MS1 Glossary
thyroid hormone synthesis
1)In Follicular epithelial cells of epithelium Iodide I- cotransported with Na from blood side. 2)Iodide and thyroglobulin-tyrosine residues are put in the lumen of the thyroid gland 3)Iodide is added to tyrosines of thryoglobulin 4)Thyroglobin-T3 complex is pinocytosed from lumen into follicular cell. 5)Thyroglobin seperates from T3/T4 and is put back into blood side
effects of insulin
1)Inhibit lipid breakdown 2)repress glycogen breakdown 3) stimulate glyocgen synthase 4) stimulate glucose uptake
what does the liver do with the lipoprotein lipids it takes in?
1)It takes cholesterol, converts it to bile acid and excretes it 2) It takes remnants and repackages them as VLDL with ApoB100 (instead of the ApoB48 we previously saw originating from intestine)
And for pneumonias, it's very common that the fissure acts as a border to the spread of the disease. So very often, fissures define or contain pneumonias
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Anterolateral Spinothalamic tract in medulla
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Any place that food would touch would have stratified squamous epithelium. Any place where one part of the body rubs against another, again you'll get stratified squamous epithelium.
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As the dominant follicle beings to secrete more estradiol and inhibin, the FSH initially goes down. but then it surges in response to very high estradiol.
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Beta unit of G protein opens GIRK K channel (inhibitory) in response to glutamate to balacne the otherwise excitory effects of glutamate
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Blue light is bent more than red light
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Bodian stain. When you put silver into a stain it causes the microtubules and neurofilaments to clump together and make neurofibrils that are visible in the light microscope
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Bronchial vessels are similar to systemic vessels = more smooth muscle than the pulmonary arterioles. 2. Bronchial veins drain partly into the pulmonary venous = left atrium and partly into the azygos veins = right atrium.
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CCCP destroys H+ gradient by transporting H molecules
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CYANIDE INHIBITS ELECTRON TRANSPORT AND THE CREATION OF A GRADIENT
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Choroid plexus and other sensor neuron sites do not have blood-brain barrier, but DO have Ependymal cells with tight junctions
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Cortical Pyramidal Cell- Thalamic Reticular Cell- interneuron. inibitory to thalamocortical cells. inhibited by ACh Thalamocortical RELAY Cell- makes 1hz delta waves. clear, invidual behavior. regular spiking mode=alert state. 1hz oscillatory mode is sleep state. wakeful NTs like acetylcholine push these cells to be in the alert regular spiking mode.
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Cysteine, is part of glutathione it is generated from homocystein by transulfuration pathway. (homocystein to cystathionine to cysteine)
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DHT is the REAL effective testosterone
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EPSPs begin in dendrite, where they are the biggest, they gradually fade as they hed through cell body to axon hillock. the axon hillock initiates the action potential
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Elevation of skin temp triggers activation of medullary SNS activation of sweat glands to facilitate secretion of sweat--evaporation of sweat allows dissipation of heat
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Endolymph produced in stria vascularis, flows through scala media and also continuously through the saccule, utricle, and semicircular canals
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For Nuclear organizations (brainstem, thalamus, hypothalamus) the neurons that are located more lateral were born earlier than the neurons that are located more medial.nuclei are made from the outside in (inside is the most important, made last)
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For cortical structures, neurons are born inside out. so inside are the oldest, outside the youngest (cortex outside is most important so its saved for last)
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For high frequency localization, the ipsilateral LSO is preferentially activated. For low frequency localization, both MSOs are activated, just different cell populations are.
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G protein itself can open channels, this is an intermediate speed route (between other metabotropic and ionotropic methods)
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GSA= SHARP, LOCALIZED,PODY WALL, PARIETAL PERITONEUM
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GVA IS DULL DIFFUSE, BRUNING PAIN, FROM ORGAN ,VISCERAL PERITONEUM
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Ganglion Cell layer
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Gastrin also regulates proliferation of mucosa and epithelium
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Glucogenic AAs are turned into TCA products, which then become OAA, which gets turned in to Phosphoenol pyruvate by PEPCK, becomes glucose
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Glycolysis can't be run backwards when you need glucose because the 2 or 3 strongly downhill steps that drive glycolysis forward make sure that the overall process proceeds forward and not in reverse EXAM
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GnRH is released in pulsatile fashion from hypothalamus to stimulate Lh and FSH release. constant high GnRH actually suppreses release of LH and FSH
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H+ excreted= NH4+ + Other Titrated Acids - HCO3 excreted
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HDL SYNTHESIS DOES NOT REQUIRE MTP! NO apoB or MTP
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High redox potential. Oxidizing Agent
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IMPORTANT- Cochlear nuclei receive only ipsilateral info, next level (Superior olives) recieve bilaterally from cochlear nuclei
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If the reducing agent is from the more negative couple then it is spontaneous.
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If you have an increase in your blood pressure, you can use that skeletal muscle system as a sink for your excess blood.
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In Portal Area there are Portal Veins- very big clear Arterioles- small, endothelial lining Bile duct- have distinctive columnar epithelium tightly surrounding them, no blood inside
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In a respiratory acidosis, u are not breathing enough. co2 builds up and pushes formation of bicarb and H+. Thus u have more bicarb, and more H+ and acidic conditions. (Bicarb levels are strange for the respiratory alkalosis and acidosis as apposed to the metabolic ones where they make sense)
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In females, the uterine tubes open into the peritoneal cavity and create two small communications with the outside. (ectopic pregnancies)
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In making Homocysteine into Methionine 1) U need vit B12 2) You regenerate THF from N5 methyl THF
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In the adrenal medulla, dopamine is further converted to norepinephrine and epinephrine
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In the top ¼ of the esophagus the muscularis EXTERNA is composed totally skeleton muscle, the next ¼ is skeletal and smooth muscle and the lower ½ is totally smooth muscle. Use this knowledge to determine which level of the esophagus you are dealing with.
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Inhibitors of mt mRNA translation also inhibit bacterial mRNA translation and are used as antibiotics (so not for too long.)
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Intercalated cells involved in pH balance are able to create a lumen of pH 4.4 (big transtubular pH gradient) because of very TIGHT TIGHT JUNCTIONS
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Korsakoff's syndrome and alcoholic/nutritive disorder (Vitamin B1/niacin deficiency) cause degeneration in the anterior cerebellum lobe, which is associated with lack of balance and poor gait.
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LINGULA IS ON THE SUPERIOR LOBE OF LEFT LUNG
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Tonotopy is maintained through the inferior colliculus (neurons respond only to certain freq ranges) all the way to the primary auditory cortex (which is arranged with low freq anterior and high freq posterior)
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UDP glucose is the immediate source of glucose units for building up glycogen.
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UNCUS IS PART OF AMYGDALA!
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Weak stimulation of central grey or medial thalamus causes analgesia due to release of endogenous opiates.
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cardiovascular system is the limiting factor in excersise, it can only increase its output 5 fold (respiratory system can increase its output 10 fold)
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cards for lectures 3 and 5 are LOST
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cell injury releases potassium, which depolarizes nociceptors
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cephalic flexure of mesencephalon, cervical flexure of rhombencephalon (which becomes metencephalon and myelencephalon
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cerebellum is a motor feedback system, allows you to move hand in straight line, and over time, allows you to learn how to reach for something appropriately (clumsy after growth spurt but then recover). it does motor learning when u wear prisms, go on circular treadmill and step off it
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cervix secretion just prior to ovulation is induced by estradiol to be watery, make sperm line up after ovulation, under progesterone, cervix makes thick mucous to prevent semen from getting in.
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chemoattractants like Ephrin create specific adhesions between neurons and speicifc muscles/ brain targets, that dont change even if you move them.
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citrate is prochiral, with an COOH and OH on opposite ends with CH2COOHs inbetween
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cleavage points on prohormone designated by two positive AAs likes lys-lys
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complex 2= succinate dehydrogenase, its not membrane bound, nor a proton pump
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contraction of esophagus is function of enteric nervous system and will continue, unregulated, even if extrinsic nerves are cut. also regulated by chemicals.
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conversion of all-trans retinal protein back o 11-cis takes place in the retinal pigment epithelium. this is rate limiting step when there is a lot of photons. allows u to bring things down a notch if theres lots of light around.
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cortisol does not really sit freely in the cel or blood. it associated with transcortin or albumin. when free half life 20 minutes when associated half life 60 min
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crista-patch of hairs in ampulla hair cells in crista are looong,capped by gelatinous plug=cupula
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damage to hippo/fornix: spatial deficit damage to lat amygdala: cue preference. difficulty for tasks not related to timing, just simply correlating light to food.
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decrease in ACTH results in decrease of steroidogenic enzymes and glucocorticoid secretion. Injecting ACTH will result in increase in glucocorticoid secretion but it TAKES A WHILE. bc factors depressing ACTH also depress corticosteroid release.
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diabetes in part caused by inability to repress hepatic glucose
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diarrhea is alkaline with bicarbonate. vomit is acidic ith HCL. both are hypotonic (diarrhea can also be isotonic)
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different parts of the hypothalamus are active during rage behaviors and during sex behaviors
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diffuse pain is from an organ
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dinitrophenol uncouples H+ gradient O2 consumption from ATP production
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doppler: If you want rapid blood flow you use continuous, if you want localization you use pulse
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doppler: if transducer is not parallel, it gives a lower speed than what is true
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dorsal sulcus (medial, intermediate and lateral) all cary input from DRG up to medulla. all travel in same direction
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duct of pancreas produces alkaline fluid pH 8.3 to neutralize the stomach fluid pH 2. Pancreatic enzymes work best at pH7 once pancreatic and stomach juices mix
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during acceleration, canal increases firing during deceleration canal decreases firing this is a SLOW process unlike auditory. scale of many seconds
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during development, for five weeks the entire small intestine and part of the large one herniate, go into the yolk sac, and then come back
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during excercise there is an increase in pulse pressure due to increase co and decreased resistance, the baroreceptors can respond to this by increasing sympathetic tone!
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during expiration, the negative pressure is Ppl=-5 cm H2O The pressure of your alveoli = air pressure, which is 0.
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during rotation at constant velocity, semicircular canals itially fire, but adapt after 2 minutes and think this is the new normal, causing disorientation when u stop spinning
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during water deprivation, u get increasingly hypertonic. can only be fixed by drinking water. excreting this concentrated urine doesnt help, bc its mostly ineffective osmoles like urea in pee, and also bc ur body is making creatinine etc. all the time
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each thalamic nucleus projects to a single region, except for the intralaminar (in between dorsal ventral thalamus) and the midline nuclei ( in the interthalamic adhesion)
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edema can also be caused by increased capillary permeability
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effect of cerebellar cortex is to inhibit the output of the deep cerebellar nuclei. That is, it inhibits the open channel of the deep loop
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electrodes in hypothalamus can trigger rage
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electron transport runs from best reducing agent to worst
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enterocytes can intake AAs up to 8 long, along with Na+ uptake. AAs are released to blood side as only 1 long
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epi and norepi cant cross blood brain barrier so brain has to make its own in a seperate process if it needs epi or norepi
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epilepsy can also be caused by causing a seizure during neuron migration causing ectopic neurons
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estragon induces ciliated cells of fallopian tube to be tall and secretory cells to actively secrete.
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excretory duct=striated
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exocrine gland products are ultimately destined to leave the body! the gut, the reproductive tract, breast milk
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fat cant be converted to glucose
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flavin only gives you 1.5 atp per molecule. it is a worse reducing agent than nadh. this is the ultimate fate of the nadh from glycolysis
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for epinephrine to break down glycogen, kinases are activated (to phospho phosphorylase) and at the same time, the synthase is deactivated by phosphorylation. one PKA molecule turns on phosphorylase and turns off synthase by phospho'ing both of them
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for every H+ excreted in collecting tubule intercalated cell, a bicarb must be put into body.
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for processing of fructose, use fructokinase to make f1p and then make trioses. U DONTS NEED PFK1 FOR THIS
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for secretions, all anions are competing for the same transporter, this it is a one at a time single-file line sort of situations. same with the cations and their transporters.
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for skeletal muscle at rest, neuro regulation is in control and has a baseline pulse of 1-2 hz of sympathetic drive
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for the internal surface of the tooth, there is NO ENAMEL. from tooth going to bone: Dentin Cementum periodontal membrane bone
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fovea inputs massively overrepresented in the cortex
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fructose can be used as a substrate for lipid synthesis
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fructose is not under regulation of PFK-1 because it doesnt use PFK1
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gastro-ileal or the gastro-colonic reflex are the following: when you eat and your stomach gets dilated, your ileum and colon start moving faster
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generally, venous pressure increase 1mm Hg per 1cm of height
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glial cells use gap junctions to distribute extra K+ it takes in
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glucagon alpha cells are located at periphery of pancreas
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glucagon like peptide released from small intestine in response to satiety
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glucan transferase and glucosidase work to DEBRANCH glycogen
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glucose is made into udp glucose before becoming glycogen
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going from external of tooth in, you have: enamel (very hard-hydroxyapatitie) dentin (dark) predentin(lighter) odontoblasts (specled white) pulp (mostly wihte) - contains capillaries
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greater splanchinc sympathetic nerve follows celiac ganglia, artyery
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hair tip bundles naturally slide down in response to tension of a loud prolonged sound. this muffles the sound and protects the tips from breaking.
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hearing and balance are FASTEST SENSES! much faster than vision
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heart has many end arounds to go straight into the ventricles, including arterioluminal vessels which are artery to ventricle (no capillary bed, larger diameter)
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hepatocyte can do both endocrine (send proteins to blood) and exocrine (release bile)
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hepatocytes store lipids
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heterotrimer g protein has its own inherent GEF and GAP as parts of the alpha unit
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high ATP favors storage and sythesis, doesnt favor glycolysis
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high pitched sounds deflect basilar membrane at base, lower pitches get all the way to apex and move it there.
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high serum glucose will cause water to come into ecm and LOWER the sodium concentration
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hippocampus and amygdala both have some direct paths to the association cortices in addition to going through the thalamus
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hormones act in very small concentrations (amplification)
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hormones can cause secretory diarrhea by activating cAMP (for example Thyroid hormones prostaglandins have this effect)
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hypothalmus is master coordinator of endocrine release. it makes a variety of releasing hormones which cause release of other hormones from anterior pituitary (and others?)
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if one eye is sutured, the lgb stays the same but the cortex dedicated to good eye increases
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if reactants of redox goes up ladder from left to right, it is probably spontaneous (on redox pot. chart)
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if you drink hypertonic soup, u gain water weight, it takes a while to bring down that osmolarity through thirst,drinking and ADH secretion
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in a systematic capillary, there is a net filtration of 12mmHg into lymph. caused by capilary hydro pressure being 2 more than cap osmo, a negative 4 interstitial hydrostatic pressure, and an interstitial oncotic pressure of 6
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in arteriol capillary, hydrostatic pressure is higher than osmotic pressure, fluid out at venous end, osmotic pressure is higher than osmotic pressure, fluid in
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in blood, thyroid hormone is either bound (inactive) or free (active). T3 is more likely to be FREE than t4 when bound, its inactive but also protected from degredation by enzymes or clearnace by kidney
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in brain, osmolarity, water content, and sodium Na+ are all same as outside. K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, protein are all kept out. brain pH is LOW. 7.33
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in cases of flutter, with many atrial p's for one ventricular qrs, this is described as a 4:1 "block" or 2:1 "block", even though its really caused by reentry and not a block per se
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in diabetes u are not producing insulin, so u have high blood sugar
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in diabetes, hepative glucose production is not repressed
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in glycogen, 1,4 is straight chain and 1,6 is branched.
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in inspiration, ribs move laterally up and push sternum up
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in intestine, oxygen is diverted to venous side, so it doesnt leak into intestine (dont want too much gas in intestine), this makes intestine sensitive to ischemia if low flow
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in order to not excrete strait H+, H+ is buffered to make NH4 ammonia
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in order to promote fluid volume increase, blood will move from intersitium into capillaries (due to lower hydrostatic pressure in capillaries)
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in placenta, amnion covers chorionic plate and umbilical cord
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in short loops, the high concentration of urea in collecting duct results in diffusion out of the collecting. duct. however, this urea then gets reabsorbed in the descending loop. the rest of the loop is impermeable to urea so it gets stuck until the collecting duct (in inner medulla) where some can escape again
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in sinusoid, u can find kupffer cell (macrophage), and lined by a fenestrated endothelial
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in the extra cellular matrix, there is a net balance between positive and negative charge, even though the lab values show "serum anion gap", where there is 140Na and 130Cl- and HCO3-. there are 10 of other anions.
