MOCA- Elementary

Converting

Converting a decimal to a fraction: 0.45 = 45/100 which simplies to 9/20. For example: -1.45 = -1 45/100 Convert 3.208 to a mixed number. 3.208 = 3 + 208/1000 Converting a percentage to a decimal: Move the decimal point two places to the left and remove the percent sign. For example: 5% = 0.05 Converting a decimal to a percentage: Move the decimal point two places to the right and add a percent (%) sign. For example: 0.123 = 12.3% Converting a fraction to a percentage: Convert to a decimal and then to a percentage. For example: 2/5 = 0.4 = 40% Converting a percentage to a fraction: Put over the demominator 100. For example:65% = 65/100

Solve For Distance

D = RT Distance= rate times time

Era 2: Early civilizations and the emergence of pastoral peoples (4000-1000 BCE)

Early civilizations began as farming settlements in river valleys and on the island of Crete in the Aegean Sea. The four early river valley civilizations arose in Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indus River Valley, and the Huang He valley. They developed in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates, the Nile, the Indus and Ganges, and the Yellow River respectively.

Mean, Median, Mode, and Range

Range: The difference between the largest and smallest data points. For example, {5, 10, 11, 12, 15, 15, 9} is 15 - 5 = 10 Mean: The sum of the values divided by how many there are. For example, (5 + 10 + 11 + 12 + 15 + 15 + 9) / 7 = 77 / 7 = 11 Median: The middle value of the data set. Odd number- sort the set in either ascending or descending order to find the middle number. Even number- Find the inbetween number of the two middle numbers. For example 10 and 11 would be 10.5 Mode: The most frequent values in the data set. For example, the mode of {5, 10, 11, 12, 15, 15, 9} is 15 because 15 occurs at least as often as any other value.

Sound

Sound travels in waves. It is produced from a source and must transfer energy through a medium. Its speed depends on the medium and the temperature of the medium. Sound travels most rapidly through solids and least through gases. The closer together the molecules, the more frequent the collisions and the more easily sound is transmitted. Pitch and frequency- Higher frequency means higher pitch. Lower frequency sound waves means lower pitch. Sound loudness is called intensity, and is measured in units called decibels. A soft sound- 0 dB, normal conversation- 60 dB, lawnmower- 90 dB, jet engine- 140 dB 85 dB or greater can cause pain and ear damage.

Area

Square: A(s) = s² A(4) = 4²= 16 Rectangle: A = a * b. Triangle: A = b * h 1/ 2 Circle area formula: A = πr² Trapezoid area formula: A = (a + b) * h / 2 Rhombus: A = a * h

Advertisement

Call attention to products, services, or ideas that someone wants to sell or promote. They are found in newspapers and magazines and on billboards. Propaganda techniques are used to distort, conceal, or exaggerate. Some advertising devices learned are: 1. Rewards- a gift or prize to someone buying their product. Example is a toy or extra product. 2. Testimonial- a product is associated with a famous personality. 3. Transfer- People, places, words, or ideas having positive connotations are used to suggest that the positive qualities can be transferred to the user. 4. Plain folks- The product or person is a good fit for common, ordinary people. 5. Snob appeal- The use of the product makes the customer part of an elite or exclusive group. 6. Card stacking- Stressing the positive qualities of a person or product and suppressing unfavorable facts. 7. Glittering generalities- Uses appealing words and images to enhance the quality of the product or person. 8. Bandwagon- the desire of most people to be part of a group/ belong. Buy something since others are.

Common Functions and Characteristics of Organisms

Cell- All organisms are composed of cells. They are the basic unit of life and the smallest unit of an organism capable of life processes independently. Carbon-based biochemistry- characterized by a common carbon-based biochemistry. Homeostasis- maintain a state of internal balance. For example, if the environmental temperature increases, the human body begins to perspire. Response to stimuli- respond to the environment. Adaptation. Adapt to the environment/ change to suit the habitat. Reproduction- the ability to produce new organisms, sexual (from two parents) or asexual (from a single parent). Energy- They produce or acquire in order to exist, grow, and reproduce. Get energy from sunlight and produce glucose or (heterotrophic organisms) capture energy by eating plants or other animals. Metabolism- convert fuel from food into the energy. Excretion is the process of eliminating waste of metabolism. In single-celled organisms, waste are discharged through the surface of the cell. In plants, waste is eliminated by diffusion to the environment. Animals have specific organs of excretion. Respiration- transports oxygen from air to the cells and carbon dioxide in the opposite direction. Cellular respiration is when nutrients are converted into energy within a cell.

Editorial Cartoons

Drawings that express the opinions of their creators. Editorial cartoons and text editorials promote ideas. Persuasive techniques: Symbolism- Cartoonists use simple objects, or symbols, to stand for larger concepts or ideas. Exaggeration- Sometimes cartoonists overdo, the physical characteristics of people or things in order to make a point. Labeling- Cartoonists often label objects or people to make it clear exactly what they stand for. Analogy- a comparison between two unlike things that have common characteristics. By comparing a complex issue or situation with a more familiar one, cartoonists can help their readers see it in a different light. Irony- the difference between the ways things are and the way things should be, or the way things are expected to be. Cartoonists often use irony to express their opinion on an issue.

Earth's Atmosphere

Earth is surrounded by a blanket of air, which we call the atmosphere. Four layers based on temperature: The troposphere is the layer of air closest to the surface of Earth where all weather phenomena occur. It begins at ground level and extends up into the sky. The stratosphere begins at the 12km point and reaches 50km into the sky. This important layer of atmosphere contains ozone, a special form of oxygen. The ozone layer is very important to all life on Earth, as it blocks large amounts of harmful solar ultraviolet radiation from entering the troposphere. The mesosphere begins 50km above Earth's surface. Temperatures are warmest at the lowest level of the mesosphere and coldest at its highest level. The thermosphere begins 80km above Earth. Temperatures increase in the thermosphere because oxygen and nitrogen absorb short-wave, high-energy solar radiation.

Add and Subtract Fractions

Find the common denominator, then convert the fraction to equivalent fractions and add or subtract the new numerators to find the numerator of the answer. For example, find 2/3+4/5 . First step- The common denominator = 3 × 5 = 15. New fractions with common denominator is 10/15 + 12/5 Next step- Solve and simplify 22/15= 1 7/15

Stage 2 of the Writing Process: Drafting

Focused on getting ideas on paper; they do not think about grammar, spelling, punctuation, etc. Writing is organized into the following parts: 1. Introduction- capture readers interest and motivate them to continue reading. 2. Body- the main part. Explains the subject in detail and directly addresses the purpose of the writing. The main points are identified and supported by details. 3. Conclusion- summary, resolution, call to action, or opinion.

Place value

For example: 2045 = (2 × 10 to the 3) + (0 × 10 to the 2) + (4 × 10 to the 1) + (5 × 10 to the 0) For example: 0.67 = (6 × 10 to the -1) + (7 × 10 to the -2) For example: 23.405 = (2 × 10 to the 1) + (3 × 10 to the 0) + (4 × 10 to the -1) + (0 × 10 to the -2) + (5 × 10 to the -3)

Government Categories and Globilization

Government Categories: Monarchy- The supreme power is lodged in the hands of a king or queen (sometimes an emperor) who reigns over a state or territory Oligarchy- control is exercised by a small group of individuals whose authority is based on wealth or power Dictatorship- a single ruler wields absolute power. Deny human rights Totalitarianism- seeks to subordinate the individual to the state by controlling the attitudes, values, and beliefs of its population, as well as political and economic matters Anarchy- lawlessness or political disorder brought about by the absence of governmental authority. Democracies- belief in the dignity and worth of the individual; support the rights of the people Globalization: Interaction among the people, companies, and governments of different nations driven by international trade, human mobility, and information technology. With globalization, political integration is helping erase old borders. Multinational corporations make products in one country, process them in another, and sell them to consumers throughout the world.

