of the questions to ensure that there are no errors in the instructions. Online questionnaires typically have a skip logic function that handles these transitions automatically

Question Evaluation

• refers to scrutinizing the wording of a question to ensure the question is not biased and is worded such that respondents understand it and can respond to it with relative ease

Computer-Assisted Questionnaire Design

• refers to software programs that allow researchers to use computer technology to develop and disseminate questionnaires and, in some cases, to retrieve and analyze data gathered by the questionnaire. • Functions include: - Questionnaire creation - Data collection and creation of data files - Data analysis and graphs

Methods of Exploratory Research

• survey of experts • pilot surveys • secondary data analyzed in a qualitative way • qualitative research

Questionnaire Organization

• the sequence of statements and questions that make up the questionnaire. • It is important because the questionnaire appearance and ease of flow affect the quality of the information gathered.

Level of Measurement: Categorical Measurement

• where the possible responses are categories, meaning that the possible alternatives are labels that represent concrete and very different types of answers • A respondent selects a category (or group) to which he or she belongs -- Examples: "male" vs. "female"

Conditions for Causality:

•A statement such as "X causes Y" will have the following meaning to an ordinary person and to a scientist. - Ordinary Meaning: -- X is the only cause of Y. -- X must always lead to Y (X is a deterministic cause of Y). -- It is possible to prove that X is a cause of Y. - Scientific Meaning: -- X is only one of a number of possible causes of Y. -- The occurrence of X makes the occurrence of Y more probable (X is a probabilistic cause of Y). -- We can never prove that X is a cause of Y. At best, we can infer that X is a cause of Y