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in the umbilical cord, the midgut rotates 90 degrees clockwise, so that the cranial limb end up on the right
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intensity coding-not a real thing. AP is fixed. rate coding-loudness temporal coding- low frequency frequency perception below a few kHz labeled line- better freq. perception
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interfacing with the placenta is the endometrium made out of the stratum basalis and the decidua basalis( from stratum functionalis)
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interlobular ducts exist in a pinkish connective tissue outside of the lobes
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intestine primarily makes chylomicrons, liver makes primarily VLDL and also LDL
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intralobular ducts in pancreas have no striations and no myoepithelium
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islets are dispersed through pancreas, they make insulin and glucagon and have no duct as they are endocrine
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kidneys are also retroperitoneal (primary as in they always were retro)
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know the difference between power spectral analysis and the volt potential averaging technique
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laryngeal cartilages are derived from neural crest, not mesoderm as the other cartilages are
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layer of cerebral closest to ventricles maintains proliferative properties, especially at the foramen of monro where glioblastomas can develop.
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least splanchnic follows inferior mesenteric ganglion
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lecture 2, slide 30 has all the types of resp tissue and its cells
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left bronchial comes off of aorta, right comes off of third post intercostal
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leptin is released when u are satiated. it promotes the gonadatropin axis. in starvation, no leptin, no gonadotropins
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lesser splanchnic follows superior mesenterix a
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leucine is an activator of protein synthesis. The branched chain amino acids are exported from the liver to the muscle
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limbic injury must be bilateral to have effect! unlike sensory and motor deficits!
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linear relationship between H+ and ventilation
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liver has right and left lobe with gallbladder tucked into right lobe. histologically, it has a thick connective tissue= Glissons capsule and is covered ina peritoneal mesothelium
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lobes are seperated by a thick white connective tissue.
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local factors, not neuronal control, regulate cerebral blood flow
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long juxta loops do have aquaporins. permeable to water but not Na+. they also have an initial thin ascending limb
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low estrogen in postmenopausal women causes bone shrinking (estrogen normally promotes osteoblasts and kills osteoclasts)
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lung itself only goes as far down as rib 8
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lungs have the MOST lymphatics
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lymph vessels have valves, they increase their flow in response to more interstitial pressure. As a lymph vessels becomes stretched the smooth muscle around it automatically contracts and pushes the lymph forward to the next segment.
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making an acid from an ester is more downhill (delgG=-3) than making an amide bond is uphill (+2)
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many sympathetic splachnic nerves dont synapse in the sympathetic trunk, the preganglionic continues down prevertebral ganglia (but some splachnics do synapse in sympathetic trunk and come out in gray rami)
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menstrual cycle is 28 days give or take. it is always 14 days from ovulation to begining of menses
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merocrine=eccrine secretion is fusion of vesicles to PM and release of contents (most common) apocrine= release of vesicle with PM (breast milk) Holocrine=loss of entire cell with nucleas (ex sebacous loss of old cells)
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molecular O2 has 2 unpaired electrons! one for each oxygen. theyre reactive
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most of the chloride reabsorption in the proximal tubule is through the tight junction paracellularly, following the Na+ that travels transcellularly
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motor cortex- voluntary movement toward target, selection, strategy, observational leraning basal ganglia-initiating and maintaing movement, tying your shoe cerebellum-computation in SINGLE, discrete movements
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motor output signal to extraoccular muscles provides input so that we dont perceive movement in the world as our eyes move
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movement of bile is from bile canaliculi INTO THE BILE DUCT IN PORTAL AREA (OPPOSITE DIRECTION OF FLOW). from portal area, bile flows down bile duct into hepatic duct, and then either straight into duodenum (if eating) or into the galbladder
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muscle synthesises and stores glycogen too!
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myelin decreases membrane capacitance so charge moves in a forward direction faster
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myelination increases with development to adulthood, also increased with use of those regions(piano players). myelination can be less to allow for slower conduction speeds so all information can reach an associatoin area at the same time
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myenteric plexus does parasympathetic peristalsis submucosal does gland secretion (in response to para)
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myogenic mechanisms are intrinsic properties of smooth muscle that favor the status quo
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neuronal precursor cells can become astrocytes if no NOTCH present, becomes neuron if notch present
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normally a person will make less glucagon in liver in response to a high glucose meal
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normally, 2L/day of plasma goes into intersitital fluid through capillaries 2L/day reabsorbed by lymphatics
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number of capillaries in brain increases in response to mountain climbing
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nutrients flow from the blood into lacteals, which then connect to the lymphatics
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often the proteins made by genes directly activated by the steroid-receptor complex are not physiological effectors themselves. they as proteins activate other genes, which then make a useful protein. these initial proteins also turn their own genes off (neg feedback)
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oligomycin is oxidative phosphrylation inhibitor, stops ETC together
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one gpcr can activate multiple g proteins, so inhibition of one pathway of a gpcr still means that other pathways could be working still
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one of the effects of AngII is to stimulate Na/H exchanger in the proximal tubule
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one of the effects of blood free in the subarachnoid space is that platelet factors in blood cause adventitia to constrict when in contact with adventitia
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orientation sensitivty organized into horizontal wedges in cortex. as yougo down deepr in the cortex, orientation selectivity is maintained for a given part of the wedge (doesnt vary vertically)
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our understanding of wear our fingers r behind r head comes from information from joints, and info from muscle spindles on force of muscle contraction
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oxidoreductases= dehydrogenase
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oxytocin induces myoepithlial cells of breast to constrict and push out milk
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pancreas is extraperitoneal (mostly)
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paracellular transport always passive
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paracrine glands act locally on a nearby cell(s). important for difestion, regulation of secretion of endocrine products by cells in the gut or stomach
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paramedian branches of basilar a. supply ventral pons bulbar branches supply lateral pons region.
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parotid gland secretions is totally serous, with amylase a DNAase and RNAse and Iga. ONLY 25% of the total secretions!
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partial pressure of oxygen in the blood is a variable depending on the condition of the composition of the blood.
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pepsinogen is cleaved by acid hydrolysis once in the stomach. pepsin can cleave other pepsinogens (POS FEEDBACK)
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perception=awareness happens only in the cortex. sensation=any sensory event, can happen in spinal cord, cerebellum (ie reflexes)
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pointed pain is sharp, somatic, body wall
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posterior neuro pituitary gets ADH and Oxytocin, both 9 AA peptides that are cleaved upon release into blood
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primordial germ cells derive from endoderm of YOLK SAC. move to genital ridge.
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pro hormone in pituitary= POMC promopiomelanocortin can be made into several different hormones including opioids depending on cutting
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proliferative phase=follicular phase secretory phase=luteal phase menstruation
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proximal straight tubule is straight part of prox tubule and has a brush border. the descending thin limb does not!
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proximal tubule always have aquaporins so that water can follow the Na+
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question on exam about substrate level phosphorylation
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radicular arteries travel with dorsal root ganglia. Sulcal arteries arise from meeting of anterior spinal and radicular a.s
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ras is a simple, non-trimeric g protein
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rectus sheath consists of contributions from external and internal oblique muscle
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reentry arrythmias are due to refractoriness and conduction mismatch, they are responsible fore ventricular fibrilation. in reentry fibrilations the depolarization travels in circles around the heart.
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retina is part of brain, lens is ectoderm
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reversin conditioned stim (bell) and unconditioned stim (food) order slows or stops condition learning. so does seperating the stimuli in time.
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rhomboncephalon= floor of fourth ventricle
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salivary gland has intra-lobular secretory endpieces within a lobule incased in connective tissue. the lobules are seperated by septum
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schiff base= double bond between amino and carbonyl group
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secretory vesicles in pancreatic acinar chain up so that not all vesicles need to touch surface to release contents (whic h are a variety of enzymes)
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sensory nucleas= first nucleas that sensory input all goes to. relay nucleas= where sensory nucleas sends info processing area= receives input form relay nucleas, sends it forward into premotor nucleas.
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serotonin and acetylcholine are both both ionotropic and metabotropic. they r amines
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several channels to deal with different parts of that input. That is what your ten different neurons do. Each of your afferent neurons covers a particular part of your input range and transmits that with high resolution into a firing rate
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skull dura matter (Epidural space) SUBDURAL space Arachnoid Layer Subarachnoid Space Pia Matter Brain
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some neurons in the somatosensory cortex, and many in the secondary somatosensory cortical areas, are sensitve to the direction of a moving touching stimulus.
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some parts of the gut migrate out of the peritoneal cavity to become secondary retroperitoneal. their VANs are still retroperitoneal and midline
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sometimes parkinsons patients can still do rhytmic sh1t like bike riding and dancing
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sound pressure levels differences between the upper fluid filled compartment and the lower fluid filled compartment set the basilar membrane into motion
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spine receives blood from vertebral as but also from radicular a.s which are branches of branches of intercostals or lumbar a.s these are important supplemental supply for spine.
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spiral ligament vs lamina vs ganglion on exam
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splanchnic nerves BYPASS THE SYMPATHETIC CHAIN GANGLIA
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sry testes testes make testosterone and Mullerian Inhibiting Substance Muillerians disapear wollfian becomes seminiforous tubules, etc.
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steps of respiration Pulm phase- ventilation, gas exchange Vascular phase- gas transport Cell phase- gas exchange, cell respiration
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stomach responds to food by relaxing, accomadates food w.o. pressure increase, under nervous control
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stomodeum becomes mouth proctodeum becomes rectum
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substantia nigra leads to resting tremor, cerebellum leads to tremor during voluntary movements
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substantia nigra pars reticulata (clear) is diplaced globus palidus internus
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superior colliculis of midbrain is cortical organization inferior colliculi is nuclear organization
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superior mes. a branches at L1 inf. mes. a. branches at L3
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surfactant production begins at 20 weeks
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sweat is slightly hypotonic relative to body fluids
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sympathetic output on enteric causes spastic contractions
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testosterone is converted to estradiol in the brain to have its effects on males. normal circulating estradiol is bound to albumin and can not cross blood brain barrier.
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the AV node has a long natural refractory period
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the NMDA channel has to bind glutamate and has to be depolarized in order for the gate to open (Magnesium blocks the channel and depolarization is needed to move it out).
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the beta and gamma of the g protein can interact with the same protein that the alpha subunit is interacting with. the betagama can modulate this protein in some idfferent way. or, the betagamma can interact with a totally different protein
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the brachium of the inferior colliculus is found just lateral to the superior colliculus so it would appear in this kind of cross section. The brachium of the inferior colliculus carries fibers that originate in the inferior colliculus and go the medial geniculate body.
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the cartilage rings and the smooth muscle adjacent to the esophagus and the connective tissues (splanchnic mesoderm derived
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the cranial nerve nuclei and nerves are equivalent to the ventral horn and alpha motor neurons.
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the esophageal sphincter responds to swallowing not by contracting, but by RELAXING.
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the gut tube is surrounded by mesoderm=serous mesothelial lining=peritoneum. surrounding the gut tube itself is visceral, then a parietal in contact with ectoderm, with a peritoneal cavity in between
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the liver synthesises low density lipoprotein with cholesterol, making LDL and sending it to the tissues, it returns to the liver in the form of HDL
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the matrix is negatively charged relative to intermembrane space, perhaps helping positive N-signal get to TIM and through it
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the medullary cardiovascular center integrates the baroreceptor input and responds to an increase in firing (more pressure), by decreasing sympathetics tone and increasing parasympathetic
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the metabolic acidosis and alkalosis are both driven by an initial change in bicarb causing a shift in equation that changes h+. respiratory then changes TO COMPENSATE
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the more particles, the greater osmotic pressure, regardless of size, so albumin has a big effect bc it has a lot of weight and a shitt load of particles in blood compared to the bigger globulin
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the motor cortex projects to red nucleus, tectum and reticular formation, which then get to spinal cord without passing through the medullary pyramids as a back up route
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the shape of the secretion producing part (secretory end-plate) can be tuular or alveolar etc.
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the subthalamus is not just here below the dorsal thalamus, but it extends all the way up through the external medullary lamina. it seperates the dorsal thalamus from ther internal capsule
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the thin ascending limb is permeable to Na and Cl but not to water (opposite of descending limb)
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the total osmolarity of ecf and icf is the same! 280 mM. for extracellular
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the upper esophageal sphincter prevents air from getting int othe GI tract
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there are collaterals between the two inferior colliculi
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there is a standing sodium/calcium current into the cell depolarizing it, which light shuts down through causing the eating of cGMP needed to keep the channel open
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there is no dietary requirement for carbs
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there is no parasympathetic innervation of vascular smooth muscle
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they like to tag linea alba and tendonous intersection of rectus abdominis
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thyroid hormone increases metabolic rate and heat production
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to illucidate the digestive tract, have patient swallow radioluscent (black) gas and radiodense (white)
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to make citrate, get CH2 of AcetylSCoA to attack oxalocetate, then HS-CoA leaves (downhill)
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transpyloric plane is at level of L1, at level of false ribs
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trigeminal sensory nucleus takes input from 7,9,10 as well as trigeminal cranial nerve
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tumors are glial bc these cells keep dividing.
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two different splachnics supply the inferior hypogastric plexus with preganglionic GVE fibers, you have sacral sympathetics and you have pelvic parasympathetics.
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type 1 diabetes- beta cells dont make insulin type 2- insulin is made but cells dont respond
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ultimately the lymph is being emptied into the left or right subclavian vein. (right is small, right lymphatic duct onto right sublcavian vein)
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umbilicus corresponds to T10 dermatome, BUT L4 vertebrae
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under normal conditions, ADH is responsible for 23L a day of resorption. without any adh (diabetes, diuresis) u have massive peeing of watery urine and drinking
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usually, .4 of TBW is extracellular, of that most is intersitital, and about 3L is in vascular space. with edema, interstitial volume expands
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vagina has stratifies squamos epi. uterus and endocervix is columnar.
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vaginal squamous epithelium make glycogen. when sloughed off, these cells glycogen is eaten by lactobacilli bacteria which create the acidic vaginal pH
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vagus nerve does ALL THE SENSORY from the lungs
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vertical columns are general alternating from left to right eye with intermediately influenced columns
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vestibular linear acceleration system does not adopt (tip connectors do not slide down) constant firing rate in response to head tilt
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viagra works by blocking phosphodiesterase
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vitamin d needed for thyorid hormone to work!
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watershed area of cortex is prone to hypotensive ischemic injury. it receives distal flows from both mca and and pca.
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when an alveolus stops working, the pco2 level of the blood vessel nexts to it, triggering it to ( ) inorder to shunt blood away from a nonfunctional alveolus
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when diving, the volume and pressure of gasses in your lungs, tissues increases due to increased pressure, these gases expand as u head towards surface
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when placenta is removed, stratum basalis remains, decidua basalis is pulled off. new stratum functionalis forms.
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when you have a tachyarrhythmia in the atrium, the ventricle is in general not stimulated at a very high rate. This is one of the roles of the AV node. It makes a delay, but it also has a large refractory period and the long refractory period prevents that if you have an atrial fibrillation, every impulse should pass to the ventricle. And somehow it limits the ventricular frequency and allows for a better feeling.
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when you have an increase sympathetic tone, there is both more activation of beta receptors of heart AND MORE CIRCULATING EPINEPHRINE THROUHGOUT BODY (ON EXAM)
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where is bile acid and intrinsic factor/b12 reabsorbed?
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with touch learning, the representation in cortex increases and the number of receptive fields dedicated to that area increases
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worst effect of free radicals is on mito DNA (whic hhas no excision repair) causes mutations and single stranded breaks
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you need more pressure to force the apical pulmonary capillaries to be open. (more gravity)
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you normally see the borders of the heart with the lung because the lung is aerated and darker, if there is a pathology of the lung, u wont see border as well
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you only co-transport monosaccharides with sodium.
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normal resting pressure of noncontracting esophagus is...
0!
Steps of renal tubule
0)Bowmans space 1)Proximal Tubule-huge site of reabsorption (120/day) 2)Desc Loop of Henle 3)Asc Loop of Henle 4) Distal convoluted tubule 5) COllecting System
during expiration, The Trans Alveolar pressure= Alveolar pressure-pleural pressure =
0-(-5)=5
during inspiration, what happens to trans alveolar pressure?