Patterns in Shapes

Having a square and spliting it into fors then split the four pieces into fours. Step 1: 1 Step 2: 1 ÷ 4 = 1/4 Step 3: 1/4 ÷ 4 = 1/16 Step 4: 1/16 ÷ 4 = 1/64 Step 5: 1/32 ÷ 4 = 1/256 Notice that this is a geometric series with a common ratio 1/4.

Intrapersonal Communication

Having an internal dialogue, or self-talk. Classroom examples include a student speculating about whether or not he needs braces on his teeth or students wondering about what might be covered on the upcoming math test. Self-talk is an important, for if students are not able to communicate with themselves they will have difficultly learning to communicate with others. They have self-awareness and can concentrate well on what is taught. They understand themselves and relate to others. They are able to assess their capabilities, set goals, and judge their performance. They benefit most from self-paced activities, independent projects, and research.

Stage 5 of the Writing Process: Publishing

Having students create illustrations or other visuals. Students communicate share their writing. Ways to share writing: reading it aloud, posting it on a bulletin board, publication in a class/school newspaper, placing it on a blog or website, book for the classroom, offering it to a local newspaper

Era 1: The beginnings of human society

Hunters, gatherers, and fishers adapted and continually moved to changing locations in Africa, Eurasia, Australia, and the Americas. Stone age; Mesolithic—about 12000 to 7000 years ago; Neolithic—7000 to about 5500); the Bronze Age (5500 to 3200 years ago); and the Iron Age (starting about 3200 years ago).

Finding Interest

I = PRT I is interest in dollars P is the principal/ the number of dollars invested initially R is the interest rate usually expressed as a percent T is time

Rocks

Igneous rocks- Form when molten rock cools and solidifies. When rocks are buried deep within Earth, they melt. Molten rocks can then flow to the surface and erupt from a volcano. Extrusive, or volcanic igneous rock, is produced when magma exits and cools outside Earth's surface. The magma, called lava, cools and solidifies almost instantly as it is exposed to the relatively cool temperature of the atmosphere. Sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks or pieces of once-living organisms. Metamorphic- develop inside Earth's crust when igneous, or sedimentary, rocks are buried deeply and heated or pressed together. Earth's water, air, and land can cause rocks to change from one type to another as well as the use of heat.

Simple Machines

Inclined plane- slanted surface (ramp) used to raise an object. Wedge- inclined plane which moves. Anything that splits, cuts, or divides another object. Screw-An inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder to form a spiral. Lever- A lever has three parts: a fulcrum, an effort arm, and a resistance arm. (e.g., seesaw and wheelbarrow). Pulley-A pulley is a chain, belt or rope wrapped around a wheel. Wheel and axle- A lever that rotates in a circle around a center point, or fulcrum. The larger wheel (or outside) rotates around the smaller wheel (axle).

Function

Input= x value Output= y value Example: (1, 0) the 1 is the input and the 0 is the output.

Newton's Laws of Motion

Newton's First Law- an object at rest will remain at rest and a body in motion will stay in motion unless acted upon by an external force. Newton's Second Law- Force = Mass × Acceleration. The greater the mass of the object being accelerated, the greater the amount of force needed to accelerate the object. Newton's Third Law- for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Comprehension Graphic Organizers

K-W-L charts- can be started in the before reading phase and completed in the after reading phase. It is a three column chart that asks students to begin with What I Know about a topic (activating prior knowledge) and includes What I Want to Learn (setting up a purpose for reading). At the end of the reading, students complete the "What I Learned" column (summarizing) Word mapping- helps students show the relationships among and between words or concepts. To build a word map, ask students to enter the new word in the middle of the map (choose Tier II words). Then have students fill in the rest of the map with a definition(s), synonyms, antonyms, and a picture to illustrate concepts that are related to the word. Students can also use word maps to generate related words, building connections on their maps as they uncover more information about their word. Semantic feature analysis- help students determine how concepts are related. Students compare items, events, or people and identify if they share some features.

Oral Language Development

Oral language practices: 1. Informal conversations- Time to talk about things that interest and excite children. 2. Language play- Exploring rhythms, sounds, and tones that young children delight in as they work and play. 3. Rhymes and song- Experiences in rhythm and rhyme encourage children to play with words. 4. Stories- Children discover new words and meanings as they listen to good stories. 5. Group talk- conventions of shared conversations are learned and practiced. 6. Children combine what they know about speaking and listening with their growing concepts of print and form a solid foundation for learning to read and write.

Volcanoes and Earthquakes

Originate at the narrow boundaries between plates. The Pacific Ring of Fire is an area where large numbers of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur in the basin of the Pacific Ocean. The Ring of Fire is a direct consequence of plate tectonics and the movement of crustal plates. Volcanoes form at places where rising convection currents bring large quantities of heat and molten rock to the surface. Earth's volcanoes vary widely in size, form, and activity. An earthquake is the vibration of Earth produced by the rapid release of energy within the lithosphere. Earthquakes are caused by a break in the lithosphere, called a fault. Faults are fractures in Earth where movement has occurred. When Earth's plates move against each other, stress is put on the lithosphere. The tectonic stresses caused by plate motions build up over time and, when this stress is great enough, the lithosphere breaks or shifts releasing energy.

Electricity

Static electricity- the result of an imbalance between negative and positive charges in an object. For example, rubbing a shoe against a carpet creates an excess of electrons and touching a doorknob and getting shocked Current electricity- Current electricity comes from a electrons moving through a conductor. Conductors are materials that allow charges to flow through the materials; metals (copper, silver, aluminum). Materials that are not good insulators; rubber, plastic, wood, glass. In a circuit, electrons travel along a conductor in closed loops. A source of electricity pushes electrons through the conductor, through the load, and then back to the source.

Whole Numbers

The natural numbers together with zero. W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . . } Every whole number has a opposite/ negative whose sum with it is 0. For example: 2 + (-2) = 0 0 + 0 = 0

Natural Numbers

The numbers used to count. N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . . }

Types of Governments

1. Authoritarian governments- the ultimate responsibility for exercising power is held by a single person or small group. Oldrest and most common. 2. Democracies- the responsibility for exercising the powers is assigned to the people. autocracies- authoritarian governments where a lone individual holds unlimited political power. 3. Oligarchies- authoritarian governments where a small, elite group has the power to rule. 4. Direct democracies- public policy is established by the people themselves. It works when citizens meet together as a whole, it is effective only in very small communities. 5. Indirect democracy/ representative democracy- the people choose a small group to act as their representatives to carry out the policies of government.

Graphs

1. Bar graphs: A chart with rectangular bars that are lengths of the values they represent. 2. Line graphs: A graph that shows information data points connected by a line. A line graph, has axis that correspond to variables. They show over time. 3. Circle graphs: A graph shaped like a disk divided into sections. They illustrate part-to-whole relationships and percentages. 4. Scatter Plots: A diagram that displays values for two variables in a set of data. A mark, represents a single data point. 5. Pictographs: Represents data using symbols that bear pictorial resemblance to a physical object.

