Module 14

Enlightened Self-Interest

1) a quality of the understanding of a subject such that the given subject recognizes that their own highest self-interests are (to at least some degree) other-centered self-interests. (Thus, the subject recognizes that many ostensibly altruistic actions will ultimately enhance their own well-being.); or 2) a quality of the understanding of a subject such that the given subject's perceived highest self-interests are in accordance with their actual highest self- interests. Arguably, Socrates would agree with both of the above conceptions.

Psychological Egoism

A descriptive theory of human nature maintaining that individual subjects are literally powerless to act in anything but an egoistic manner. Thus, everyone acts in their own perceived self-interest all the time, and there are no truly altruistic acts. Accordingly, any actions that seem to be altruistic are in fact motivated by other-centered self-interest.

Moral Right

A right that exists in a moral sense. Philosophers do not agree on whether this term exists objectively. Proposed examples of this term could include things like the right to an education, the right to medical care, or the right to food. Many philosophers argue that this term is natural rights.

Legal Right

A right that is a function of formal law. Thus, this term is a right that a subject holds as a consequence of legislation. (Note that since legislation itself is the will of a group of subjects, legislation itself is subjective.) In the ideal sense, this term would mirror (or at least be coherent with) natural rights, including moral rights.

Perceived Self-Interest

Anything that a subject consciously regards as concerning their own well-being. Importantly, this term can differ from - and sometimes even conflict with - one's actual self-interests (e.g., a subject with a lethal addiction).

Interest

Anything that concerns the well-being of an individual subject (e.g., "needs" and "wants").

Self-Interest

Anything that concerns the well-being of oneself. Philosophers see two kinds of self-interests: 1) Self-centered this term, and 2) Other-centered this term. A self-centered this term is an interest of oneself that is not contingent upon the interests of others (e.g., the need for oneself to continue breathing). An other-centered this term is an interest of oneself that is somehow contingent upon the interests of others - i.e., something that concerns my well-being that is dependent upon or arises from the well-being of others, such as the personal joy that a parent might feel at seeing their own child experience joy. (Psychological egoists maintain that all supposedly altruistic acts are actually other-centered this term acts.)

Supererogatory

From ethics, the term refers to an optional action of great value. The term is reserved for acts that involve significant personal risk to the agent. A paradigm example of this terms would be the case where a soldier throws their own body on a live hand grenade to protect their fellow soldiers from the blast. Thus, this terms acts represent an extreme form of altruism. Upon performing this terms act, the given agent is thought to deserve high moral praise.

Types of Value

In a tradition going back to Plato, in Western philosophy we draw a distinction between three types of value: 1) instrumental value; 2) intrinsic value; and 3) combination value.

Right vs. Wrong

In ethics, the term right is used as both a noun and an adjective, and these two uses have two distinct meanings. Here we discuss the adjectives right and wrong, which refer to potential qualities of certain actions. Traditionally, we recognize a distinction between three types of action. The three types are as follows: 1. Wrong (or restricted) 2. Optional (or permitted) 3. Obligatory (or required) The second and third types of action - optional and obligatory - are joined together under the single heading right, leaving us with right vs. wrong as the two main types of action. An action is said to be morally right if it is either morally optional or morally obligatory (i.e., permitted or required). Philosophers debate about which actions, if any, are morally right and which are wrong.

Rights and Duties

In ethics, the term right is used as both a noun and an adjective, and these uses have two distinct senses. Here we discuss the noun right, and in this sense, rights are contrasted against duties. A right is a proposed quality inherent in some subjects in some contexts. When we say that a subject has a right, this means that the subject has a secured interest- an interest to which that subject is entitled. Rights benefit the right-holder. An example of a right could be the right to liberty/freedom. Similarly, the term duty also describes a proposed quality inherent in some subjects in some contexts. Duty is the corollary of a right. When we say that a subject has a duty, this means that the subject has an obligation to secure the interest of another subject (or other subjects). A duty is a burden on the duty-bearer. An example of a duty could be the duty to respect the property rights of another. In theory, rights can include legal rights, natural rights, and moral rights.

Motive

The cause of the action of a subject.

Combination Value

The proposed type of value ostensibly found in things that are valuable both for their own sake (i.e., intrinsically) and for the other things that they can bring (i.e., instrumentally). Proposed candidates for things with this term might include things like knowledge and freedom.

Instrumental Value

The proposed type of value ostensibly found in things that are valuable solely as tools or as steppingstones to achieve or acquire other things with value. Proposed candidates for things with this term might include things like money or medicine.

Intrinsic Value

The proposed type of value ostensibly found in things that are valuable solely for their own sake, or valuable in themselves. Things with this term are valued even though they do not lead to anything else of value. Proposed candidates for things with this term might include things like happiness or pleasure.

Well-Being

The state of being comfortable, healthy, or happy. This term includes: 1) physical health (the health of one's body); and 2) mental health (the health of one's mind - conceived alternatively as the health of one's person, or psyche, or soul, or spirit). In historic parlance, one might conceive of this term as the health of both body and soul. Regardless, this term can be understood as a very general term for health.

Highest Self-Interest(s)

The thing(s) most important to one's own well-being. Proposed candidates could include things like basic needs (food, shelter, clothing), recognition of one's rights, etc. We can further speak of perceived of this term.

Egoism and Altruism

These terms describe the potential motives of a subject in terms of their actions, and the terms are applied to both subjects and actions. Thus, we can speak of "altruistic acts" and "altruistic subjects". A subject is said to be acting egoistically if they are motivated in their action by their own perceived self-interests, whereas a subject is said to be acting altruistically if they are motivated in their action by their perceptions of the interests of others. Further, an egoist is one whose actions are motivated by the intent to serve their own perceived self-interests (as opposed to the intent to serve the interests of others). An altruist is one whose actions are motivated by the intent to serve their perceptions of the interests of others (as opposed to the intent to serve their own perceived self-interests).

Natural Right

literally, a right of a subject such that the right itself is somehow a function or quality of nature, and, by extension, a function or quality of objective reality. Thus, in theory, this term is a right that a subject holds simply as a consequence of existing. (Compare this with a legal right.) Importantly, the term is often times used in a looser sense by genuine philosophers to indicate simply a right that exists objectively. Philosophers do not agree on whether this term exists, and if so, which specific rights might count as this term. Proposed examples of this term could include things like freedom and the right to be left alone (see the harm principle.) Some philosophers argue that moral rights are this term. In the ideal sense, this term would be formally recognized as a legal right as well, but legal rights vary from one nation to the next. Importantly, in theory, this term exists even in the absence of legal recognition.