0--8=8
how much is the expiratory reserve volume
1 L
sleep cycle from stage 0 to REM take
1 hour
Delta Waves
1 hz. low frequency. occur during stage 3 and 4 of slow wave sleep. originate from thalamocortical cells
Things that Folate Does
1) Allow Histidine to turn into Glutamate by accepting forimimino group from His 2)Allow breakdown of Glycine into CO2 and NH4+ by accepting C-alpha from glycine 3)Allow dUMP to become dTMP needed for DNA by donating a Methyl gorup neeed to make dTMP
What stimulates aldosterone release?
1) Angiotensin 2) INCREASED plasma K+ concentration (this makes sense bc the effect of aldosterone is more collecting duct Na channels, more Na taken in the collecting duct cells means more K must be output. so if u have high K it will be corrected by more K secretion in response to more Na resorption)
abnormal appearance of mitral valve stenosis on pressure tracings
1) Atrial pressure is too high throughout, and fades slightly during diastole (when it should be rising) 2)There is a looong heart sound leading into S1 (difficulty getting through mitral to fill ventricle)
intraembryonic coelem
1) BECOMES the pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal cavities 2)mesoderm derived
where does the H+ that is excreted in type a intercalateds come from?
1) CO2 and H20 combine in cell and is turned into H+ and bicarb by carbonic anhydrase 2)The H+ gets excereted by atpase 3) The bicarb gets resorbed by bicarb/Cl- exchangeer
steps of ca absorption in intestine
1) Ca+ enters epi through Ca2+ channel 2)Binds calbindin 3) calbindin brings ca to basolateral side, releases it 4)Ca is pumped out to blood by Ca2+ ATPAse
Stages of Urea Cycle in the Mitochondria of Liver
1) Carbomoyl Phosphate Synthetase takes bicarbonate, free ammonia, and 2 ATP and creates Caromyl phosphate 2)Ornithine (2Ns) combines with Carbomoyl phosphate(1N) to make 2 N combound called CITRULLINE (3Ns) Done by Ornithine Transcarbamoylase CItrulline is transported out of mitochondria into hepatocyte cytosol
path of vestibular nuclei
1) From vestibule to cranial nerve 8 2) to vestibular nuclei at lateral 4th ventricle 3) to cerebellum, VP thalamus, neck motor neurons, limb motor neurons
features of steroid receptors
1) Gene activating Domain 2) DNA binding domain 3)COO- end binds both steroid AND can bind an inhibitor,. this coo end either allows or prevents the DNA binding part from working depending on if an inhibitor or steroid binds.
Crossed Extension for Withdrawal Reflex
1)L foot steps on nail, lifts up real quick 2)Greater demands on R Leg, which must extend to compensate. This is accomplished through internerons that go to the contralateral side, inhibit the flexors and activate the extensors (opposite of whats happening on ipsilateral side)
2 cells and their products responsible for making estradiol
1)LH acts on theca cells to make androstendione 2)Androstendione is made to Estradiol in GRANULOSA CELL
Steps of Atherosclerosis
1)Lesion Initiation- too much LDL in blood, some LDL gets through endothelium and PENETRATES THE INTIMA. where it gets oxidized, aggregates 2)Inflammation- Macrophages called to deal with the LDL aggregates in intima 3)Macrophages get stuck and becomes FOAM CELLS 4)Fibrous Plaque Formation 5)Thrombosis- unstable fibrous cap breaks and goes into blood causing clot
parietal cell- 3 important features, at rest and at work
1)Lots of mitochondria just deep to parietal layer 2) at rest, there are discrete tubulovesticular system at work, the tubes intertwine to become MICROVILLI 3)intracellular canaliculi which lead to lumen (enlarge when active)
3 main parts of Krebs Cycle
1)Make Citrate (from Acetly CoA and oxatoacetate) 2) Oxidize Citrate twice, making 2CO2, 2 NADH, and 1 GTP, leaving Succinate 3) Get Succinate to Oxaloacetate
Golgi tendon organ reflex
1)Muscle is tensed actively 2) Asyncronous alpha neurons cause collagens to move against each other, activating the axons of 1B afferents running through the golgi tendon. 3)1B activates inhibitory interneron, which inhibits the alpha neuron of the homomonous muslce.
Neural Development
1)Notocord mesoderm induces Neural plate to create Neural Folds which close to form Neural Tube 2)Neural Folds remain unfused at rostral end and caudal ends. closed in midle 3)Neural Crest forms(becomes peripheral nervous system 4)(Somites become vertebral arches)
Purine Synthesis
1)PRPP gets NH2 from Gln to Glu 2)Glycine is added to make half a ring 3)An Aldehyde is added from N10 Formyl THF (a N5,10 Derivative) 4)Another Gln to Glu adds an N 5) Aspartate gives an N and becomes Fumarate (like in urea cycle 6)Another N10 Formyl THf is used to add aldehyde 7)Final Product is IMP
Steps in TAG digestion
1)Pancreas breaks down to fatty acid, monoglycerides 2)Liver makes mixed micelle with bile acids 3)Intestine makes TGs into chylomicrons that are delivered into lymphatics and then blood
Steps and Enzymes to get Glucose to Fructose 1,6 biphosphate
1)Phospho from ATP put on to C6 OH [Hexokinase] 2)C1 is an aldehyde group, in order to have an OH there, change it into a ketose (ketone on C2) [hexose-P isomerase] 3)phospho from ATP put on C1 OH [PFK1 phosphofructokinase-1]
Major Steps of glycolysis
1)Phosphorylation of Glucose to fructose1,6 biphosphate (phospho'd on both ends) [Requires 2 ATP] 2) Splitting of Fruc biphosphate into PGAL and DHAP [done by aldolase] 3) Oxidizing the 2 C3s and producing NADH, ATP, ATP in the process [x2, so in total you get 4 ATP and 2 NADH in this step]
catabolism of heme
1)IN spleen and liver macrophages, heme is broken down into fe3+(green) and biliverdin straight chain. also releases CO gas 2) reduced to Bilirubin (red) travels in blood attached to albumen 3)bilirubin becomes part of bile, conjugated in liver then reformed in large intestine 4)urobilin goes to urine, yellow stercobilin is brown, stool
layers in trachea and extrapulmonary bronchi (from inside of trachea lumen out)
1)Pseudostrat. ciliated epithelium with goblet cells line lumen 2)Lamina propria- connect. tissue 3)Muscularis mucosa + Elastic fibers (thin) 4)Submucosa- glands 5)Adventitia with cartilage rings
intrapulmonary bronchi features (+differences from extrapulmonary bronchi and trachea)
1)Pseudostratified ciliated w. goblet cells 2)lamina propria CT 3)muscularis mucosa - smooth muscle (NO elastic fibers) 4)submucosa 5)Adventitia with only partially covering cartilage plates (NO rings)
Transduction of smells
1)Smell binds Receptor cell, Adenyl Cyclase activated, making cAMP 2) cAMP opens channels that depolarize cell 3)receptor cell sends signal up unmylinated axon across cribiform plate 4)many receptor axons synapse on mitral cell dendrite of glomerulus within the olfactory bulb 5)signals from bulb sent through olfactory tracts to: 6)Anterior Olfactory nucleus, olfactory tubercle, amygdala, olfactory cortex, entorhinal cortex of hippocampus
how did they find the genes that regulate cholesterol levels?
1)Identify promoters sensitive to cholesterol = sterol responseive elements (SRE) 2)Proteins that bind this are Sterol Response Element Binding Proteins (SREBP) 3)Identify genes that make SREBP (Genes SREBP 1 and 2)
Central Pathways for taste
1)Taste info goes on 7,9,10 the VISCERAL AFFERENTS of the cranial nerves 2) synapse in the Nucleus Solitarius (or Nucleos of tractus solitarius NTS) in the medulla 3) Travel up central temgental tract to the hypothalamus,amygdala (reward, deisre to eat more, less), and VPM thalamus to taste cortex on postcentral gyrus
encoding of loudness
1)The louder the sound, the more synpatic vesicles released to CN 8 afferents (10/hair cell) 2)The afferents fire more the more transmitter released 3)Some afferents are fined tuned to fire maximally between 0-50db, others have other ranges to increase sensitivty to softer noises
what happens to lipoproteins when they are releasred from enterocytes into blood?
1)They associated with Apo C2 2)ApoC2 is a cofactor so that LIPASEs can break the lipoprotein into FAs for tissues 3)The remainder of the lipoprotein is a REMNANT, is taken up by the liver C as in cofactor
Absorption of iron via Transferrin steps
1)Transferrin binds lumenal iron & then Transferrin receptor, bring it into endocytotic vesicle, where Iron is freed into cell 2)Mobilferrin picks up iron and brings it to basolateral side, where it passes it off to a blood-side transferrin
Synthesis of DOPA, NOREPI and EPI
1)Tryosine acted on by TRYROSINE HYDROXYLASE (tetrahydropteridine cofactor) to make DOPA 2)DOPA made into DOPAMINE 3)DOPAMINE can be made into norepi 4)norepi can be made into epi feedback inhibition- dopamine, norepi and epi all compete to block tyrosine hydroxylase from making DOPA
Pyrimidine Synthesis
1)Use Carbamoyl Phosphate Synthetase2 to make carbamoyl phosphate from Glutamine and CO2 and ATP (simular to urea cycel step) 2) Carbamoyl phosphate reacts with Aspartate 3)Cyclization occurs to generate Orotic Acid 4) Combine with PRPP, with PRPP's PPi coming off and replaced with Orotate 5)Orotic acid loses CO2 to become UMP
steps of fertilization
1)Sperm gets through corona radiata 2)binds ZP3 glycoprotein in Zona Pellucida 3)binding causes Ca+ release in sperm, hypermotility, release acrosome to eat through Zona pellucida. 4)sperm membrane fuses with secondary oocyte membrane 5)release of cortical granules from oocyte=cortical reaction causes zona pellucida to harden completion of oocyte meiosis
how to make seretonin
1)TRYPTOPHAN has an OH added to ring and CO2 removed from side chain. this is done by-oxidation of BH4 and Pyridoxal Phosphate (PLP)
Both Acids and Bases are Excereted WHEN THEY ARE CHARGED. they are stuck in lumen
An Acid is Charged when it is O- and not OH. it is like this in alkaline high pH environment. it is stuck A Base is Charged when it is NH3+ and not NH2. it is like this in acidinc low pH environment
what is Nitrous oxide made from?
Arginine
Microsomal Triglyceride Transfer protein MTP loc and func
As Apolipoprotein gets made on ER membrane, MTP transfers TGs to it, to start making the Lipoprotein particle
Arginosuccinate Shunt
Aspartate that combines with citrulline to make arginosuccinate is FROM TCA CYCLE two steps later, the fumarate produces is made into malate, which goes into TCA and generates more Aspartate
neuropeptide y
Causes Feeding. (y not eat more?) released from arcuate nucleus acts on lateral hypothalamus, paraventricular nucleus
Three unpaired arteries leave the abdominal aorta from the anterior surface, they are... they supply the..
Celiac Superior Mesenteric Inferior Mesenteric These supply the GI Tract and derivates and spleen
presynaptic inhibition
Cell A synapses on axon of B, inhibiting it Cell B synapses on Cell C, activating it Cell As activity prevents Cell C from ever being activated (by blocking B)
how does the proximal tubule move water without an osmotic gradient?
Cells build up a high Na concentration in the lateral intercellular space, creating a local driving force for water to come in, in absence of a real solute gradient.
cerebellum organization
Cerebellum cortex axons do not leave cerebellum, project to deep cerebellar nuclei deep nuclei project to brain and elsewhere
where are the Enac channels found?
Colon, distal and collecting tubules of kidney.
Auitory path
FROM DORSAL COCHLEAR NUCLEUS - crosses to contralateral lateral lemniscus- contralateral inferior colliculus FROM VENTRAL COCHLEAR NUCLEUS -TO Trapezoid bodies (bilat) up both lat. lemnisci to inferior colliculus. possible detors in the superior oliary nucleui
Hyperopia
Far Sighted. You can only see whats far. rays meet behind fovea. need more refractive power so they meet.
blodflow of foregut, midgut, and hindgut
Foregut supplied by Celiac Artery Midgut by Superior Mesenteric A Hindgut by Inferior Mesenteric A
where does the bad LDL cholesterol come from?
1)VLDLs get broken down into IDL, which acquires apoE and therefore can interact well with LDL receptors and gets removed readily from blood 2)IDLs can be further broken down into LDL with NO ApoE. This LDL stays in blood for 24 hours. cant be uptaked by LDL-R of liver or other tissues quickly
Flow of info through hipppocampus
1-inflow through entorhinal cortex to 2- granule cells of dentate gyrus to 3- subiculum pyramidal cells (subiculum is outflow) (granule cell levels are important for maintaining good mood, they turnover a lot)
layers of neocortex (horizontal, going from superficial pia into deep)
1-molecular layer (cell processes of neruons and glia 2-external granular- small pyramidal cells. 3- external pyramidal layer- medium siz e pyramidal cells 4-internal granular layer- granular cells, NO pyramidals 5-internal pyramidal llayer- LARGe pyramidals 6-Large cells. NO pyramids
Nociception Pathway
A delta fibers to superficial laminae of dorsal horn to ventral posterolateral thalamus to primary somatosensory cortex
LH actions
Acts on Leydig cells to secrete TESTOSTERONE (Test Lute. Not the real lute)
Why does hypoalbuminemia cause Edema?
Albumin is stuck in Capillaries! it creates an osmotic force that brings water back into capillary vessels. without it, fluid stays interstitial, builds up
steps of alcohol digestion (focus on whats get reduced/ oxidized)
Alcohol Dehydrogenase: ethanol gets OXIDIZED to acetaldehyde (while NAD+ gets reduced) Acetaldehyde gets OXIDIZED to Acetic acid (nad+ reduced) Acetyl SCoA can go into the TCA cycle
Disse space located between hepaotcyte and sinusoid. they contain Ito cell, what is its function?
Ito cells store fat, Vitamin A (hydrophobic vitamin) and relase reticular fibers to maintian Disse space shape
LDL Receptor, how does it bind and release cholesterol?
Its ligand binding domain has neg. charge to bind positive AAs in ApoB and ApoE of LDL In Lysosome at low pH, Beta propeller competes with LDL, dislodging it
renin angiotensin overview
JG cells make RENIN (an enzyme) RENIN released into afferent arteriole RENIN converts Angiotensinogen to ANGIOTENSIN I Angiotensin I converted to ANGIOTENSIN 2 Angiotensin 2 goes to adrenal cortex Adrenal Cortex releases ALDOSTERONE Angiotensin also causes increased Na resorption
Fanconi Bickel Syndrome
LAcking the GLUT2 Transporter. causes edemea and diabetes like symptoms. glucose in urine, fail glucose tolerance test. cant get phosphate to bones so get rickets. Fanconi cant fan its glucose into the cells
fish eye disease
LCAT deficiency where cholesterol cant be esterified into HDL, so it goes to the eyes and fukks them up. cat love fish
free cholesterol gets esterified and less polar so it can get to the inside of the forming HDL. what enzyme does this?
LCAT- esterifies free cholesterol once the cholesterol starts going to center of HDL, it goes from disk to sphere shape LCAT Transfers an ACYL group onto Cholesterol.
limbic system components, role
Hippocampus and dentate gyrus (from allocortex) Nucleus accumbens (from basal ganglia) Amygdala Bed nucleus of stria terminalis Septal Nuclei Cingulate Gyrus Orbitofrontal Cortex Role: Motivation, and its role in behavior, learning, memory
VRG neruons control
I-neurons of VRG- ext. intercostals and accessory insp. E-neurons- int. intercostals and abdominal m
Cerebellum function
Important for coordinated movement receives input from vestibular system, muscle afferents from spinal cord, and sensory and motor cortex. It returns info to all these areas. Cerebellum appears to function as a feed back regulator that helps match the actual action to the intended or expected result.
Orientation in VPL Thalamus
In VPL Thalamus, Cervical info is ventromedial. sacral is posterolateral. spinothalamic also in the vpl, giving off collaterals,
step 2 of heme synthesis
In cytosol, to ALA's make a porphobilinogen ring
function of NPC1L1 protein
In enterocytes, TAKES IN CHOLESTEROL from lumen
PNMT phenylethanolamine N methyl Transferase
In the Medulla Converts Norepi to Epi Requires Cortisol from Adrenal Cortex to Work
How is H+ secreted into urine when it needs to be?