Stage 1 of the Writing Process: Prewriting

1. Begin with a purpose. Narrative- retell familiar stories, write sequels or new episodes for favorite characters, or compose original stories. Expository writing requires students to explain or share information in reports, posters, diagrams, or charts. Descriptive- create a vivid impression of a person, place, or event by painting a picture of it with words, creating a sensory image for readers. Persuasive- express an opinion, argue a point, or influence a belief. 2. Identify and narrow the topic. 3. Consider the audience. Function (purpose) and audience are often intertwined and work to inform each other. 4. Consider the form. The form the writing will take is often dictated by the purpose of the writing. While the writing function furnishes the purpose, aim, or goal of the student, the form is a means of achieving that purpose. 5. Gather and organize sources. Students should organize their thoughts before they begin to write by doing these activities: 1. Brainstorming- generate many new ideas or solutions to problems. Students start by jotting down as many ideas on their topic as possible. 2. Clustering- concept webs or maps. The students write many different terms and phrases associated with their topic onto a sheet of paper in a random fashion and later go back to link the words together into a sort of "map" or "web" that forms groups from the separate parts. 3. Freewriting.-write down whatever comes into their heads during a specified time period (5-10 minutes) without concerning themselves with sentence structure, spelling, grammar, or punctuation.

Types of Economies

1. Traditional Economy- There is little difference from generation to generation about who will do what and how it will be done: if your family grows wheat, you will be a wheat farmer, too. New ideas or ways of doing things are generally rejected. 2. Command Economy- government based. state planners decide which goods and services are produced and how they are distributed. The state owns all property and controls all resource. Consumer needs receive little attention in this type of economy. 3. Market Economy- Individuals and privately owned corporations rather than by the government. The exchange of goods, services, and information takes place in a free market governed by the law of supply and demand, which determines the price of goods and services. 4. Mixed Economy. In mixed economies, both government and the marketplace. Individuals and firms enjoy varying degrees of economic freedom, but they are also subject to a range of government regulation.

Economic Concepts

1. Scarcity- When needs and wants exceed the resources available to meet them. 2. Economic Choice- When one makes economic decisions, alternatives must be considered because of limited resources. 3. Opportunity Cost- Whenever limited resources are used to satisfy one want or need, there are other wants and needs that remain unsatisfied. Opportunity cost is the next best alternative that must be given up when a choice is made. 4. Goods- Physical, tangible products used to satisfy people's wants and needs. 5. Services- Activities that provide direct satisfaction of wants and needs. 6. Resources- The labor, capital, land, and entrepreneurship used to produce goods and services. 7. Natural Resources- land, water, wildlife, vegetation, mineral deposits, etc., that are used to produce tangible goods. 8. Barter- The direct trading of goods and services with one another without the use of money. 9. Profit- The difference between revenue and the cost of production. 10. Interdependence- Buisnesses decissions effect each other. (depend on each other) 11. Money- A medium of exchange that can be used as payment for goods and services. 12. Producers- People who transform natural resources into goods or services. 13. Consumers- People who purchase and use goods and services to satisfy their wants and needs. 14. Division of Labor/Specialization- When workers devote their energies to a single component of a productive task 15. Markets- Any organized setting where buyers and sellers exchange goods, services, resources, and currencies. 16. Price- The money value of a good or service. Economic Systems. The way a society organizes the production, consumption, and distribution of goods and services. 17. Market Economy- An economic system in which most economic decisions are made by individual consumers and firms interacting through markets. 18. Factors of Production- The four basic factors used to produce goods and services—labor, capital, land, and entrepreneurship. 19. Demand- How much consumers are willing and able to buy at all possible prices during a given time period. 20. Supply- How much producers are willing and able to produce and sell at all possible prices during a given time period. 21. Bank- A financial institution that receives deposits and makes loans. 22. Insurance- Shifting risk to others. 23. Inflation- An increase in the average level of prices. 24. Interest- A charge for the use of borrowed money.

Elements of Stories

1. Setting- time and place the action takes place. 2. Characterization- The way an author creates, develops, and presents characters. 3. Conflict- A struggle between opposite forces. 4. Plot- a sequence of related events that usually focuses on the central conflict. 5. Rising action- Events in a story that move the plot forward. Rising action involves conflicts and complications and usually builds toward the climax. 6. Climax- The climax is the turning point in a story. 7. Resolution- During the falling action, conflicts are resolved and any loose ends are tied up. 8. Theme- The underlying idea that ties the plot, characters, and setting together into a meaningful whole. 9. Dialogue- Dialogue is a conversational exchange between two or more characters. 10. Point of view- the position a literary text is presented.

Phonological Awareness

An understanding that words are composed of sound units and that sound units can be combined to form words. Detecting and identifying word boundaries, syllables, and rhyming words. The awareness that language is composed of sounds and the understanding of the relationship of these sounds, such as rhyming, and identifying sound units such as words in sentences, syllables, onsets, and rimes. Children learn that a syllable is a basic unit of speech sounds that can be divided into two parts—onsets and rimes. An onset is the consonant sound that precedes the vowel of the syllable; a rime is the vowel and any consonant sound that follows the onset.

Organism Kingdoms

Animalia- animals Plantae- plants Protista- single-celled creatures invisible to the human eye Fungi (mushrooms, mold, yeast, lichen, etc.) Monera- different types of bacteria Archaea- unusual bacteria

Punctuation Terms

Apostrophe: To show possession, to take the place of missing letters in contractions, and to form the plurals of letters and numerals. Colon: After the greeting in a business letter, to introduce a list, or to introduce a direct quotation. Commas: To separate three or more items in a list; separate adjectives that modify the same noun; between a city and a state; between the day and year in a date; etc. Dash: To separate and stress elements in a sentence, after an interrupted or unfinished statement of thought, or to introduce a list of items. Ellipsis: Three dots in a row to replace words that have been left out. Exclamation point: After strong interjections, exclamatory sentences, and strong imperative sentences. Hyphen: To break a word between syllables at the end of a line, in two-part numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine, in spelled-out fractions, and in some compound nouns and adjectives. Period: At the end of declarative sentences and after most initials and abbreviations. Quotation marks: Before and after a direct quotation, in writing dialog, or to set off words or phrases used in a special way. Question marks: At the end of an interrogative sentence.

Music Genre

Classical- elaborate musical compositions typically scored for a choir, an orchestra, a small chamber ensemble, or solo instrumentalists. Rock- The vocals are often accompanied by guitar, drum, and bass and perhaps, piano, synthesizer, or saxophone. Jazz- In this music genre, a performer interprets a tune in an individual way, inspired by his or her creativity. This type of music is featured by strong and complex rhythms and intricate harmonic improvisations. Folk- Folk music is a kind of traditional music that is handed down from one generation to another in every culture. Folk music reflects the emotions of people within a culture, often portraying their struggle for survival, expressing their political or religious beliefs, telling a story or describing history, or providing amusement. Blues- derived from an oral tradition of field hollers and work songs that were usually performed in unison by slaves and prisoners. Early blues often took the form of a loose narrative, with the singer reciting his or her many misfortunes.

Science Processes

Collecting, measuring, recording, summarizing, analyzing, and representing data. Graphs to represent data: Bar graphs. Graphs in which rectangular bars differ in height or length according to their value or frequency Line graphs. Graphs in which two variables are plotted on the horizontal x-and vertical y-axes of a grid Circle graphs. Graphs in which circles are divided into segments or categories which reflect proportions of each data subset in relation to the entire data set Pictographs. Diagrams that show and compare data by using picture symbols

Organism Relationships

Commensalism- one member benefits without seriously affecting the other party. Mutualism- both species receives a benefit from the relationship Parasitism. One species receives a benefit from the relationship, to the detriment of the other species.