In the collecting system, type A intercalated cells excrete H+ into lumen using an H+ ATPase.
Telencephalon
Includes: cerebral cortex (broken down into neocortex and allocortex) BASAL GANGLIA=strio-pallidum caudate nucleas nucleas accumbens putamen Globus Pallidus amygdala bed nuc septal nuc anterior perforated space, nuc. basalis claustrum olfactory bulb
Information flow in the Pons, Cerebellum
Incoming to Pons- 1)Longitudinal fasicles in pons carry info from L cortex, synapses on cell in pontine gray area. 2) pontine gray cell crosses sides, runs through the R middle cerebellar peduncle to reach R deep nuclei of pons, synapses Outgoing from Pons 1) R Deep nuclei cell sends axons up to cortex through the Rsuperior cerebellar peduncle 2)Superior peduncle crosses at decussation in midbrain, projects to L Thalamus, L Cortex
3rhombencephalon= furthest form forehead. rhombus shaped.
Metencephalon= pons & cerebellum (= part of lower brainstem) myelencephalon = medulla oblongata
Methionines (AA) role is as a
Methyl donor
When making Methionine from Homocysteine, the Me gorup donated to make methionine comes from
Methyl-THF
Types of Receptor Mediated Endocytosis (2) and key features (Rec. Med. End. is NOT SELECTIVE UPTAKE=scavenger rec. B)
LDL receptors- take up normal lipoproteins. LDL-Rec. expression regulated by cholesterol levels SCAVENGER RECEPTOR A- in macrophages, take up only deformed cholesterol, but take it up constituitively, leading to foaming of macrophages in high cholesterol.
GLP Glucagon like peptide
LIKE glucagon in origins ONLY! not alike in function. made by ileal cells in response to FOOD. Promotes insulin release GLP analogoues are good treatments for some diabetes where beta cells arent responding to high glucose. these cells still respond to GLP (analogoues)
THE UREA CYCLE OPERATES ONLY IN THE __
LIVER
hypothalamus relatinoship with posterior pituitary neurohypophysis
LOOONG neurons in hypothalamus make (ADH) and (OXYTOCIN). Hormones travel from Supraotic Nucleas or Paraventricular hypothalamus down the axons in the infundibulum stalk and then into the neurohypophyosis. from here they are released into circulation
Kallmann syndrome
Lack of GnRH from hypothalamus. Anosmia(no smell) no sex development micropenis low sex drive
Tarui Disease
Lacking PFK glycolysis enzyme excersise intolerance TaRui fRuctose! yelled an asian man. fRuctose!
Feeding Center of Hypo (hunger)
Lateral Hypothalamus (lapping up food)
Which areas of the thalamus receieve and send info to the association areas of the cortex. (These areas also send info to the association cortex from the superior colliculus and pretectal region)
Lateral Posterior Dorsal Medial Anterior Nucleus Pulvinar
Hippocampal Axis func. and axis
Learning and Memory. Navigation and spatial representation. Contex. Hippocampus to Posterior Cingulate Cortex Hippocampus to Ant. Thalamus Hippocamp (via fornix) to Septal Nu, Mamillary Bodies Mamillary bodies (via mamm. thalamic tract) to Ant Thalamus
left-right path of vision
Left Hemifield projects to left eye nasal retina and right eye temporal retina which is projected to the right LGN which is then projected to the right visual cortex
Astigmatism
Lens is over refracting on one axis through it, under refracting on another. for example it could over refract on the horizontal meridian, underrefract on the vertical. solution: cylindrical lense that has negative refractive power on one axis, positive on another. convex and concave. complex 3d shape. (Astigmatism=Asymeetrical lens power)
Midbrain Blood Flow Distribution
Most Dorsal part Where Collilculi are- Quadrigeminal branch of the PCA lateral region of midbrain- posterior cerebral, superior cerebellar ventral midbrain- basilar (paramedian branches), PCA, and Posterior Communicating A.
Overview of Electron Transport Chain
NADH is dehydrogenated (oxidized), losing electrons, which are transfered to Q, then Compl. 3, and electrons are ultimately transfered to Oxygen on Complex 4
how the NADH cytosol to mito shuttle works
NADH is used to reduce glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. G3P used to reduce FAD in mito inner matrix, which goes to complex 3, making 1.5 ATP/O2
when you have a lot of acid in ur serum u need to secerete, what happens to the NH4 being produced in the PROXIMAL TUBULE
NH4 is made in proximal tubule. It is used as a buffer for H+, so it is needed when u need to excrete a lot of H+. Unlike filtered PO4, NH4 can be made in response to a need for buffer.
what affect does parasympathetic have on alveoli vasculature?
NO EFFECT, you need to maintain 1 cell going through at a time no matter what
the kidney, much like the intestine, absorbs single amino acids using AA transporters. If you have a defect in single AA transporters, where will u have a defect?
NOT in the intestine, because it is still able to absorb di and tripeptides. you will have a deficit in kidney, which isnt able to reabsorb AAs, and therefore you have high AAs in pee = amino acidurias
NPC1 (Nieman-Pick C), role, disease
NPC1 moves cholesterol from lysosomes to Golgi (from which it gets seperately transported to membrane) in NPC Disease, your cholesterol is trapped in the lysosomes (leading to big liver and spleen due to lipid storage
concentration of Na+ in extra cellular fluid ecf, main cations of Ecf
Na+ 140 mM Cl- 104 HCO3 24
bad things that hapen in prox tubule during ischemic injury
Na+/K+ pumps that should be only basolateral end up lumenal as well. lots of epithlelial cells stary dying and clogging up tubule. GFR goes down for unknown reasons
what is the role of Na+/H+ exchanger on a norepinephrine/angiotensin mediated increase in Na reabsorption?
Na/H exchanger of proximal tubule is how NA is taken up into cells (it is then pumped into baso side by NaK pump). in response to norepi/angioten Na/H exchangers dock in apical membrane
Dexamethasone is a synthetic glucocorticoid, it is potent negative feedback. what happens in people with cushings when u give them it?
Normal Person- responds to dexameth. with a huge drop in cortisol production Person with hyperfunction in hypothalamus/pituitary- respond to dex, but it takes a lot of dex to have this effect. Person with adrenal tumor-total insensitivty to dex
why does the smaller bubble collapse into the bigger bubble?how does surfactant prevent this?
Pressure = Surface Tension / Radius a smaller bubble feels MORE pressure, collapses into bigger bubble Surfactant combats this by lowering the surface tension of a smaller bubble (where without it, they feel equal surface tension). Surfactant reduces the surface tension of smaller bubbles so that all bubbles feel the same pressure.
Trigeminal nuclei
Principal Sensory in the Pons, big just medial to principal sensory is motor nucleus of five, smaller.(sends axons to muscles of mastication) mesencephalic nuc.- thin, heads up towards midbrain (mes) spinal nucleus of v= continuous w. dorsal horn of spinal cord. in medulla, located just lateral to cuneate tubercle
collecting tubule types of cells
Principal cells- more popular, and increasingly so as you go down the collecting tubule. have big nucleas. Na absorption and K secretion. have Aquaporins. HAVE CILIA Intercalated cells- regulate pH. two types Type A- secrete H+ and push bicarbonate into interstit Type B- opposite. secretes bicarp and pushes H+ into intersitium.
McArdles Disease
Problem with muscle phosphorylase, cant break down glycogen in muscles Excersise Intolerance break down of muscle tissue causes it to come out in urine (Brown urine) McArdles as in Muscle glycogen break-downer.dude at mcdonalds with floppy arms. their floppy arms are full of all the glycogen they cant break down.
The Difference between Pyramidines and purine synthesis
Pyramidine ring is added directly to PRPP For purines, first an NH2 group is added, then many steps to get IMP
Pyridoxal phosphate PLP significance, what vitamin
Pyridoxal phosphate is the key cofactor in transamination vit b6
For a transamination, what will Alanine be turned into?
Pyruvate
supply to Brainstem Dorsally from, superior colliculi down
Quadrigeminal br of PCA =supply colliculi superior cerebellar- tegmentum, pontine tegmentum, sup. cerebellum AICA-comes under peduncles, contributes blood to 4th ventricle choroid plexus. PICA- medulla, 4th ventricle
Angiotensinogen gets made into Angiotensin 1 by... Angiotensin 1 to Angiotensin 2 by...
Renin (kidneys) ACE (endothelium of lungs, kidneys)
IMPRTANT- what 2 chemicals is released in response to low volume?
Renin-Ang 2 and Aldosterone. to reabsorb more Na
how do Scavenger Receptor As intake and release modified LDL (protein structure)
Scav Rec As have positive collagen repeats that bind mod-LDL, and an alpha Helical domain that competes with mod-LDL to release it
Eye Anatomy
Sclera- Outermost Layer. Forms cornea in the front (cornea bounded by limbus). Continuous with the dura and surrounds the optic nerve Choroid- middle layer. anteriorly, it becomes ciliary body, iris, and zonule fibers Retina- Inner layer. ends at ora serrata, just posterior to where lens attaches.
orientation of sensory tracts in midbrain
Spinothalamic tract is dorsal. gives off branches to tectum and central gray (pain center of midbrain) the medial lemniscus has spun all the way around, so that now it is pushed to the side with cervical info more ventral, and sacral info dorsal.
what spinal level devides the superior lobes from the lower lobes?
T4
Cervical=control head orientation bulbospinal path
TECTOSPINAL from tectum to contralateral cervical spinal cord MEDIAL VESTIBULOSPINAL from medial vestibular nucleus to cervical spinal cord
turner syndrome
XO most common sex defect. short stature, webbed neck, sexual infantilism. no sex hormones. infertile no menstrual cycle
sex reversal
XX Male (has transposed SRY gene) XY Female (double dose of DAX1)
klinefelters
XXY males. hypogonadism, sexual infantilism small testicles, micropenis low levels of testosteorne breasts high FSH and LH (lack of testosteorne to neg feedback)
morphology of liver hepatic lobule
You have a hexagonal lobule bounded by 3 veins. There is a portal area where blood moves from these veins towards a central venule in the middle of the lobule. there are hepatic plates (cellular) with blood sinusoids all around them.
what will the effect on pH of eating a lot of bicarb?
You will have alkalosis bc the bicarb tkaes H+ out of circulation to make CO2. to correct this, kidneys will not resorb all the bicarb.
insulin is what type of moolecule?
a peptide
Accomadation as object moves closer coupled with...
accomadition itself: 1) Lens rounds through constriction of the ciliary muscles to release zonule fibers also happens: 2) Convergence of eyes 3) Iris constricts to make pupil SMALLER
alochol dehydrogenase turns ethanol + NAD+ into
acetaldehyde + NADH
aldehyde dehydrogenase turns acetaldehyde + NAD+ into
acetic acid + NADH ( in liver)
protein can be made for glyolsysis, or acetly coa for krebs but fat can only be made into...
acetyl-SCoaA, not glucose
affect of acetylcholine on airway
acetylcholine is parasympathetic, bronchoconstriction
sweat glands are sympathetically innervated by what NT?
acetylcholine! weird!
normally, pressure in esophagus exceeds pressure of relaxing esophageal sphincter so that food can pass, when it cant pass bc esophageal sphincter pressure is too high, what is this called?
achalasia
effect of vagal Acetylcholine on muscarinic M3 receptors in stomach
acid production
what is the effect of afferent efferent constriction on GFR?
afferent constriction decreases GFR, efferent constriction INCREASES GFR. so GFr stays the same
response to neuronal injury in the pns
after cut, axon degenerates, cell body loses its nissl substance to go back in time developmentally. axon degraded (wallerian degeneration) axon regrows with the help of surrounding schwann cells releasing trophic(food=phood) and tropic (guidance maP)
hypo-osmalarity response and timeleine:
after drinking pure water, osmolarity drops leading to a drop in ADH in order to get rid of water, this is a quick response mechanism
to find new ICV
after finding the new total mosmalarity (based on water loss, solute loss/gain) take original amount of mosmoles in solute (based on original volume x 280) and divide by the new mosmolarity u calculated to find new volume
sensitization
after habituating to a meaningless stimulis, that stimulis becomes meaningful (proceeds a shock), u care about it, are now SENSITIVE to it
Path through cochlea
air enters through top two through OVAL window: scalas vestibuli and media, crosses over at helicotrema, travels back in direction it came in the bottom scala tympani and exits through the Round Window
what does a high ventilation perfusion ratio mean? what is aperfect ventilation perfusion ratio
air ventilated: blood perfused perfect is one high means you tkae in a lot of air and dont supply any blood low means that your blood flow is fine, but your airway is blocked somehow
cerebellum derived from
alar plate
mesencephalon development
alar plate- Tectum cerebral peduncles- basal plate
development of myelencephalon into medulla
alar plate- nuclei cuneatus and gracilis AND spinal nucleus of 5 basal plate- both motor nuclei of 10. hypoglossal nucleus
development of the metencephalon into the cerebellum and pons
alar plate- trigeminal, cn 8 nuclei, CEREBELLEM, PONTINE NUCLEI basal plate- Cn 6 nuclei
colloid osmotic pressure def
albumin stuck inside vessel, causes water to come in to lower its concentration, making it more similar to other side. this inward force of water is colloid osmotic pressure
Alcohol dehydrogenase is fairly nonspecific and also can engage methanol as well as ethanol. it oxidizes methanol into formaledhyde, which then gets oxidized by ____ into formic acid, which can lead to blindness. the solution is to administer ___ a competitive inhibitor
aldehyde dehydrogenase ethanol!
acetaldehyde is toxic, when your ____ enzyme isnt working, it accumulates when u drink alcohol
aldehyde dehydrogenase gets rid of the toxic acetaldehyde by making it into acetic acid
aldose vs ketose
aldose is aldehyde with alcohol ketose is ketone with alcohol
synthesis of epi and norepi
Tyrosine is made into Dopa (done by Tyrosine hydroxylase which is activated by ACTH) Dopamine is made into Norepi (by dopamine hydroxylase activated by ACTH) Norepi is made into epi (by PNMT activated by cortisol from fasciculata zone)
Babinski sign=toes flail UP means...
UPPER MOTOR DAMAGE to corticospinal pathways
11 beta hydroxylase CAH
Unable to make Glucocorticoids. High Mineralocorticoids High Androgens Unable to make cortisol and also Aldosterone! but, because there is deoxycoritocsterone, which is a semi-effective mineralocorticoid, there is ultimately too much mineralocorticoid. Hypertension (from deoxycorticosterone) Virilization of females (high androgens) (11 is the yougnest, unable to eat all the sugar they want. low glucocorticoids)
how does low cholesterol result in SREBP TF going to nucleas (proteins involed) to increase cholesteorl synthesis
Under normal Conditions: Insig senses cholesterol, sticks to SCAP SCAP touches SREBP The complex stays in ER lumen Under Low Cholesterol: INSIG senses low chole, dissociates from SCAP, SCAP induces SREBP and the whole complex to go to golgi In Golgi, the SREBP TF is cut and goes to nucleas SREBP binds SRE, leading to HMG transcription and Cholesterol production
things that are immovable are not in the peritoneal cavity, what part of the duodenum is retroperitoneal?
all but the first 5 cm's of duodenum are retroperitoneal
fovea-makes high acuity possible. properties
all cells but phoroteceptors pushed to side. no blue cones, only red.
stroke messes up entire left cortex. which facial muscles work?
all forhead muscles work (they receive bilateral input) only the left cheeks and mouth still works (Receiving contralateral input from right brain)
magnocellular retinal ganglion cell receptive fields
all wavelengths. large receptive fields. respond transiently . prefer moving stimuli
Ventilation equivalent (def, and numbers)
Ventilation rate / The amount of O2 taken in by alveoli =7L/.3L = 25 meaning if u wanted to get 1 liter of o2 into your body, ud have to breath in 25 liters of air
Satiety center of hypo
Ventromedial Hypothalamus (Ive reached the VMax of eating)
Effect of Vitamin D3 on Calcium absorption
Vit. D3 Acts on the nucleas to increase the number of Calcium Channels in the duodenual absorptive cell apical surface. It also increases the amount of calbindin, which binds Ca in the cell to prevent it from being free
Two genes important for bipotential gonad development
WT1- wilms tumor gene. important for kidney and testicle development. SF1
aortic insufficiency increases what load in LV? hypertension affects what load in LV?
aortic insufficiency means blood flows back into ventricle, increasing preload hypertension means more pressure to start in aorta, increasing after load
type of epithelium Trachea- Intrapulm bronchi- bronchiole- resp bronchiole- alveolar duct, sac-
Trachea- pseudostratified columnar Intrapulm bronchi- simple columnar bronchiole- simple columnar resp bronchiole- simple cuboidal alveolar duct, sac- squamous
What is trapped between the lateral ventricles and the third ventricle? What is this external space that's trapped?
Transverse cerebral fissure
longitudinal structures just behind root of right lung
esophagus (big), then behind that the Azygos vein heading into the sup vena cava
mucosa of stomach vs esophagus
esophagus has a thick, wavy appearance strat. epithelium for protection. the stomach has a tightly packed, glandular mucosa (secretory). has gastric glands with surface pits. the glands contain chief, parietal, enteroendocrine cells
long structures behind root of left lung
esophagus, then the big descending thoracic aorta
decerebrate posture
extension of both arms and legs
germinal epithelium
external to the tunica albunigea, surrounding ovary. cuboidal. where ovarian tumors happen.
if you eat meat, you will have extra acid, what will this do to your HCO3 levels and pH? How will kidneys fix this?
extra acid will lower your pH. to ocunter this, extra H will pair with HCO3 to make CO2 and u will expel it. your kidneys will make and resorb bicarb
taste of anterior 2/3 of tongue
facial nerve (glosssopharyng is post 1/3)
commissural fiber definition
fiber that crosses from one hemisphere to another
swalling is coordinated fixed action pathway of muscle contractions. why do rabies dogs foam?
encephalitis fukks up this swallong neural pattern.
papilla def
end of collecting system. collects from both cortical and juxtamedullary nephrons. empties into minor calyx
which have higher vascular resistance? endocardial coronary vessels or epicardial?
endocardial are HIGHER resistance
all respiratory epithelium derived from what layer?
endoderm (muscles derived from mesoderm)
what is the epithelial lining of the digestive tract derived from?
endoderm mostly, except for stomodeum and proctodeum which are ECTODERM
Lipoprotein lipase primarily found in
endoothelium of adipose and muscle
what is the initial trigger for atherosclerosis?
endothelial cell injury (often as a result of high BP)
things that the septum transversum becomes
endothelial hematopoetic tissue, kupffer cells
endothelin effect, and how would its levels be effected by release of angiotensin? where does it come from?
endothelin causes vasoconstriction, it is triggered by angiotensin 2, it comes from vascular endothelium
what is endothelin released from endothelium in response to? what is its effect on what?
endothelin released from endothelium in response to ANG 2, ADH. Causes VASOCONSTRICTION
Action of T3 on Cells
enter cell through diffusion when free. T4 is converted to T3 Binds thyroid hormone receptor, goes to nucleas, effects transcription. thyroid receptor binds dna through 2 zinc fingers
how does fibrilation appear? why? what does it have to do with blood clots?
fibrilation appears as a wavy mess of little random qrs' and weird p wave fibrillations. impulses are coming to the av node at irregular intervals and they are being passed causing ventircle systole without ejection. this increases likelihood of blood clot formation bc of stagnation of blood.
Astrocytes
fibrous ones in white matter w. thin processes. And protoplasmic ones with thick processes in gray matter and spinal cord. (protoplasmic make the plastic around the brain) have feet surrounding CNS (external surface and blood vessels inside brain) growth factors remove K+ and NTs, to prevent brain from being too excitable. seperate neurons. provide structural and metabolic support. (The mother star with big feet, keeping things tame and unexcitable, helping nerons grow, providing support)
scala media filled with.... potential of...
filled with ENDOLYMPH. HIGH K+ +80mV potential
pulmonary ligament
fold in parietal pleura just in front of the vertebral bodies
In Small Intestine: Folds of Kerckring villi crypt Paneth Cells
folds of kerckring- overall name for folds Villi- the external part of fold that sticks out into the surface crypt- the bottom part of fold that is deeply embedded Paneth Cells- at bottom of crypt, make molecules that rupture bacterial walls
diagram of follicular phase and luteal phase
follicular phase- growth of a follicle. Once one becomes dominant, there is a spike in LH, FHS, and estradiol(from dominant follicle). follicular phase ends with ovulation. follicular phase- starts w. menses, then proliferative phase. Luteal Phase- corpus luteaum secretes progesterone which supreesses LH, FHS. Secretory phase of uterus. rise in body temp. Ends with- death of corpus luteum , loss of stratum functionalis
overall, in digestion food is ____ to co2 and h2o
food is oxidized
babinski sign
foot stimulation results in dorsiflexion and fanning of toes in infants. if in adult, means there is an upper motor lesion
appearance of pancreas islets
light patches circular within the lobules
appearance of taste buds
light staining invaginations into the darker epithelium in goblet-cell-esque shape
lesser omentum consists of
hepatogastric ligament (between liver and lesser curve of stomach) hepatoduodenal ligament
midgut forms umbilical loop that herniates into umbilical cord at what week? when does it come back?
herniates at 6th week, then rorates conterclockwise, then returns during the 10th week while rotating another 180 degrees
ADelta nociceptive peripheral nerve
lightly mylenated. thinest mylenated peripheral nerve. carry info about location of pain. quick acting. sharp instantaneous pain
Olf bulb, orbitofrontal cortex, cingulate gyrus, septal gray, periamygaloid cortex, parahippocampal gyrus, anterior and dorsomedial thalamus all part of what?
limbic structure
Transect just above nerves to hind limbs
limbs walk on treadmill
glia limitans
limit of the brain produced by the astrocytes- continuous outer layer of brain
abdomino-pelvic cavity lined by... contains what cavity?
lined by transveralis fascia, and contains a peritoneal cavity
what causes milky white plasma and xanthomas of the skin
lipoprotein lipase deficiency (or ApoC def) causes lipoproteins to build up in the plasma , interact w. macrophages to form xanthomas
the hepatic diverticulum splits in to two structures....
liver and gallbladder
most lymph comes from the...
liver!
norepinephrine containing neurons
llocus coerelus
anterior perforated space
located lateral to the optic chiasma, dorsal to the olfactory tract on the bottom surface of the brain.
characteristics of pulmonary plexus
located on left main bronchi, left aorta and then on the esophogus lower down. has lots of stuff from vagus=VAGUS plexus parasympathetics from vagus, ALSO sympathetics from thyrocervical trunk.
Location of Motor Nuclei for Parasympathetic Outflow
located on the most dorsal aspect of the tegmentum behind 3- nucleus of edinger-westphal Salvitory nucleus- 7,9-salivary glands behind nucleus ambiguus- dorsal vagal nucleus
modulatory inputs from subcortex
locus ceruleus brainstem-noradrenaline-attention,vigilance ventral temental brainstem- dopamine, motivation raphe nuclei brainstem- serotonin- arousal basal nucleus of basal forebrain- sleep/wakefulness
location and properties of central chemoreceptors
in brain, very sensitive to increases in CO2 concentration. only co2, not H+ can cross blood brain barrier in csf c02 becomes H+, which is sensed by central chemoreceptors
differences t3= triiodothronine t4=thyroxine
in common made from tyrosine by thyroid peroxidase aromatic rings.
in order to propigate depolarization along a long Dendrite of a pyramidal neuron, an EPSP is not sufficient. what to do instead?
in dendrite, voltage-sensitive Ca2+ channels allow for big voltage drops that further activate sodium channels to keep depolarization going.
how does angiotensin 2 act on heart to cause hypertrophy?
in heart, angiotensin 2 is autoreleased and converted by Chymase (serving ACE-link 1 to 2 role) The binding of Ang 2 to AT1 receptors in cardiomyocytes leads to hypertrophy genes being transcribed
why is hemorrhagic shock cold skin shock? why is anaphylactic shock warm skin shock?
in hemorrage, skin vasoconstricts to increase blood getting to where it needs to. sympathetic tone increase sweating (cold, clammy) in anaphylactic, local release of factors prevents vasoconstriction, u stay dilated, warm skin
effect of vitamin D
in intestinal epithelium, binds to Receptor that binds DNA response element to cause increasesd produciton of ca chanels, calbindin, and calcium ATPase
erythropoeitein released by kidneys in response to low oxygen. goes to bone marrow to signal increased RBC production
in nutritional anemia. u have high erythropoetin trying to counter the low oxygen. in kidney disease anemia, u have low erythropoetin, which is the source of your problem.
how do u treat edema?
in order to reduce plasma volume, give the patietns diuretics, and put them on a low salt diet. this will create more force from interstitium to capillary.
Details of step 4, fibrous plaque formation
in response to foam cells, smooth muscle cells from media come into intima to help out. they form a tight fibrous cap. if this is a big, strong fibrous cap, its good. but if its not stable it can rupture
Bainbridge reflex aims to decrease volume of blood by... where is it sensed? how do sensors respond? what happens to cardiac output, how? to flow to kidneys?
in response to increase in volume entering heart (RA through ven cavas, LA thru pulm veins), sensory stretch and fire more cardiac output INCREASES to facilitate getting rid of fluid through sympathetic response flow to kidneys increases to increase excretion also decrease in anti diuretic hormone from pituitary to increase exretion increase in atrial natriuretic peptide
what is nitrous oxide made in response to? what does it cause? where is it made and where does it have its effect?
in response to shearing of endothelial cells (increase in flow), causes vasodilation made by endothelium, effect on smooth muscle
opsin
in rod and cone membranes. GPCR. has a retinal protein associated with it.
venous drainage of spinal cord
in spine, arteries have matching veins. sulcal veins drain, combine w. posterior spinal veins, into internal vertebral venous plexus
where are the neurons that ultimately cause regular inspiration (I-neurons), by causing contraction of diagrpham
in the Dorsal Root Ganglia of C3,4,5
where is bicarb made?
in the collecting system
taste buds found...
in the crevises of the papilla
where does the corticospinal tract head in the spinal cord after going through decussation of medularry pyramids?
in the lateral funiculus of the spinal cord
where is bicarb resorbed?
in the proximal tubule
Location of pituitary Gland= Hypophysis
in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone. below the optic chiasm. OUTSIDE OF THE BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER (SO IT CAN empty contents in blood stream) "one of the first symptoms associated with enlargement of pituitary or the presence or formation of tumors in the pituitary is vision distortion"
maple syrup urine disease caused by
inability to breakdown branched chained AAs like valine, leucine, isoleucine
21 Hydroxylase CAH
inability to make Glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids. High Androgens Most common type causes salt wasting. vomiting. virilation of female fetuses, hirsutism (21 is the oldest. sex hormones. mature.)
causes and effects of low calcium
inability to secrete parathyroid hormone, low vit D effects: muscle contractions, tetany, seizures
effect of estrogen and testosterone no growth hormone release?
increases it. as in puberty.
EFFECT of pth on kidney
increases rate of ca resorption BUT, also decreases phosphate resorption! to prevent kidney stone formation! increases enzyme 1 alpha hydroxylase to activated vit D (active form=1,25 dihydroxycholecalciferol)
Cochlear Amplifier
increases sensitiivty 80db (10,000x) Outer hair cells swing back and forth to increase the oscillating of the basilar membrane
superior in the visial field ends up where in the calcarine fissure?
inferior
the inferior olive communicates with the cerebellum on the opposite site via the
inferior cerebellar peduncle
in the open medulla, what lies between the ascending medial lemniscus and anterolateral spinothalamic path?
inferior olive
what artery supples the posterior part of the anal canal (the part that is procotdeum derived)
inferior rectal arteries
where does the respiratory system start developmentally?
inferior the the 4th pharyngeal pouch as a laryngo-tracheal groove
anterior cingulate
inhibition. also important for maintaining a good mood. this area is small in depression
Glycine
inhibitory in spinal cord
receptor ganglion cells have receptive fields with a strong inhibitory surround.
inhibitory surround provided by horizontal cell, which is connected to a neighbouring cone and provides inhibitory input in response to light reaching the neighbouring cone.
inhibitory side loop in cerebellum
inhibitory. goes up to cerebellum and then back down into purkinje.
effect of dopamine on prolactin
inhibits it.
azidothymidine
inhibits reverse transcription of HIV RNA but, also gets incorporated in mtDNA and fukks it up
effect of sympathetic stimulation on coronary a.s
initial is CONSTRICTION BUT, overall eventually it will dilate in response to increased metabolic need due to sympathetic overall effects on system
What happens to flow to skin during prolonged excersises?
initially decreases (not important for excersise), then increases (heat related), then decreases again (bc O2 needed more elsewhere)
when you begin expiring, what is the co2 composition? what is it at end-expiratory air?
initially, there is no co2, (dead space air), then at end expiratory air there is 31mms of CO2 (comporable to arterial co2 plus contribution of dead space air)
function of basal ganglia and substantia nigra and subthalamic nucleus
initiation and suppression of movements
to retrograde trace neurons
inject HORSERADISH PEROXIDASE into axons.
to anterograde trace neurons,
inject radioactive AAs into cell body, the radioactive proteins spread down the axon
vagus nerve synapses in the pulmonary plexus, the short gve postganglionic fibers go to...
innervate bronchial tissue
to find the amount of urine produced:
inputs: (food+drink+water of metabolism in body)- outputs:(sweat+insensible persp.+water of exhalation+fecal matter)= amount of urine
diaphram contracts during
inspiration
Normally, you oxidize G3P into a carboxylic acid, which is downhill but just releases heat. how does cell couple oxidation of Glyceraldehyde-3P into something useful?
instead of letting water in when oxidizing glyeraldehyde-3P, it only lets in Pi. makes 1,3 biphosphoglyeric acid [glyceraldehyde-3P dehydrogenase] Then the Pi is removed and put on ADP [3-phosphoglyerate kinase]
valvular insufficiency def
insufficient closing = regurgitation
cue for localizing sound above 3Hz
intensity difference (head muffles sound before it reaches opposite ear) muffles=dampens=attenuates
pleura innervated by...
intercostal nerves
diaphragm innervated on sides by
intercostals
major white tracts conecting cortex and subcortex
internal capsule! into cerebral peduncles
b48 in
intestine (b100 in liver)
chylomicron retention disease
intestines cannot secret chylomicrons, so they r full of chylomicrons
when doing problems on chance in mosmolarilty and u want to find new intracellular and extraclelular volumes, which do u calculate first?
intracellular, because the total intracellular osmolarity will not change! so total intracellular osmolarity will simply be 60% of original body water x 280mosmol
B12 absorption
intrinsic factor from parietal cells binds b12 in stomach b12 absorbed in terminal ilieum w. intrinsic factor
relationship between elasticisty and compliance
inverse. compliance volume change / pressure change elasticity= pressure change/ volume change
hemiballismus
involuntary motion of extremities caused by subthalamic injury (substitute ball juggler)
perirhinal cortex
involved in object recognition, alzheimers
appearance of ventricular fibrillation
irregular ventricular qrs' of different sizes, shapes, CRAZY looking
why do alcoholics get more lung infections and what does it have to do with irritant receptors in lungs?
irritant receptors in lungs respond to irritating chemicals by increasing ventilation and bronchoconstriction (vagal). these irritant receptors are messed up by alcohol
pseudostratified ciliary epithelium transforms into stratified squamous epithelium and loses some function in response to
irritation. smoking. rubbing. this is called metaplasia
metabotropic neurotransmitter receptor
is a GPCR. activates a G protein which activates 2nd messengers to open channels or have other effects in cell. slow (hundreds of ms or more in duration)
Purine Degredation & GOut
is a purine is oxidized all the way, it becomes Uric acid, which can build up and fukk with your joints
Isocitrate Dehydrogenase does...
isocitrate oxidized to 2-oxoglutarate, releasing H for NAD+ and Also a CO2
to measure Left atrial pressure
just measure pressure in pulmonary artery headed towards lungs bc it barely changes by the time its back in the Left atrium (called pulmonary wedge)
How to make GABA
just remove CO2 from Glutamate and you have GABA. done by glutamate decarbozylase
as a body part moves to floor, both arterial and venous pressure increase
k
synapsin
keeps vesicles docked phospho'd by CAM Kinase in response to Ca++ rise to free vesicle. synapsin itself binds both actin cytoskeleton and vesicle (through CAM kinase)
why is respirations and tidal volume increased in diabetes
ketoacidosis (acidic ketones), to get rid of acid, increase excretion of CO2
if AA is made into acetoacetate, or acetyl coA, it is ___genic
ketogenic-gets used in TCA cycle
ketone body production
ketone bodies made from acetyl coA, travel in blood as beta-hydroxybutyrate, reconstituted in brain to acetoacetate, and then converted to acetyl coa for krebs cycle
the spleen is attached dorsally to ___by a piece of dorsal mesentary called___
kidney, by splenorenal ligament
what organs have highest flow rate / gram?