Properties of Addition

Commutative property: When adding two numbers, the sum is the same no matter the order they are added. 2 + 3 = 3 + 2 Associative property. When adding three or more numbers, the sum is the same no matter the grouping. 2 + (3 + 5) = (2 + 3) + 5 Identity property: Adding zero to a number does not change it. 2 + 0 = 2

Properties of Multiplication

Commutative property: When two numbers are multiplied together, the product is the same no matter the order they are multiplied. 2 × 3 = 3 × 2 Associativne property: When three or more numbers are multiplied, the product is the same no matter the grouping. 2 × (3 × 5) = (2 × 3) × 5 Identity property. Multiplying by 1 does not change a number. 2 × 1 = 2

Congruent and Similiar

Congruent: SSS, SAS, ASA Similar: AA, SAS, SSS

Plate Tectonics

Earth's crust is divided into irregularly shaped, rigid slabs of rock called tectonic plates. Plates vary in size, with the largest being the Pacific and Antarctic plates. Plates move very slowly; this constant motion of Earth's crust is called plate tectonics. Plate tectonics start within where the rigid lithosphere (the crust and upper mantle) moves about on the top of the asthenosphere (the plastic, or fluid, part of the mantle). Rising convection currents push plates apart, and the crust splits. Magma from the mantle rises up and solidifies as new crust. These areas where plates diverge are called divergent boundaries. This continuous process builds a chain of volcanoes and rift valleys along the region where the plates are diverging. Places where plates crunch together are called convergent boundaries. These occur when the descending loops of two convection currents carry heat and material downward, and plates that are moved by the currents collide. Before continents collide, they are separated by an ocean basin. As the continents move toward each other, the sea floor between them is pulled beneath one of the plates—this is called subduction. Places where plates slide past each other are called transform boundaries. Since the plates on either side of a transform boundary are merely sliding past each other, transform boundaries lack the spectacular geologic features found at convergent and divergent boundaries. Instead, transform boundaries are marked in some places by linear valleys along the boundary.

Metamorphosis

Egg- Eggs are laid by the adult female insect. Larva- Larvae hatch from the eggs and bear no resemblance to their parents. Larvae can grow 100 times their size during this stage. Pupa- Much activity is going on within a chrysalis or cocoon. Legs, wings, eyes, and other parts are grown. This stage can last a few weeks, a month, or even several years. Adult- Reproduction is the top priority. The adults mate and lay eggs.

Energy

Energy- ability to do work. Work = force x distance. the ability to exert a force over a distance. Types: Potential energy- stored energy/ energy ready to be unleashed. A bicycle on top of a hill is an example of energy stored as mechanical potential energy. Kinetic energy- energy of motion. A bicycle coasting down a hill is a example. Forms: Chemical energy- Energy stored in bonds of atoms and molecules. Gasoline and coal contain stored chemical energy. Electrical energy- produced by the movement of electrically charged particles (electrons). The movement of electrons through a conductor is called current (or circuit) electricity. Sound energy- Energy produced by vibrating matter is called sound energy. (molecular collisions) Light (radiant) energy- electromagnetic energy created from moving electric charges. Heat energy- created by the random movement of molecules from a warm substance to a cool substance. Temperature is the average kinetic energy of the moving molecules. Heat energy three ways: Conduction- energy is transferred through matter by collisions between particles. It is the transfer of heat energy from atom to atom within a substance. As one molecule is heated, it passes some of its energy to other molecules. Convection- transfer of heat in a gas or liquid by the circulation of currents from one region to another. The molecules get heated and rise up; the cold molecules sink and get reheated. Radiation- Radiation is the transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves through space. Nuclear energy- the energy that holds the nucleus together. Energy is released when nuclei are combined or split apart. Gravitational energy- The energy possessed by a body because of its elevation (height) relative to a lower elevation is the energy that could be obtained by letting it fall to a lower elevation. The law of conservation of energy- energy can be transformed into another sort of energy, but it cannot be created and it cannot be destroyed.

Developing Emergent Readers and Writers

Engage children in conversations. Extend children's comments into descriptive, mature statements. Listen and respond to what the children have to say. Draw children's attention to print in everyday settings like food signs, road signs, and other environmental print. Use words in activities and on word walls. Engage children in dictated stories, also called the language experience approach (LEA), which are effective in developing the skills of emergent readers. Demonstrate print concepts as you record and reread the text. Provide a rich literacy environment, including a well-designed library center filled with many good books, posters, labeled art work, children's artifacts, and any other variety of appropriate and motivating print. Provide activities that increase the children's awareness of the sounds of language. Engage your children in singing, rhyming games, and nursery rhymes. Use language in rhyme, alliteration, and sound patterns to show children how to play with language. Engage children with materials that promote identification of the letters of the alphabet—magnetic letters, alphabet books, alphabet blocks and puzzles, and alphabet charts. Read good picture and story books to children several times a day that focus on sounds, rhymes, and alliteration as well as informational books. Read big books and other enlarged print materials to children as a shared book experience while introducing basic concepts of print. Make use of repeated readings of favorite books to build familiarity. Set up a writing center and stock it with a variety of tools so the students can draw pictures and then tell a story about their drawings.

Organism Domains and Taxonomy

Eukaryotes- All organisms with cells that have true nuclei and membrane-bound organelles (animals, plants, protists, and fungi) Bacteria- Prokaryotes, single-celled organisms with neither nuclei nor organelles with membranes. Archaea- Prokaryotes, similar to bacteria in form. They are found in extreme environments. Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species

Phonics

Knowledge of the correspondences in an alphabetic language between letters or letter patterns and the sounds of spoken language represented by those letters (i.e., grapheme-phoneme relationships). An effective phonics program begins by teaching students to decode words with simple syllable patterns (e.g., am, mop) and then progresses incrementally to words with more difficult syllable patterns (e.g., spot, boat, tape). Phonics Instruction: Clarifying the purpose and goal of instruction at the onset of the lesson. Using visual or concrete materials that will make learning the new phonics skill(s) more memorable. Providing direct instruction of letter sounds. Providing direct instruction in decoding of letter sounds in words. Planning for guided and independent practice. Planning for student application of new phonics skills in other contexts.

Concepts of Print

Knowledge that emergent readers have about how printed language works and how print can be used to represent language. Concepts of print understandings: 1. Holding a book the right way 2. Turning the pages from right to left 3. Knowing where to begin reading on a page 4. Moving one's eyes from left to right and then going back to the beginning of the next line down 5.Knowing that pages are read from top to bottom 6. Understanding that books have a front and back Promote emergent literacy skills by: 1. Model what readers do when they read a text aloud. 2. Point to words as they read. 3. Explain what the punctuation is for. 4. Encourage students to take part in the reading activity.

Least Common Multiple and Greatest Common Factor

LCM: The smallest number divisible by each number in the set. For example, the least common multiple of 6 and 8 is 24. Another example: 10 and 12 10 = 2¹ × 5¹ 12 = 2² × 3¹ The prime factors are 2, 3, and 5. Choose the largest exponents of each. Select and multiply 2², 3¹, and 5¹ LCM= 60. GCF: The largest natural number that goes into each number in the set. For example, the greatest common factor of 24 and 18 is 6. Another example: 90 and 84, Factor both numbers into primes 90 = 2¹ × 3² × 5¹ 84 = 2² × 3¹ × 7¹ Involved in both are 2 and 3. The smallest exponent of 2 and 3 is 1. Multiply: 2¹ × 3¹ = 6 GCF= 6.