kidneys (400), then heart (85), brain 50, skeletal muscle 3
which coronary has a bigger difference in flow between systole and diastole ,and in which is it higher?
left coronary has much higher flow in diastole
hindgut becomes
left half of transvers colon, descending, sigmoid colon, rectum, superior anal canal (the rest of anal canal from proctodeum). The most caudal part of the hindgut, the cloaca, divideded by urorectal septum
interpret a 2nd intercostal space sound, LEFT of sternum, heard during systole? diastole.
left of sternum, 2nd space is pulmonic. if heard during systole this means stenosis. if heard during insufficiency
stomach rotates 90 degrees so that its butt is on the
left side
LARP
left vagus anterior, rightt posterior
Brocas Area=inferior frontal gyrus
lesions here cause expressive aphagia (can comprehend CANT produce language) BROKEN RECORD CANT COMMUNICATE
what happens to edv and sv during mitral valve stenosis?
less filling so les edv, and less stroke volume
The Fitter you are, the more water in your body. As you age, you get
less water as you age. little kids mostly water, out-of-shape elderly people have less water
the enzymes that break down lactose and maltose into monosaccharides are found
attached to the membrane at the brush border. after being brokendown into monosaccs, they r pumped with Na+ into the cell
Ligament of Treitz
attaches from diaphragm from duodenal jejunum juncture.
effect of free radicals on lipids
attack CH2s on polyunsaturated fatty acids, making them reactive causes changes in membrane properties
acoustic nuclei
auditory component of 8th nerve.
kidney circulation is primarily goverend by ... what happens to flow to kidneys and glom filtration rate (work of the kidneys) in response to sympathetic simulation?
autoregulation myogenic symp stim. makes the flow to kidneys go down a lot, but the kidneys still maintain GFR and keep working at filtering
why is it possible, in situations of pathological gas exchange, to compensate for co2, but not o2
co2 has a linear CO2 blood content, partial pressure relationship. therefore the alveoli that are functioning at a higher ventilation perfusion ratio can make up for it. you can hyperventalate and have a normal co2 level. This doesnt work for o2, because well ventilated alveoli can not compensate for bad alveoli, because of the leveling off in the blood oxygenation, partial o2 pressure curve.
where is oxygen content higher? blood from the apex or base?
blood from the apex. bc there is a higher ventilation:perfusion, more o2/unit blood.
what is the effect of hyperventilation on blood pH
blood pH increases (alkalosis)
what does basolateral side face?
blood, interstitium
how do u check for actual thyroid problems in a pregnant person?
blook at T4 levels. T4 levels should remain normal in spite of the weirdness with TSH/HcG
most heme synthesized in
bone marrow liver
direction of hair cells
cochlea-all facing same way semicircular canal ampulla-found in crista patches, all pointing in the same direction for a given canal saccule- split in half, with one side all facing an orientaiton, others a 90 degrees to that utricle-same split at 90 degrees, but facing in rather than out.
parts of ear and functions
cochlea-hearing utircle and saccule- linear acceleration semicircular canals-
reticular activating system
cells with wide ranging axons, from spinal cord up to thalamus. excitory. lack of their input helps to induce sleep
arcuate nucleus of hypothalamus
central controller of hypothalamus. at base of the infundibulum stalk.
prostate
central zone- mucosal glands, close to urethra transition zone- where benign prostatic hyperplasia happens peripheral zone- most of the glands, where the cancer happens surrounded by connective tissue
nuclei that appear at beginning of duct in acini that form acinar-duct union are called
centroacinar cells
INTENTION TREMOR SIGN OF
cerebellar damage. when you reach for something (voluntary) and hand shakes
once the second order neurons from gracilis and cuneate tubercles cross the midline and enter the medial lemniscus, where is cervical information (from the cuneate tub.)? where is info from sacral levels (from gacilis tub)?
cervical info is more dorsal in the medial lemniscus sacral info is more ventral in the med. lemniscus
c wave in atrium
closing of mitral and tricuspid b
collecting tubule ion movements
colecting tubule has negative lumen to force chloride to be reabsorbed paracellularly The Principal cells have Aldosterone-activated ENaCs. for each Na absorbed, a Cl must follow it, OR a K+ must be secreted. when significant Na is absorbed in collecting duct, significant K+ can be secreted.
where does aldosterone have its effect?
collecting system
If too much sodium is filtered in to tubule, where does it get excreted?
collecting system. Collecting system has a maximal amount of Na it will reabsorb b4 it starts excreting the rest.(the proximal tubule will reabsorb the same 67% regardless of how much)
neuropil
collection of dendrites, axons. point of connectivity of different neurons. lots of synapses clustered, no/few cell bodies. stain purple like nissl bodies. (stain gets dendrites and the nuclei of glia)
rinne test
compare ringing of pitch fork for conductive hearing (through the air), and through the bone. air conduction should be more efficient, if its not it indicates conductive hearing loss
audiogram
comparison of persons hearing at different frequencies vs. normal. (how many decibels louder a person needs a freq. to be in order to hear it vs. normal)
progressive shock
compensation begins to fail
cell column
compination of projecting neurons, interneruons, and afferent fibers that are functionally related, and in a vertical column in the neocortex
all reactive species come from these 2 spots:
complex 1 or CoQ
all complexes 1-4 are membrane bound! which one doesnt pump H+?
complex 2
parkinsons deficit in substantia nigra pars compacta
complex deficits. hard to INITIATE voluntary movements frequently freeze loss of facial expression have constant tremor
V2 and V3
complex receptive fields more common movement sensitive
inferotemporal cortex
complicated cells which respond only to hands or to faces etc.
the release of ADH causes the urine to become more...
concentrated. more water reabsorbed.
spleen during shock
contracts to push out RBCs and volume
hypoglossal nucleus receives only from which side of cortex?
contralateral
Ventral Corticospinal Tract
controls bilateral axial trunk muscles Do not Decussate in medulla. Travel down anteriomedially in white matter, some axons synapse in the ipsilateral ventral horn, some on the contralateral ventral horn
1- preoptic region
controls body temp, role in sexual behavior preoptic nuclei sepral nuclei
inferior peduncle
converys sensory info to cerebellum from contralateral inferior olive,spinal cord and vestibular nucleus
major white mater tracts crossing brain
corpus collosum anterior and posterior commisure
hcg stimulates
corpus luteum to make progesterone (for first 8 weeks) after 8 weeks, placenta itself makes its own progesterone
types of cortical inputs and where they terminate
cortex (intercortex, either commissural or association) - run up all the way to level 1 thalamus (specific and non-specific thalamic afferents) specific run up to level 4 nonspecific terminate in 6 and others. modulatory inputs from subcortex- various subcortical nuclei give off diffuse modulatory signals
cortical dysplasia
cortex lacks GABA cells from the ganglionic emminence. have high glutamate and are epileptic
degredation of cortisol
cortisol can be bad if stays in blood. also cant go into urine as lipid. to excrete: in liver, convert to tetrahydrocortisol glucoronide (more hydralizable)
effect of cortisol on effects of insulin
cortisol increase the amount of glucose produciton, but REDUCES THE effects of insulin. so insluin will not be as effective at brinign in glucose into cells and storing it.
porphyrins def examples
cyclic structures w. proteins and metal ion heme Fe2 chlorophyll-Mg2+ vit B12-Co+ pink
what will liddles syndrome do to k levels?
decrease them. liddles causes extra ENacs, more sodium resorption which leads to more k secretion. laddlign in sodium
extrarenal stretch receptors respond to __ effective vascular volume to cause an increase in renal sympathetic activity
decreased Effective volume leads to renal norepi release
what else can decrease peritubular hydrostatic pressure other than constirction of afferent efferent vessels?
decreased arterial bp in generAL
cause of jaundice
deposition of bilirubin in tissues casued by high rate of red cell death liver disease bile duct obstruction
Formation of the Anterior Commisural
derived from floor of the plate neural tube. Neurons start dorsally, axons grow towards ventral NETRIN, cross midline. SLIT inhibits midline growth, is absent in area where axon should actually cross midline. then it is present again to push axon away from midline once its on other side.
what does cytochrom p450 do in the liver?
detox through redox reactions
occular dominance column dev
develop as a result of what you see during a critical period of development! if one eye is closed: LGB stays the same the Ocular dominance column itself will dedicate more of its neurons and its areas to receiving input from the part of the LGB that is getting info from the good eye. so more neurons are recruited to respond to the good eye.
what happens to alveolar pressure during inspiration
diaphram goes down, creates negative presssure in intrapleural space.alveolar pressure gets negative because of expansion of tissue volume. this negative pressure allows air to flow strongly into alveoli.
metabolic acidosis is caused by a drop in bicarb in blood, (pushing reaction towards making bicarb and H+) other than renal problems, what can cause this drop in bicarb?
diarrhea (has lots of bicarb), diabetic ketoacidosis ( cause acidosis directly) lactic acidosis- anaerobic metabolism gives acidosis directly metabolism of ethylene glycol-natifreeze causes acidosis
what happens to timing of cycle if heart rate increases
diastole shortens (T to P time) (PQRST P) PR interval time shortens
where and when would u hear mitral stenosis
diastole, 5th intercostal space at apex
features of aortic regurgitation
diastolic murmer, reduced diastolic pressure in aorta (leaking out), and increased pulse pressure in aorta Increased end diastoliv volume (bc ventricle is being filled with aortic back flow as well as atrial flow). initially leads to increased stroke volume, but eventuall u get less sv bc of failure of ventricles
resting tidal volume
difference in volume between normal exhalation and inhalation
delta wave
diffuse slow waves. sign of pathology if in awake adult. (encapholopy, delta waves can also come from the location of a tumor) (sign of nutrient deprivation in CO poisoning, alcohol poisoning)
doedenum forms just ___ to the stomach and bile duct and is part ___ and part ___. it is located ____ relative to the peritoneal.
doedenum forms just distal to the stomach and bile duct and is part foregut and part midgut (and therefore gets celiac and superior mesenteric a's). It is retroperitoneal
3 Cycles Folate does
donates methyl group to... 1)Makes Homocystein (toxic) into Methionine (Methyl Donor) 2)thymidylate- makes dUMP into dTMP by accepts methyl group to... 3) accepts foarmina acid from histidine to make glutamate
Vertical sound localization
done by shape of auricle
catecholamines
dopamine norepi and epi all have phenyl dioxy group(catechol)
Ventral Tegmental Area
dopamine system that runs to hypothalamus, provides feeling of reward
medial forebrain bundle
dopaminergic neurons from ventral tegmental through the lateral hypothalamus to nucleas accumens and prefrontal cortex
visual processing stream
dorsal pathway- magnocellular info to posterior parietal (where to?) ventral path- parvo cellular to inferior temporal (what is it?)
pseudo unipolar
dorsal root ganglia cells, with one projection taking in sensory, another bringing info into CNS
spino-cerebellar path for lower extremity
dorsal spino-cerebellar path neuron1- cell body out of spinal cord, sends axon up fasiclus gracilis. axon goes to nucleus in spinal cord neuron 2- cell body in COLUMN OF CLARKE- nucleus in spinal cord. axon travels up in lateral area of spinal cord=DORSAL spino-cerebllar path to ipsilateral cerebellum
visual pathways
dorsal stream- spatial processing balints syndrome- cant point to location of object, cant voluntarily shift gaze ventral- object processing. prosopagnosia-cant recognize faces/ofjects
where is BMP higher, dorsal or ventral?
dorsal. furthest from the notocord source of Sonic Hedgehog.
in ventral horn, where are flexors?
dorsal. pulling toward the back. extensors are ventral
Olfactory cortex projects to
dorsomedial thalamus and orbitofrontal cortex. (for odor discrimination)
mesentery def
double layer of peritoneum meso that suspends the gut tube
oxidizing an aldehyde is __hill
downhill, favored reaction. the trick is to couple this with ATP making.
Canal of Schlemm
drains anterior camber, on the inside surface at the limbus
what is second heart sound?
dub, aortic and pulmonary valves close
exocrine glands are simple if they have a single ___
duct (release channel for secretion). compound if multiple ducts.
Calcium and Iron are absorbed in the
duodenum
The midgut gives rise to
duodenum (distal to bile duct), jejunum, ilum, cecum, appendix, ascending colon, half the transverse colon.
explain lub-de-dub (2 part second sound)
during inspiration, thorax pressure decreases, causing bigger rush from Vena Cavas into Right Atrium, causing longer ejection time and a delay in closing of the pulmonic valve. so -de- is closing of aortic valve and -dub is closinging of the pulmonic valve
hypothyroidism (fetal)
dwarfism, mental retardation
retinotopic organization
each module in the cortex represents a point on the retina and includes all orientation selectivities and a full range of ocular dominance So one square will include info from Right eye retina spot. it will include columns for each orientation.
first degree av block
each p wave results in a qrs but it is delayed
during ventricular filling, you can look at doppler of mitral valve for two spikes, early (passive filling) and late (atrial contraction,A), which should be bigger normally?
early passive filling is higher velocity (most filling is passive)
histology of medulla
easy to find, lighter colored and containts a medullary vein (BIg) right in the middle of it. big cells, modificed neurons, lots of blood vessels. polarized cells. sympathetically stimulated (from lumbar spinal cord)
anterior pituitary derived from
ectoderm from pharynx (endocrine part)
nephrotic syndrome def
edema due to low plasma protein concentration, mainly low albumin
why does edema eventually equilibrize instead of snowballing?
edema formation slow down bc 1) intersittial hydrostatic p increases, interstitial oncotic pressure decreases 2)the body no longer sense low EVV edema removal increases because lymph flow rate decreases
effective osmole def ex
effective osmoles can not cross the membrane. they pull water across the membrane to balance. example are ions, protein glucose the total effective osmoles is constant=the number of particles = the force pulling water into the particles. doesnt change with concentration or amount of water
difference between distribution of elastic and smooth muscle cells in resp system?
elastic fibers are everywhere, including alveoli. smooth mucle is only in the conducting part
alveoli like baloon lined with soap bubble that wants to collapse, the two forces trying to collapse the alveolus are
elastic recoil and surface tension. inspiration works against these
maturation of the primary oocyte to ovulation
primary oocyte (2n) sheds a polar body to become 1n (2 copies) increase in fluid and pressure within graafian follicle colleganases begin to dissolve layers of graafian follicle stigma cap blows and secondary oocyte is released. (ovulation) upon sperm binding, second meiosis completes, ejecting second polar body, leaving oocyte dna 1n (1 copy)
why do u have pulmonary edema and cerebral edema in response to high altitude, even though they respond to hypoxia in opposite ways?
pulmonary a.s vasoconstrict in hypoxia- more presssure, more leakage cerebral a.s vasodilate when hypoxic, leading to more fluid and hydrostatic pressure, leakage
path from cortex to cerebellum
pyramidal in cortex synapses in pons. transverse pontine fibers cross and bring input to contralateral cerebellum
what part of pqrst represents action potential? =the duration of systole?
qt interval
where is serotonin made?
raphe nuclei in brainstem (scattered throughout at the midline)
signs of compensated circulatory shock
rapid pulse, narrowed pulse pressure, less time for diastolic to go down bc of pulse, low systolic because of lack of venous return. weak thready pulse. Can have normal MAP! muscle weakness- arteriole constriction (only brain and heart continue to get good perfusion)
for objects a 2 focal lengths from lens
rays that travel to lens parallel end up going through fp2 rays that go through straight line into optical center (middle) are undetered, stay as straight line rays that travel through fp1 come out as parallel lines image formed is upside down
do lungs have high or low hounds field value?