Common Errors

Lack of subject/verb agreement: The pair of goats are eating grass. Pronoun agreement error: Everyone must take his own turn. Verb tense errors: My family and I just move to California; I have broke off our relationship. Run-on sentence or comma splice: My friend John is a good golfer, he's best at putting. Sentence fragments: Instead of going to school. Misuse of apostrophe: The dog is wagging it's tail. Comma error: Because, it is cold I will not go swimming today. Word usage error: affect-effect; than-then; their-there-they're; your-you're; to-two-too.

Geosphere

Layers of the Geosphere The crust. The rocky outer layer of Earth is the crust. Like the shell of an egg, Earth's crust is thin compared to its other layers. Much of the crust is made up of silicates, rocks made of compounds of silicon and oxygen. Silicates often contain metals such as aluminum, iron, or calcium. There are two different types of crust: continental crust and oceanic crust. Continental crust. Continental crust is the rock that makes up the continents, and consists mainly of less-dense rocks such as granite. The continental crust averages about 40 kilometers in thickness, although it ranges in thickness from about 8 to 75 kilometers. It is thickest under mountain chains such as the Himalayas. Oceanic crust. Oceanic crust is the rock that makes up the ocean floor. It is composed mostly of dense rocks like basalt and is about 7 kilometers thick on average, much thinner than continental crust. The mantle. The next layer is the mantle, which is composed mainly of ferro-magnesium silicates. Based upon results from seismology, scientists have determined that the mantle is composed of several layers, the uppermost of which is called the asthenosphere. Because of the increased pressure and temperature with depth, rocks within the mantle flow very slowly. Within the mantle, convection currents occur as heat rises, from deeper in Earth's interior. These currents bring material from the lower mantle to the upper mantle. As this material rises, it cools and sinks back down again. These convection currents, and associated movement of material through the mantle, drive the movements of Earth's tectonic plates. The core. Below the mantle is the core, the center of our Earth. The core makes up nearly one-third of the mass of Earth. It is divided into two regions, the inner core and the outer core. From seismic waves generated by earthquakes, scientists have learned that the outer core is liquid and the inner core is solid. The outer core is made mostly of iron and nickel and is extremely dense. Scientists hypothesize that the rotation of the outer core causes the magnetic field around Earth. It is believed that the core formed early on in Earth's history, when the entire planet was made of molten rock and metal. The heaviest elements, like iron and nickel, sank to the center, leaving the less dense elements on top. See Figure 6.16 below.

Branchs of Government and role

Legislative—the power to create laws Executive—the power to administer the law Judicial—the power to interpret laws and settle disputes Articles: 1. Article 1 of the Constitution defines the legislative branch and the powers to the branch in the Congress. Congress is made up of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. 2. The executive powers of the President are defined in Article 2. The executive branch of government enforces the laws of the land. 3. Article 3 defines the judicial branch as the Supreme Court and such inferior courts as Congress sees necessary to establish. The primary functions of government are to maintain order, settle conflicts, and protect the community. Public policy can be considered all the things a government does: taxation, defense, education, crime, health care, transportation, the economy, the environment, civil rights, working conditions, and so on.

Measurement Conversions

Length conversions 1 foot (ft) = 12 inches 1 yard (yd) = 3 feet 1 yard (yd) = 36 inches 1 mile (mi) = 5,280 feet Weight conversions 1 pound (lb) = 16 ounces 1 ton (T) = 2,000 pounds Capacity conversions 1 cup (c) = 8 fluid ounces 1 pint (pt) = 2 cups 1 quart = 2 pints 1 gallon (gal) = 4 quarts

Measurments

Length: Inch, Foot, Yard, Mile Weight: Ounce, Pound, Ton Volume: Cubic inch, Cubic foot, Cubic yard Capacity: Fluid ounce, Cup, Pint, Quart, Gallon

Stage 3 of the Writing Process: Revising

Look at something from a fresh, critical perspective to see if the language and tone are consistent. It is helpful to show writing to someone else. Students may do the following revisions: additions, subsitutions, deletions, and moves.

Magnetism

Magnet- an object that attracts ferrous objects. A magnetic field is produced by spinning electrons in an atom. Electrons spin randomly in non magnetic but spin in the same direction for magnetic. When a bar magnet is suspended at its center by a string, it will rotate until one end points north. That end is called the north pole of the magnet and the end that points south is called the south pole. In magnets, unlike poles attract and like poles repel. Magnetic field lines are close together when the magnetic force is strong, and spread out when it is weak.

Inquiry Process

Making observations Asking a question Forming a hypothesis Testing the hypothesis: The first step in testing a hypothesis is to define independent, dependent, and controlled variables. Collecting and interpreting data Drawing conclusions Communicating results

Literacy Devices

Mood- feeling a literary work creates for the reader Foreshadowing- a hint of things to come later in the story. Flashback- an interjected scene that depicts an event that happened in the past Irony- a situation or event resulting in the opposite of what might be expected. Euphemism- an agreeable word or expression substituted for one that is potentially offensive. Figurative Language- Authors use figurative language when they go beyond the literal meaning of words to describe something. Types of figurative language: Simile- a direct comparison between two unlike things, usually with the words like or as. Metaphor- A figure of speech which involves an implicit comparison of one thing with another word or phrase unlike itself; the comparison is not preceded by like or as. Allegory- extended metaphor, persons, and actions are equated with meanings that have moral, social, religious, or political significance. Characters are often personifications of such abstract ideas as charity, greed, or envy. Alliteration- The repetition of the same consonant sound at the beginning of several words in close succession. Onomatopoeia- The use of words that imitate the sound that they describe. Hyperbole- A figure of speech in which statements are exaggerated. It is not used to mislead the reader, but to emphasize a point.

Syllabication and Morphology

Morphology, the study of the internal structure of words and of the rules by which words are formed. The base word or root in a morphologically complex word acts as the base to which affixes are attached. Syllabication is a critical word analysis skill that helps students break unknown multisyllable words into syllables that can be pronounced and blended to identify the unknown word.

Multiply and Divide Fractions

Multiplying fractions: Multiply the numerators and the denominators. For example, multiply the numerators and multiply the denominators of 2/3 and 4/5 to get the product 8/15 If multiplying by a whole number, turn the number into an improper fraction and follow the steps above. For example, find the product of 7 and 3/5 = 7/1 x 3/5 When dividing fractions, change the division problem to a multiplication problem by changing the second fraction to its reciprocal. Then, multiply the fractions. For example, 2/5 divided by 4/7 =2/5 divided by 7/4 = 2/5 X 7/4 = 14/20 Mixed numbers- convert them to improper fractions, then multiply and divide the fractions.