really low-air filled. dark, black. air is -1000. (so imaging of mediastinum structures isnt good bc its reference point is too high, you couldnt see a pneuomothorax)
supraoptic nucleis
receives fibers directly from retina to generate circadian rhythm
substantia nigra pars COMpacta (black, dopaminergic part) role in motor
receives inhibitory input from external glob pall and projects back to striatum projects to spiny neurons, which have 2 types of receptors: D1- excited by substantia nigras dopamine d2- inhibited by dopamine
Anterior olfactory nucleus
receives input from olfactory bulb, sends it to other olfactory bulb
Middle ear also has eustachian tube that opens in mouth , prop
relieves pressure on tympanic membrane by equilibrating with mouth pressure
corpus albicans
remnant of corpus luteum. white. when fertilization doesnt take place
function of glycogen phosphorylase
removes 2 glucose-1-phosphates monomers from glycogen by adding a phosphate t othe non-reducing end
Serine is made into Glycine by...
removing a methyl group. this methyl group couse to THF to make n5,10THF
removing a phosphorous from something ___ energy adding phosphorous ___ energy
removing phosphorous releases energy (as in ATP to ADP) Adding a phosphorous always takes energy
juxtaglomular (JG) cells of afferant arterioles are induced by macula densa signals to release...
renin JG cells are full of renin granules
canalicular period 16-25 weeks
respiratory bronchioles develop
layers from skin in on abdomen in center
skin subcutaneous fat/ fascia Anterior rectus Sheath ( in middle) rectus abdominis pos. rectus sheath TRANSVERSALIS FASCIA EXTRAPERITONEAL PASCIA PERITONEUM
what gets more flow/gram during rest, muscle or skin?
skin! skin 12.8ml/g, muscle 3ml/g
old people spend less time in
slow wave sleep
where does GTP bind on g protein?
to the alpha subunit
if your tongue is hanging to the right side, what cortex is damaged?
to the right side means the right muscle is broken. right muscle connected to the right hypoglossal nucleus which is connected to the LEFT cortex. contralateral
what will too much ADH do to your plasma Na?
too much ADH means too much water is resorbed and your plasma Na goes down.
superior colliculus and eye movements
topographic organization. stimulation in left collic leads to left saccade receive input from frontal eye fields (in front of premotor area)
ventilation rate def and numbers
total amount breathed in / minute = tidal volume (resting insp-rest exp) x breaths/min about 7 Liters per min
trapped gas volume of lung def
totally empty lung
how does thick ascending limb absorb sodium Na, CL, Ca, and Mg2?
transcellular- Na/K/Cl apical cotransporter brings into low-na intracellular environment (created by baso Na/K pump Paracellular- through tight junctions (paracellin1) THIS IS MAJOR way to reabsorb Ca+ and Mg2+ in nephron
path of suffering pain from c fibers
travel oup spinoreticular projects to terminate in: n. tractus solitarius (cardiac damage) central gray ( through medullary reticular formation) end up in anterior cingulate (suffering)
weakness in jaw muscles is which cranial nerve?
trigeminal (5th). muscles of mastication (ipsilaterally, as is case for all cranial nerves)
Effects of Angiotensin II
turn on cell survival programs in heart so stressed cells dont die. Increases ECM (collagen) proteins in cardiomyocytes to maintain strong contractile force (can eventually lead to fibrosis and hardening)
rooting reflex
turns head towards touch
holosphere
two cerebral hemispheres dont seperate and form interhemispheric fissure. anomly called holoprocencephaly, caused by sonic hedgehog mutations.
long term potentiation
two neurons will strengthen their connections if they are activated synchronously establish by NMDA receptors inducing the insertion of more AMPA channels. NMDA sets up the LTP, AMPA sustains it. calcium channel important for AMPA receptor increase through PKMzeta protein kinase. (blocked by zeta inhibitoy peptide ZIP)
bipolar cells
two types of dendrites to receive info from photoreceptor cells. flat dendrites- inhibitory to ganglion on other side of it. shorter. invaginating dendrite- excitory to ganglion. longer. goes all the way into ganglion cell layer
middle ear lies between
tympanic membrane and oval window
type 1 epithelium vs type 2 in alveoli
type 1 is where gas exchange takes place, it has huge surface area. type 2- produces serfactant (forms coat on alveoli surface). DISTINCTIVE BECAUSE IT HAS LAMELLAR BODIES.
Pacinian corpuscle
type of skin pressure sensor. has biiig capsule, sensitive to pressure
Dopamine made from
tyrosine
melanins of skin for pigmentation are made from
tyrosine (different than melotonin!)
if u have an activated pka, are u fasting or fed?
u are fasting. glucagon turns on PKA to turn on hormone sensitive lipase to break down TAG stores
Primary Spermatocytes
undergo two stages of of meiosis to become spermatids.
types of association areas
uni-modal- somatosensory cortex has one somatosesnroy association area. this area only associates somatosensory info multimodal- processing of several modalities (sight, smell, etc.) together in one association area
tegmentum
unified region throughout lower brainstem. includes parts from midbrain, pons, and medulla oblogata
facial motor nucleus receives input from what side of the cortex?
upper face receives bilateral. lower face (below the eyes) receives from only the CONTRALETERAL
cervical lateral corticospinal tract lesion
upper motor neuron. spastic paralysis . effects all levels of spinal below lesion.
the interstitial fluid of the medulla is very hyperosmotic, this is how water can be drawn out of lumen passively even up to 1400 osmole concentrations. interstitial osmoles are...
urea(650), NACL (750)
urorectal setpum seperates what structures and what do they become?
urogenetial sinus and rectum. urogenital sinus becomes urinary bladder and urethra
parvocellular
small bodies ret gang cells, color coded, detect direction
pinhole camera
small hole in opaque card. creates image (1:1). the smaller the hole, the sharper the image, but the less light that can get through. image focus same regardless of image planes distance away.
the cranial part of the midgut becomes
small intestine
most (6.5 Liters) reabsorbed by what is the 6.5 liters from?
small intestine- food and drink (2L), gastric secretion (2L), Pancreatic and bile secretions (2L)
layer 3 of cortex
small pyramidals. stay in the telencephalon (go to both sides of cortex, basal ganglia)
type 2 diabetes and beta cell islets
smaller, less functional beta cells
if a baby is vomiting bile, this means the block is distal to the bile duct.
so it could be duodenal atresia
why are pulmonary artery pressures so low (20/10)
so that there isnt hydrostatic pressure pushing fluid into lungs
why give otcd kids sodium benzoate?
sodium benzoate mizes with glutamine to make furic acid, so helps bring down high levels of fruc acid
parietal peritoneum of body wall made from
somatic mesoderm
visceral pleura is splachnic mesoderm derived, pareital pleura is
somatic mesoderm derived
sound during what in stenosis and regurgitation
sound during diastole in stenosis as there is a problem during filling, sound during systole as their is a problem of backflow during ejection
retroperitoneal loc contents
space beind the parietal peritoneum that has VANs and Lymphatics (which attach to gut through double mesentery)
stomach is attached through dorsal mesentary with space in the back called ____ this space communicates with peritoneal cavity through ___
space is the omental bursa. communicates w. peritoneal cavity through the omental foramen
pathway of dorsal column lemniscal in lumbar spinal cord
stays lateral in white matter , goes to dorsal column and heads up dorsal column. new fibers enter laterally and push fibers from lower down towards center.
active exploration of somatic sensory objects is called
sterognosis
sertoli cells
stimulated by FSH. make Estradiol and INHIBIN to suppress FSH stimualtion
G cells are endocrine, they secrete gastrin which does what?
stimulates acid secretion
effect of prolactin
stimulates milk PRODUCTION stimulates breast development inhibits ovulation
stomach rotation causes the left vagus nerve to end up __ and the right vagus nerve ends up
stomach rotation causes left vagus to be anterior right vagus is posterior
double opponency color cells in visual cortex
respond best to green in center, red in periphery (different than ganglion cells which are single opponency)
nucleus accumbens
responsible for addictive behavior. inhibited by opiate antagonist naltrexone inhibited by gluamate modulater acamprosate to decrease cravings
What r the effects of the LH spike on the oocye?
restarts meiosis. induces granulosa cells to produce more progesterone
summary of brain states 1
reticular thalamic cells impose a 10hz patter on relay cells, preventing anything from getting through relay during sleep
tegmentum
reticularly organized (only part of brain thats reticular) important for reflex functions, connects sensory and motor nuclei of brainstem cranial nerves
the descending colon,, inferior part of rectum and anal canal are located
retroperitoneal
lamination defect of neural migration
reversal of "lamination" older neurons end up outside, newer inside. OPPOSITE of what it should be
nissl body stains what structures?
ribosomes. cell bodies and some dendrites.
lesion of left internal capsule = a hermiparesis
right lateral corticospinal tract is damaged left anterior=ventral corticospinal tract damaged loss of right upper and lower limb. axial muscles are passingly fine bc one ventral corticospinal tract is sufficient.
pressure starts at 100 in aorta, goes down to 4 in Right atrium, its at its maximum in the....
right leg ~180
how does dpg effect Po2, hemoglobin o2 saturation curve?
right shift ( hemoglobin releases o2 at a higher Po2 pressure), to get more o2 to tissues
how does graph of output vs map change when u have defective kidneys (map on bototm)
right shift (takes more map to get same kidney output)
glucagon and epinephrine have what effect on glycogen production?
stop it. they are for glyc breakdown.
maternal blood flow into the placenta
straight artery supplies only the stratum basalis. spiral artery supplies the decidua basalis and the intervillus space.
all filtered K+ is resorbed. in order to get rid of K+ the kidneys..
secretes it at the collecting system . ROMK channels Excrete K+ in response to Na resorption
bronchial glands, goblet cells are innervated by parasympathetic vagus to do what?
secretomotor (keep moist bronchials)
morphology of parotid gland
secretory acinus are dark, densely staning. ducts have columnar epithelium around a larger lumen. there are a lot of fact cells all around
what r all the things that sympathetics do to the lungs?
secretory inhibition, bronchodilation vasoconstriction
special features of tongue mucosa
stratified squamous epithelium with papillae and taste buds lamina propria with serous glands (stain dark)
formation of mature placenta
stratum functionalis becomes decidua basalis, capsularis, and parietalis that surround embryo. decidua basalis at base, where umbilical cord comes in decidua capsularis- inner layer between embryo and opening of uterus decidua parietalis- roof of uterus space
tracts running through the central thalamus from top to bottom
stria meddullaris thalami mamillio thalamic tract fornix stria terminalis
Where are striations in striated duct? what are they? what do striated ducts do to secretion in lumen?
striations in basal side. they are mitochondria. striated ducts suck out Na+ through active transport to make the solution hypotonic
choroid plexus at the foramen of magendie and luscka secrete CSF directly into
subarachnoid space
surfactant makes lungs so they respond to increaeses in surface area with increases in surface tension, detergent and water just have a constant surface tension regardless of surface area. how does surfactant do this?
surfactant lines surface, when squeezed into small area (small surface area), surfactnant maximally reduces the surface tension.
how does the compliance of the lung change when u fill it with water instead of air? what happens to hystersesis? why is this?
the water filled lung is MORE compiant (less pressure gives more volume change) hysteresis dissapears this is because much of the resistance to filling of a lung comes from the surface tension of the fluid lined lungs avoiding air interace. filling with fluid removes this tension.
prosencephalon of 3 part stage becomes
telencephalon (cerebrum) and diencephalon (hypo and thala)
Cue for localizing soudns below 3Hz
temporal- sound on the right reaches right ear before left (Time delay and phase shift)
stomach SECRETES INTRINSIC FACTOR, to bind B12. where is the b12-intrinsic factor reabsorbed?
terminal ileum
___ is the precursor to estrogen
testosterone
lower motor neurons
their axons leave the the CNS. they include alpha motor neurons that operate skeletal muscle. and preganglionic parasympathetic and sympathetic axons. this includes lower motor neurons in most of the cranial nerves.
relationship between voltage and contractions in intestines
there are regular electrical rhythm, not all of which result in contraction. only some of the rhtyms result in an action potential, and all action potentials result in contraction. contractions can be of variable intensity
Krebs cycle is full of good reducing agents that can REDUCE NAD+ TO NADH,
therefore, krebs cycle stuff are better reducing agents then nadh
superoxide ion is *O2- (extra electron in O2), forms when electron escapes from Complex 1 and finds oxygen
these are dangerous and form MORE after ischemia
46 xy undermasculinized male
testosterone synthesis defect or defect in 5 reductase (no DHT) or androgen insensitivity
cellular basis of delta 1hz wave
thalamocortical cells bursting at 1hz in connection with cortex. thalamocoritcal cells utilize low threshold calcium conductions
Diencephalon
thalamus, hypothalamus AND globus pallidus
which sensory spinal pathway (dorsal column lemniscal or anterolateral spinothalamic path) gives off collaterals that go elsewhere than the VPL thalamus and postcentral gyrus?
the anterolateral spinothalamic pathway gives off collaterals
what receptor makes the lungs bronchiles relax?
the bronchioles relaxing is sympathetic! beta 2s
external os
the cervical opening. gets jagged after having a kid. common site for cervical cancer. where pap smears are taken from.
Betz cells
the cortico-spinal tract upper neurons. biggest cells
pancreas secretion apparatus
the duct makes bicarbonate fluid the acini (look like alveoli), make lots of enzymes to be secreted. they are rich in golgi apparati for packaging of secretions
the second part of the ventral mesentary, which runs between the liver and ventral abdominal wall is called
the falciform ligament
Dorsal Column Lem. in closed medulla
the fasciculus gracilis synapses in the gracilis nucleus. the fascic. cuneatus synapses in cuneatus nucleus. These secondary cell bodies send axons across midline to contralateral medial leminiscus. (caudal information from nuc. gracilis end up ventral in medial lemniscus) (Cranial info from cuneus fasic. end up dorsal in med. lemniscus)
in liver, you only need p450 and heme when u do a lot of detox, what step of heme synth is regulated in liver?
the first step, ALA synthase ALA synthase activity goes up in response to MORE P450-heme, and LESS free heme
liver, gallbladder, biliary duct develop as outgrowth from the ___gut
the foregut
arterial faroreceptor reflex doesnt really efffect kidneys, instead the kidney has low pressure vascular receptors that cause
the kidney to increase its resistance in response to a drop in left atrial pressure
In response to movement to the left
the left horizontal canal fluid moves opposite to the acceleration, causing movement of the hair cells and increase in firing rate the right horizontal canal fluid moves towards acceleration, hair cells bent towards tall end resulting in decreased firing rate "ACTIVATION OF HORIZONTAL CANAL TOWARDS WHICH THE HEAD IS TURNING"
the right troclear nerve innervates what muscle?
the left superior oblique. trochlear nerve decussates!
if on the right, you can see heart border, but not hemidiagrpham border, which lobe is pneumonia'd?
the lower lobe (the middle lobe is fine)
costophrenic recess (location and significance)
the lowest down part of lungs. the lateral most portion of pleural space on both sides. this is where fluid will build up first.