Powers

National government: 1. Print money 2. Regulate interstate (between states) and international trade 3. Make treaties and conduct foreign policy 4. Declare war 5. Provide an army and navy 6. Establish post offices 7. Make laws necessary and proper to carry out the these powers State governments 1. Issue licenses 2. Regulate intrastate (within the state) businesses 3. Conduct elections 4. Establish local governments 5. Ratify amendments to the Constitution 6. Take measures for public health and safety 7. Exercise powers the Constitution does not delegate to the national government or prohibit the states from using Shared by national and state government 1. Collect taxes 2. Build roads 3. Borrow money 4. Establish courts 5. Make and enforce laws 6. Charter banks and corporations 7. Spend money for the general welfare 8. Take private property for public purposes, with just compensation

Divisibility and Primality

Natural numbers have at least one divisor, 1. Example: 6 is divisible by 3 because 6 = 2 × 3, so that 3 is a divisor of 6. 6 is also divisible by 2, and 2 is a divisor of 6. A prime number is a number greater than 1 whose only factors are itself and 1. Composite numbers are greater than 1 and not prime. Prime factorization (use the tree). For example: 1960 = 2³ × 5¹ × 7²

Literature Genres

Picture books- Children's books that tell a story with pictures. Traditional literature- stories that have been passed down from generation to generation, sharing cultural traditions and values. Stories included in this genre include: Folktales- explain things about life, nature, or humans. They include "make-believe" elements, like talking animals, but sound logical and realistic. Fairy tales- feature magical and enchanted people or objects. They always have a "happily ever after" ending. Fables- short stories with a moral ending, intended to teach lessons about life. Legends- tales about heroes and are rooted in historical events. Legends often exaggerate the adventures of a real person. Myths- stories that grew out of people's need to understand and explain the world around them and their own existence. Modern fantasy- contemporary imaginative tales with story elements and story lines that clearly defy the natural and physical laws of our known world. Realistic fiction- contemporary stories that tell of real events and reflect on contemporary life with which a reader can identify. The protagonists in realistic fiction face real-life problems, confront them, and grow from their experiences. Historical fiction- realistic fiction set in the historical past. Works of historical fiction are stories of the lives of people who lived in the past. The characters may be based on real or fictional people. Biography- a form of nonfiction. stories of the lives of people from the past or present, sharing their accomplishments and their challenges. Poetry- imaginative written interpretation of an experience expressed through meaning, sound, and rhythmic language. Informational (nonfiction) texts- designed to offer children verifiable, current, and accurate knowledge.

Oral Presentation

Planning: 1. Begin with a purpose- clear purpose (function) for the presentation or speech. Speaking functions might include: Narrations- storytelling, which can take forms such as the retelling of familiar stories; sequels or new episodes of stories that elaborate on favorite characters; or original stories. Expository speaking- asks students to explain or share information. Persuasive speeches- ask students to express an opinion, argue a point, or influence a belief. 2. Identify the topic. 3. Consider the audience. 4. Gather and organize ideas. 5. Outline the content- A presentation outline should have three basic parts that mirror a written composition: an introduction, the body, and the coclusion. 6. Support the content with presentation aids- photographs, illustrations, posters, models, audio or video clips. 7. Rehearsal 8. Ask for feedback.

Geometric Terms

Point. A dot and labeled point on a line. Line. A straight figure that continues to extent in two directions without stoping. In geometry, all lines are assumed to be straight. There are arrows on either side. Plane. A four sided fidure (shape) that extends infinitely far in all directions. Congruence. Two objects have the same size and shape. The symbol for congruent is ≅. Similarity. Objects have the same shape but different size. Line segment. A line with two points, called endpoints. We usually label a line segment using its endpoints. Ray. One endpoint continues to go one and the other stops at a endpoint. Parallel lines. Two lines are parallel ( ‖ ) if they do not intersect. Right angle. A right angle is an angle whose measure is 90°. Perpendicular lines. Two lines are perpendicular (⊥) if they intersect to form a right angle. Complementary angles. The sum of two angles measure to 90°. Supplementary angles. The sum of two angles measure to 180°. Vertical angles. Vertical angles are two nonadjacent angles formed by two intersecting lines. Vertical angles are congruent. Cross like a X sometimes.

Listening Process

Pre-listening: 1. Establish what is already known about the topic; connect to personal experiences. 2. Build necessary background; clarify information and eliminate potential confusion. 3. Set the purpose(s) for listening. These may involve discriminative listening, aesthetic listening (enjoyment), critical listening (evaluate), and efferent listening (understand). 4. Ask students to develop questions or make predictions about what they are about to hear. During Listening: 1. Ask students to predict what might happen next and to provide evidence to support their predictions. 2. Encourage students to form mental pictures to help them remember certain details or images while listening. 3. Ask students questions to clarify what they hear. Expect students to make written notes. 4. Ask students to detect if they are listening to a message intended for persuasion or propaganda. After Listening: 1. Ask questions of themselves and the speaker to clarify their understandings. 2. Summarize the content orally, in writing, or as a chart, timeline, or map (comprehension). 3. Analyze and make critical judgments about what they listened to. 4. Examine examples of deceptive language and propaganda. 5. Engage in activities that build on and develop concepts acquired during the listening experience.

Comprehension Strategies

Predicting Think-alouds Text structure Visual repersentations in text Questions and questioning Summarization

Charges

Proton= positive neutron- none Electron- negative

Stage 4 of the Writing Process: Editing

Putting the written piece into its final form. Proofreads/ reviews the writing to ensure that it is written properly. Editing ends when students correct as many mechanical errors as possible and rewrite their pieces with all of the corrections.

Circle

Radius: c/2π Diameter: 2r Area: πr² Circumfrence = 2πr

Slope Equations

Slope: (rise)/(run) m= y2-y1/x2-x1 Point Slope Form: y= mx+b y - b = m(x - a) Find slope, put in the coordinants, solve into y=mx+b Slope Intercept Form: y= mx + b Let b be the y-intercept of this line (0, b) and (x, 0) be x intercept Put into y - b = m(x - 0)v and solve into y = mx + b

Reading Fluency

Reading is accurate, at a natural pace, and mimics speech in its phrasing and expressiveness. Fluency is only possible if a reader can recognize many words in a text automatically and can apply word analysis skills to unfamiliar words. Automaticity is defined as fast, accurate, and effortless word identification at the single word level. Fluency involves not only fast and accurate word identification but also entails reading in phrase-length chunks and reading with expression, or "prosodic reading." Prosodic reading relies on the reader's active engagement in comprehending a text and his or her knowledge of print conventions that signal phrasing in a written text. Less fluent readers, often read at a reasonable rate but inaccurately or very slowly and with limited comprehension. Key indicators of fluency: Accuracy, rate, and prosody. Effective fluency instruction: Modeling fluent reading. Providing explicit instruction in fluency. Providing students with opportunities to practice fluent reading using scaffolded fluency activities. Examples are choral reading, echo reading, repeated reading, and paired reading. Offering students ways to practice and perform.

Light Hits Objects

Reflected or scattered- comes from a smooth surface. Glass, water, and polish metal Absorbed- Light cannot pass through an object and is absorbed. For example a piece of wood and a book. Refracted- bend light. A convex lens focuses the light passing through it to a point. A convex lens bends light so objects appear larger than they really are. A concave lens spreads out light rays. A concave lens correct short-sightedness. Pass through/transmitted- Light is able to pass through materials, such as clear plastic or glass.

Exponents

Repeated multiplication. For example: 2 to the second power = 2 × 2 = 4 The zero power of any nonzero number is 1 but 0 to the 0 power is undefined. For example: (-3) to the zero power = 1 A negative exponent indicates a reciprocal. For example: 3 to the -3 means 1/3 to the third power Laws: The first power of any number is itself. 2 to the 1 = 2 To multiply like bases with exponents, add the exponents. For example: 2 to the third× 2 to the fifth = 2 3+5 = 2 to the 8 To exponentiate a power, multiply the exponents. For example:(2 to the 2) to the 4= 2 to the 2×4 power = 2 to the 8 power It is important to understand how exponents apply to the powers of ten.

Analyzing Visual Images

Requires active viewing. Need to think about what is being presented or shown to them. Images can show multiple messages, meanings, themes, and biases. Five-step, critical thinking process: 1. Study the image and describe it. 2. Ask basic questions. 3. Interpret the message. 4. Evaluate the image. 5. Reflect on the impact the image might have.

Elements of Music

Rhythm- the spacing between sounds and silences. Meter- Musical notes in a piece of music are organized into structured, timed groupings. Tempo- The rate of speed for a beat of music or how fast a piece of music should be played. Melody- Melody refers to a rhythmically-organized succession of single tones that form a recognizable, aesthetic unit. Harmony- two or more notes are played at the same time. When three or more tones are sounded together, a chord is produced. Harmonic notes or chords blend sounds that complement the melody. Dynamics- The varying degrees or changes in volume or loudness of musical notes. Timbre- The quality of sound that distinguishes one tone color from another. Words such as dark, rich, mellow, are often used to describe the timbre of a musical piece or sound of a musical instrument. Timbre contributes to the overall effect or mood created by music.

Plant Structure

Roots- Absorb water and minerals from the soil, anchor the plant, and store food. Plants can have a taproot system or a fibrous root system with a mass of similarly sized roots. Stems- Holds up structures. They are pipelines that carry foods and water to the roots and carry nutrients to the leaves. Stems can be herbaceous or woody. Herbaceous stems are green and bendable. Leaves- Leaves are the primary site for photosynthesis and also are active in gas exchange through openings called stomata. Excess water is also lost as water vapor through the stomata of leaves. Flowers- The female organ of the flower is the pistil whic is in the center of the flower. Three parts of pistil: Stigma- knob at the top of the pistil. Style-long, tube-like structure. The style leads to the ovary, which contains the female egg cells (ovules). Stamens- male reproductive organ and are made up of two parts, the anther and the filament. Two parts: Anther- produces pollen and is supported by the filament.

Scientific Enterprise

Scientific work involves many individuals doing many different kinds of work. Men and women of all ethnic and national backgrounds participate in science. Science is organized into content disciplines. There are generally accepted ethical principles in the conduct of science. Scientists participate in public affairs both as specialists and as citizens.

Science Inquiry

Scientists concentrate on getting accurate data and evidence. Imagination and creative thought are often used to develop hypotheses and theories, but these must be tested using and combined with logical and deductive methods. Scientists strive to make sense of observations by constructing explanations for them that are consistent with currently accepted scientific principles. Scientists try to identify and avoid bias. No scientist, however famous or highly placed, is empowered to decide for other scientists what is true, for no one is believed to have special access to the truth.

Water Cycle

Steps: Evaporation- Water evaporates into the atmosphere from the surface of the ocean, mostly in warm, cloud-free subtropical seas, and to a lesser extent from lakes and streams. Condensation- Winds transport this air containing water vapor until conditions cause the vapor to condense into clouds and fall as rain or snow. Precipitation— rain/ snow then falls to Earth. Infiltration, runoff, and glaciation- When precipitation falls on land, some of it slowly soaks into the ground through infiltration. Infiltration is the movement of surface water into rock or soil through cracks and pore spaces to form groundwater. When the rate of rainfall exceeds Earth's ability to absorb it, the excess water flows over the surface into lakes and streams in a process called runoff. When precipitation falls in very cold areas at high elevations or high latitudes the water may become part of a glacier. Transpiration- Plants absorb water and release it into the atmosphere through transpiration.

Triangle

Sum of angles: 180 degrees Isosceles Triangle Theorem. Two sides are the same. Equilateral Triangle Theorem. Interior angles are 60° Finding Sides: a2 + b2 = c2

Solar System and the Moon

Sun- the closest star to Earth. The outermost layer, the corona, is composed of ionized gases. Planets- The inner planets, the closest to the sun, are Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. The outer planets are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. The inner planets are mostly rock, while the outer planets are gas or ice. Inner planets are smaller and denser than outer. (My Very Excellent Mom Just Served Us Noodles) Earth- third planet from the sun and the fifth largest planet. It takes roughly 365 days, for Earth to go around the sun once. the earths axis is pointing to the sun and north pole is 23.5 degrees towards the sun in the summer solstice. In December (winter solstice), when Earth has moved to the opposite side of its orbit, the North pole leans 23.5 degrees away from the sun. The fall and spring equinoxes occur midway between the solstices. The solid Earth consists of a thin outer layer, the crust, with a thick rocky layer, the mantle, beneath it. The crust and the upper portion of the mantle are called the lithosphere. At the center of Earth is the core. The outer part of the core is liquid, while the inner part is solid. Much of Earth is covered by a layer of water or ice called the hydrosphere. Earth is surrounded by a thin layer of air, the atmosphere. The portion of the hydrosphere, atmosphere, and solid land where life exists is called the biosphere. . Moon- The same side of the moon always faces Earth. The moon does not produce its own light but looks bright because it reflects light from the sun. Moon phases: Depend on its position to the the sun. When the moon is between the sun and Earth, the side of the moon facing Earth is dark. This is called a New Moon. As the moon orbits Earth, the side of the moon facing Earth eventually becomes fully lit. This is called a Full Moon phase. As the moon continues around in its orbit, the lit portion of the moon visible to Earth becomes smaller, so the moon is now said to be waning. As it increases in visibility it is waxing. Tides- Tides are regular changes in the elevation of the ocean surface. Newton showed that there is a mutually attractive force—gravity—between any two bodies, such as Earth and the moon. The pull of the moon's gravity is greater at parts of Earth's surface that are closer to the moon and less at more distant locations. Ocean tides result from differences in the gravitational attraction exerted upon different parts of Earth's surface by the moon and, to a lesser extent, by the sun. Because of the rotation of Earth, tides change four times a day—a high tide followed by a low tide and then the cycle is repeated. Eclipses- Earth, the sun, and the moon are positioned in a straight line, or nearly so. A lunar eclipse takes place when Earth gets directly between the sun and the moon, and Earth's shadow falls on the moon. A solar eclipse occurs when the moon gets directly between the sun and Earth, and the moon's shadow falls on Earth. A solar eclipse can occur only during a new moon.

Word Tiers

Teachers usually choose the words they will teach from word categories or tiers. Tier II words are the most critical for teachers to incorporate into vocabulary instruction. Tier I- basic words which are usually learned at home or in a student's community (e.g., floor, deep, people). Teachers choose to teach some words from Tier I to support beginning readers and English language learners. Tier II- words are a large group of high frequency words which often appear in different contexts. They allow students to build visual representations and illustrate connections to other words. Tier II words contribute to students' understanding, helping to further develop students' background knowledge. Examples include sustain, requirement, and probability. Tier III- used with lower frequency but are important in the context of content areas or are domain-specific words (e.g., multiplicand, divisor, or equation). They are the focus of upper elementary teachers and should not become the focus of all vocabulary learning.

Amendments

Ten amendments, the Bill of Rights: Amendment 1: Freedom of (or from) religion; freedom of speech; freedom to assemble; freedom to petition the government. Amendment 2: Right to bear arms. Amendment 3: Freedom from quartering soldiers. Amendment 4: Freedom from unreasonable searches and seizures; warrants must only be issued upon probable cause, and shall be specific. Amendment 5: Criminal indictments must be by grand jury; freedom from double jeopardy; freedom from testifying against oneself; right to due process; right of just compensation for takings. Amendment 6: Right to speedy trial; right to impartial jury; right to be informed of the charges upon which the accused is held; right to face accusers; right to produce witnesses for the accused; right to legal counsel. Amendment 7: Right to jury trial in civil cases. Amendment 8: Freedom from excessive bail or fines; freedom from cruel or unusual punishment.

Sequences

The Fibonacci sequence: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34 beginning with 0 and 1 so that each term beginning with the third term is the sum of the two preceding terms. The sequence of squares: squared natural numbers. It is each number squared or 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, 121 ...

Phonemic Awareness

The ability to focus on, hear, identify, and manipulate phonemes, or the individual sounds that make up spoken words. Phoneme segmentation is a child's ability to recognize the separate sound units of words; phoneme blending is a child's ability to string together phonemes in a meaningful way to create words. 42 basic phonemes, although differences in regional pronunciation and dialect can generate more. But, some letters can produce more than one sound. Phonemic awareness skills: 1. Phoneme isolation—recognizing the individual sounds in words. 2. Phoneme identity—recognizing the common sound in different words. 3. Phoneme substitution—turning one word into another by substituting one phoneme for another. 4. Oral segmenting—identifying the individual sounds of a word. 5. Oral blending—being able to blend phonemes into words. 6. Phoneme deletion—being able to identify a sound that has been deleted from a word.

Rational Numbers

The set of ratios of integers. Q = (m/n) : m and n are integers, and n ≠ 0 Every integer is a rational number if it is equal to the ratio of itself with 1. For example: 2 = 2/1 -3 = -3/1 Every rational number has a terminating or repeating decimal. For example: 3/4 = 0.75 1/3= 0.3 repeating Irrational numbers: Number that don't terminate or repeat. Example of irrational numbers: 1.41398527

Interpersonal Communication

The use of the basic communication skills required for socializing and conversing. Dialogues and an exchange of ideas (spoken or written) and nuances of feelings (nonverbal communication). 1. Verbal communication- informal conversations, small group conversations, classroom talk, etc. 2. Written communication- email, letters, charts, notes, journals, logs, written reports, etc. 3. Nonverbal communication- body language and tonality of the presenter's voice. Students and teachers look at each other's faces to receive nonverbal messages, for facial expressions.

Integers

The whole numbers and their opposites. Z = {. . ., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . } The integers 1 and -1 are the only integers whose reciprocals are also integers. Every nonzero integer has a unique reciprocal whose product with it is one. For example: 2 × 1/2 = 1 1 × 1 = 1 (-1) × (-1) = 1 Ratio is the first integer multiplied by the reciprocal of the second. For example, the ratio of 2 to 3 is: 2/3= 2 ×1/3

Sight Words

The words the reader recognizes almost instantly and with little conscious effort. High-frequency words, words that appear most frequently in print, are the focus of sight word instruction. The, and, for, on, was, and with, for example, are among the twenty words occurring most frequently in English. Many high frequency words are not phonically regular. Ordered lists of common sight words have been developed for the purpose of planning systematic sight word instruction, and are widely available. Students learn sight words through systematic, explicit instruction and practice and through repeated exposure to words during reading or writing activities. In a research-based approach to explicit sight word instruction, teachers ensure students can decode target words accurately before promoting rapid recognition of the words. Activities: Reading to or with children and pausing to point to target words as they appear in the text. Using flashcards. Creating a word wall. Playing games using sight words. Compiling a sight word "dictionary."

Scientific Worldview

Things and events in the universe occur in consistent patterns that are comprehensible through careful, systematic study. Change in scientific knowledge is inevitable because new observations may challenge prevailing theories. Most scientific knowledge is durable; powerful constructs tend to survive, grow more precise, and become widely accepted. Science cannot provide complete answers to all questions.

Organ Systems

Unicellular- single-celled organisms, the cell performs all life functions independently. Multicellular- Many-celled organisms have various levels and cells have specific functions that work together. Levels of organization in multicellular: Level 1: Cells The basic unit of structure and function in living things. Cells fulfill specific functions in the organism. Cells have organelles, that fulfill specific functions within the cell. Level 2: Tissues Cells that are similar in structure and function and which work together to perform a specific activity. Examples include blood, nerve, and bone. Four basic types of tissues: connective, epithelial, muscle, and nerve. Level 3: Organs Organs are made up of tissues that work together to perform a specific activity. Examples are heart, brain, and skin. Level 4: Organ Systems Groups of two or more organs that work together to perform a specific function. Examples are circulatory system, nervous system, and skeletal system. The human body has 11 organ systems Level 5: Organisms Individual living things that carry out basic life processes. Organisms are made up of organ systems or may consist of a single cell. Examples are bacteria, amoebas, mushrooms, sunflowers, and humans.

Plants

Vascular plants- they have a system of tubes transport nutrients and water. Through photosynthesis, plants transform water and carbon dioxide into carbohydrates (sugars and starches), using the energy of sunlight. Chlorophyll, which is contained within a cell organelle called the chloroplast, captures the light from the sun; which is used to convert water, carbon dioxide, and minerals into oxygen and energy-rich glucose. The formula for photosynthesis is: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O → C6H12O6 + 6 O2 Carbon dioxide + Water + Light energy → Glucose + Oxygen

Grammer Terms

Verb: A word that shows action (run, jump) or state of being (is, are, was, were). Adverb: Modifies verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Adverbs usually end with -ly (gladly, slowly). Noun: A word that names a person, place or thing—child, San Francisco, hammer. Some sources divide nouns into 2 categories—proper nouns and common nouns. Proper nouns are nouns that begin with a capital letter because it is the name of a specific or particular person, place, or thing: San Francisco, for example. Child and hammer are considered common nouns. Pronoun: A word that can be used in place of a noun to prevent repetition of the same nouns (I, you, she). Adjective: A word that modifies or gives more information about a noun or pronoun. Adjectives usually precede the word they are modifying (yellow scarf, tall building). Preposition: A word that shows relationships among nouns, pronouns, and phrases to other words in a sentence—direction, place, time, cause, manner, and amount (to, under, by). Conjunction: A word that connects other words or phrases (and, or, but). Interjection: A word that conveys emotion (Oh! Wow! Ouch!).

Weathering and Erosion

Weathering- rocks are broken down into progressively smaller pieces Types: 1. Chemical weathering- chemical change in at least some of the minerals within a rock. 2. Mechanical weathering- physically breaking rocks into fragments without changing the chemical makeup of the minerals within it. Erosion- loosens and carries away rock debris formed by weathering. Rock particles and soil can be moved about by water, wind, or the action of glaciers. Eroded soil and rock particles will be deposited in a different location, such as a river delta or ocean beach, where they will be incorporated into new sediments and may eventually form new sedimentary rock.

Key Words

What is the total of . . . ? (Add) What is the sum of . . . ? (Add) What is the difference between . . . ? (Subtract) What is the product of . . . ? (Multiply) What is the ratio of . . . ? (Divide) What is the quotient of . . . ? (Divide) What is the fraction of . . . ? (Divide) What is the percentage of . . . ? (Divide) What is the average of . . . ? (Add and divide) Approximately how many . . . ? (Estimate)

Consumers

producers (plants) are at the base, primary consumers (herbivores) forming the next level secondary and tertiary consumers (carnivores) at the top. Omnivores, are both primary and secondary consumers