Vital capacity
the maximum difference between max inspiration and max expiration
Epinephrine and glucagon are example of hormones that act at ...
the membrane
substantia nigra found in
the midbrain
gelatinous substance
the most caudal part of the principal sensory nucleus of 5, continuous with the pars gerlatinosa of the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. (the pars gelatinosa is a part of the dorsal horn important for pain processing) also present i nthe caudal end of the spinal nucleus of 5.
residual volume
the most you can possibly exhale vs a literaly empty lung
peritoneal cavity has two components, they are the greater sac (including supracolic and infracolic compartments) and the lesser sac the sacs are connected through....
the omental (epeploic) foramen
lower motor neurons
the ones that innervate muscle. found in ventral horn and cranial nerve nuclei. alpha motor neurons. deficit causes flaccid paralysis, no tone, no reflexes!
what regulates breathing functions of medulla?
the pons and vagal nerve
FEV1/FVC definition, and what happens to it in old age
the proportion of air u can expire in the first second (how strong ur lungs are), decreases with age (along with fev1 and fvc together)
why is alveolar air composition more or less constant
the residual volume is large in coparison to the amount taken in every breath, so no big changes in alveoli
transversus facia forms border between vertebrae and its muslces posteriorly the structures in front of the transversalis fascia include.
the retroperitoneal structures as well as the peritoneal structures
easier to go down into which bronchus?
the right one.
hepatic diverticulum grows from foregut, becomes liver cords, which become...
the septum transversum
Angular accerlation organs project to
the superior and medial nucleus of the vestibular nuclei
functional residual capacity
the total amount of air in your lungs after a normal exhalation (at resting expiratory position) Expiratory reserve volume + residual volume THE FUNCTIONAL MINIMUM AMOUNT OF AIR NORMALLY IN UR LUNGS
posterior inferior cerebellar, anterior spinal arteries, posterior spinal a.s all branch from
the vertebral as
How photorceptors (rods and cones) respond to light.
they HYPERPOLARIZE. release LESS transmitter. When light hits photoreceptor, rhodobsin changes shape leading to the closing channels. Hyperpolarization. photorecptor cells make action potentials in the DARK
dopamine epinephrine norepi and histamine all cause what change in postsynaptic neuron?
they are all metabotropic, start 2nd messenger system
what kind of arrhytmias are tachycardias and ectopic beats?
they are problems of automaticity
Cortisol (a glucocoricoid) and aldosterone ( a mineralocorticoid) have similar structures. what do they look like? where do they act?
they are steriods, act intracellularly. consist of three 6membered rings and one 5membered ring with various side groups
how do sulfonylureas cause insulin secretion?
they bind the Katp channel and cause it to close, causing depolarization, ca influx, and insulin release
Cardiac glycosides increase force of contraction by increasing intracellular calcium by blocking Na/K pump, how?
they block Na/K pump, so there is more Na in the cell. another pump pumps out calcium in exchange for bringing in Na. If there is high Na, then this feature is inhibited.
how do skin blood vessels respond to sympathetic tone when its cold?
they constrict
ANP atrial natriuretic peptide (natriuretic=increased sodium excretion from kidneys) what happens to ANP levels in shock?
they decrease, so that the amount of salt excretion goes down (more retention
what happens to lung volume as transmural pressure increases?
they expand
what happens to the small fraction of large proteins that gets filtered? what happens to the freely filterable small proteins like insulin?
they get endocytosed in the proximal tubule
what will high serum glucose do to na serum leveles?
lower it. dilute it bc glucose pulls its own water into ecm. For each 100mg/dl serum Na falls 1.5 meq/L
cervical ventral horn lesion effect
lower motor neurons of the upper limb and axis are messed up. flaccid paralysis lower extremity is fine
HCO3 and H+ = H20 and CO2. If you breath too much, you will...
lower your pH, because u are using up H+ to make excess CO2
what is first sound u head on heart?
lub of mitral and tricuspid valve closing
differences in apperance onf spinal cord at diff levels
lumbar- has big ventral horns, giving off stuff to limbs. thoracic- small ventral horns. has intermediolateral cell colum cervical- lots of white matter. ventral horns giving off stuff to limbs.
what do you see of lungs normally? what can u see in abnormal?
lung markings which is the vasculature ( u usually dont see the air filled alveoli) in abnormal, u can see alveoli bc they have fluid or inflammation
how does infection lead to fever?
macrophages eating pathogens release pyrogen (interleukins) act on anterior hypothalmus to increase for higher temperature.
why are the xanthomas (fat deposits) in Familial Hyperlipoproteinemia localized to specific spots?
macrophages with Scavenger A's take in defective LDLs a lot, in specific locations.
melanocortin
made by arcuate hypo causes satiety. (mellow post-meal, sleepyness)
splanchnopleure (made from, becomes)
made from endoderm and mesoderm, becomes gut lining
calcitonin
made in THYROID (parafollicular cells) released in response to HIGH calcium inhibits bone breakdown resorption of calcium
life cycle of peptide hormones
made in cell body and transported down (same) but precursors can not be made from enzymes in axon (different) peptide is degraded rather than reuptaked
Glucocorticoids example- Cortisol
made in the fasciculata zone effect gluconeogenesis and glycogen. To Make: cholesterol esterized. Transfered into inner membrane of MITOCHONDRIA Cholesterol ester converted to PREGNENOLONE (rate limiting) Pregnenole exits and is converted to different hormones
peptide hormone synthesis
made like any other protein starts as longer precursor protein, undergoes selective proteolytic cleavage
Three Layers of cells in the dorsal horn from outside in
marginal layer- substantia gelatinosa- principal nucleus-
sulcus on the medial side of brain, posterior to paracentral gyrus is...
marginal ranch of cingulate gyrus
expiratory reserve volume
max exhalation vs normal exhalation
total lung capacity
max inspiration vs zero filled lung
Inspiratory Capacity
maximally filled lungs - resting expiratory position (normal exhalation vs max inhalation)
inspiratory reserve volume
maximally filled lungs - resting inspiratory position ( the difference between your normal inhalation and your max inhalation)
what does it mean if all the facial muscles on the left side are out, including the forehead?
means peripheral nerve damage to the facial nerve, rather than a cortical damage or damage to the facial nucleus
Rostral Trigeminal-thalamic path
mechanosensory information sensory neuron cell body in trigeminal ganglion, axon pierces pons, synapses in primary sensory nucleus of 5. neuron 2-from primary sensory nuc. in pons up to VPM thalamus. neuron 3-VPM thalamus, through internal capsule, postcentral gyrus (inferior portion)
allocortex location, features
medial border of temporal lobe and part of cingulate gyrus. 10 areas, each unique. none receive afferents from thalamus
medial forebrain- Limbic System
medial cerebral hemispheres, medial tempoeral lobe (amygdala/hippocamp), medial thalamus. outflow THRU HYPOTHALAMUS (not internal capsule). Allocortex rather than neocortex.
in spinal cord, sulcus limitans is line on central canal that seperates dorsal sensory from ventral motor, for the rhomboencephalon, it seperates...
medial motor from sensory side
How do Scavenger Receptor As intake modified LDL's (charges)?
they have positive regions that bind negative modifications of LDL (this is opposite to LDL receptor binding charges)
automatic Somatic "thinking fast"
mediated by basal ganglia. it is conscious accessible (automated process of driving a car)
what is center needed for continuous respiration?
medulla of brainstem
epinephrine is a derivative of tryosine it acts on
membrane receptors
prostoglandins act on
membrane receptors!
phases of uterine development
menses- shedding proliferative phase- stratum basalis regrows the stratum functionalis in response to estradiol from follicles, secretory phase- corpus luteum makes estradiol and PROGESTERONE. make glands secrete, prepare for implantation.
How do respiratory Epithelium, intestines excrete Cloride? what inhibits this?
they have the 2Cl:Na:K transporter on the opposite side (so now you have 2ClNaK on basolateral, Cl channel on apical) driving Cl into lumen. this is inhibited by Furosimide.
pontine tegmentum contains neuromodulatory nuclei
midline- raphe nucleus- serotonin locus coeruleus- norepinephrin
distinguishing features of cardiac (lower esophageal sphinc) and pyloric sphincs MUCOSA
they have very deep pits that are all just mucous secreting cells
what r the levels of FSH and LH like in menopausal women?
they r high. the ovum isnt responding to fsh and lh so those levels are high. estrogen is low due to lack of remaining follicles.
it takes .25 seconds for blood in capilary to absorb oxygen fully, during excersise the time available to absorb o2 fully goes down to this limit (.25s), what would be different about this in an abnormal cbl person?
they take way longer to fully absorb o2 into blood, so there o2 saturation would plumit during excersise
tunica albuginea
thick fibrous capsule of testicle, send out septae which seperate testicle into lobules
gingiva properties
thick layer of strat squam epi lympocytes and plasma cells to fight pathogens
ampulla
thickening of semicircular canal. 1/canal
agranular cortex
thicker, primarily motor, big pyramidal neurons in layer three. the pyramidal levels dominate (2,3,5)
B12 needed to make an odd numbered fatty-acid (propionyl coA) into a form that can be used takes place in
mitochondria
granular
thin, primarily sensory. small pyramidal and non-pyramidal cells. The granular layers dominate (4)
C-delta fiber
thinnest, unmyelinated fibers. cause you to feel pain for a while after a negative stimulus dull, delayed pain (has to travel up axons)
cerebellum histo
molecular outer layer- sparse, not much there granular cell later- densely packed with purkinje cells
osmolarity
moles solute/ liters of solution
differences between mucous and serous glands
mucous glands produce thick, sticky, viscous with long carbs that LUBRICATES Serous glands make watery, glycoprotein rich with short carbs, enzyme rich
Superior colliculus
multi-modal sensory input maps from auditory, sensory space and motor space to move head and neck. cortex-like organization sup collic orients the frontal eye fields and cortex. causes reflexive eye and head movements in response to a variety of inputs
multipolar
multiple dendrites, one axon (typical motor neuron, or pyramidal, or purkinje of cerebellum)
other compensetaory responses to standing ( inaddition to neurogenic alpha 1) muscle pump respiratory pump
muscle pump helps push blood in veins up respiratory pump= sighing- lowers intrathoracic increase venous return
effects of GH on body
muscle- mass increase, protein synthesis Liver- Gluconeogenesis, IGF production IGF effects- Increase cartilage, increase organ size and function of bones, heart, and lungs
third ventricles connections with lateral ventricles and with fourth ventricle
third ventricle connected to lateral ventricles through foramen of monroe. (just in front ventral to interthalamic adhesion) forth ventricle is down in rhombencephalon. connected through cerebral aqueduct.
sympathetic chain derived from
neural crest (as are the intestinal plexus, and the adrenal medulla, melanocytes)
poster pituitary gland derived from
neural origins
appearance of premature ventricular systole
this is an example of an ectopic ventricular beat, normal ekg for a while, then all of a sudden three big, weird, wide qrs's
point of cori cycle
use lactate that your muscles are making to turn that lactate into pyruvate, and then into glucose, so u have mroe available glucose. (glucogenesis done by liver)
phases of excersise related increases in ventilation and causes
neurological-spike in ventilation, anticipatory metabolic- linear increase in ventilation as o2 goes down (hyperpnia to compensate for increased co2, not hyperventilation) compensetory phase- lactic acid co2+metabolic co2 further spikes ventilation
If you excrete 1 mol H+ and 1 mol HCO3, how much HCO3 is addded to blood?
none. HCO3 excreted cancels H+ excreted
volume transmission
nonjunctional release. many postsynaptic cells for one presynaptic ex) /Nit. Ox., neurosteroids etc.
REM and waking areas
noradrenergic, dopaminergic and cholinergic rostral reticular formation hypothalamus basal forebrain
Both Glucose and Fructose can be broken into triose phophsate (for example, glycealdehyde phosphate) this can be used for... (2)
to be put into TCA cycle for ETC and ATP synthesis OR to be made into glycerol-3-p which is then used to make TAG. as a building block for TAGs. question is, is fructose used more to make TAGs?
relationship between oxidative stress and hexose monophosphate shunt
to handle oxidative stress, u need glutathione. to make glutathione, need NADPH which u get using the glucose 6 phosphate dehydrogenase
special features of neuron to neuron synapses
usually only release of a few vesicles which cause a small Vm change transmitter usually reuptaked rather than broken down
does going in an elevator excite the utricle? the saccule?
utricle- no (only horizontal) saccula-yes
ventral path
v1 to v2,3,4
innervates the epiglottis
vagus
hering-breur inflation reflex is mediated by what receptors and nerves ?
vagus discharge in response to overstretching of pulmonary stretch receptors (mechanoreceptors)
what happens in cushings reflex (payasympathetic, next)
vagus nerve causes bradycardia, and respiratory depression (which is the third of the triad)
hering breur reflex in response to overexpansion of lungs results in
vagus nerve telling brainstem to inhibit inspiration (reflex against overexpansion of lungs)
esophagus is from what pharyngeal arch (hint, whats it innervated by?)
vagus nerve, so 4th and 6th arch
innervation of visceral pleura afferent is by
vagus through the pulm. plexus
how does fluid in lymph with negative pressure (from interstitial pressure) move into positive pressure subclavian vein?
valves in lymph vessels
definition of left visual field
visual field of the left eye (not left hemifield which is the physical left side of space)
spectral dopler is good for measuing speeds for valve defects, filling pressures, cardiac output, whats color dopler good for?
visualizing, can show back flow
water soluble antioxidants
vitamen C, gltathione
lipid soluvle antioxidants
vitamen E, beta carotene
distributive shock def, causes when related to anaphylaxis septic shock neurogenic shock
normal blood volume, but less venous return because of massive peripheral vasodilation and venous pooling anaphylaxis- vasodilation septic shock- nitrous oxide release causes vasodilation neurogenic- anesthesia or extreme pain cause loss of sympathetic tone
difference between normal and pathological hypertrophy
normal hypertrophy due to excersise involved different genes. pathological involves more genes and they are related to fetal proteins
what is normal plasma bicarb? what does kidney do if its not this?
normal is 24mEq/L if less, kidney makes bicarb. if more, kidney secretes bicarb
Emmetropia
normal vision.
how does ischemia lead to reentry
normally conduction would go both ways around the tricuspid valve in the atria. in ischemia, one route around is blocked, so the second route comes back around and creates a circle, which it can do continuously, going in circles
What will someone with folate deficiency excrete if you give them histidine
normally, histidine gives folate to THF to make N-foramino THF, and the rest of histidine becomes glutamate if no folat,e N-formimino group stays on and is excreted in urine
role of parietal cells in pernicious anemia
normally, parietal cells secrete intrinsic factor, which is needed to absorb B12
special feature of brain veins
not paired with a.s, no valves! travel from high to low pressure wherever it is.
funct of bones in middle ear
to increase pressure of sound pushing on oval window x30 projecting directly from air of outer ear to liquid of oval window results in lots of reflected air. to make transfer efficent: 1) Tympanic membrane is 20x bigger than oval window. 2)Malleus and shorter incus act as lever to increase power 1.3
how do we perceive phase and speed of sound?
we dont. but both help us localize it
development 4 weeks+
week4- formation of circulation week5- cylindrical umbilical cord
stretch reflex static
weight added to hand spindle detects stretch muscle contracts to maintain constant muscle length in spite of added load stretch reflex is negative feedback attempt to counter increased weight with increased tension
optokinetic reaction
when looking at a moving scene, maintain fixation by slowly following scene and then making a saccade back to the start
hair bundles in organ of corti all oriented in the same direction, which is...
outward. the ascent of the staircase is directed toward the outside of the winding
tinnitus
overactive cochlear amplifier creates sound all the time
Citrate is 6 carbons, 2 from acetylcoA, 4 from oxoacetate. the 2 carbons that leave as co2 are form ___
oxoacetate
blood circuit to supply the actual tissues of the lungs
oxy blood from bronchial artery, deoxy into azygos
what innervates the costal parietal pleura
parietal pleura attaches to body wall and is innervated along with body wall. Intercostal nerves
visceral vs parietal pleura
parietal pleura is outside space, pleural cavity more visible during deflated lungs. visceral is inside, surrounding actual surface of lung tissue. visceral is inner surface of pleural cavity visceral pleura adheres to the lung tissue
Thalamic reticular nucleaus
part of the subthalamus that seperates doral thalamus from the internal capsule. it is reticular because it is broken up into many islands by the axons from the dorsal thalamo-cortical fibers passing through.
what type of hormone is parathyroid hormone?
peptide
both ventilation and perfusion are at a max at the base, which one drops off faster as you go up to apex? what does this do to the ventilation:perfusion ratio?
perfusion drops off faster. the ventilation:perfusion ration increases as the perfusion drops off big.
decreased po2 works on which chemoreceptors?
peripheral, not central
spastic paralysis of peristalsis def
peristalsis smooth muscles are contracted and things cannot pass
foregut becomes
pharynx, lower respiratory system, esophagus, stomach, proximal duodenum, liver pancreas, biliary apparatus
phosphatase
phosphorylated S
phosphotase definition
phosphotases are the proteins that inactivate a protein once its been activated (phospho'd) the phosphotase itself can be inactivated
photoreceptor cells can hyperpolarize bipolar cells using glutamate onto ionotropic AMPA glutamate receptors
photocreceptor cells can depolarize bipolar cells release glutamate onto mGlur6 metabotrophic receptor.
diaphragm innervated in central part by (afferent)
phrenic (so pain referend to neck and shoulder)
what innervates the mediastinal parietal pleura
phrenic nerve (also does diaphragmantic parietal pleura)
brain is capped from subarachnoid space and the vessels that run through it by the
pia matter
How does K+ depletion lead to increased bicarbonate threshold and alkalosis?
when you resorb sodium in principal cell of collecting, it wants to output a k. but if u have low k, you cant secrete it. instead, you will secrete a positive H+ from the intercalated cell nearby. when an H is secreted from intercalated, a bicarb is resorbed as well.
theca interna
where capillaries are. where androstenedione is made, then goes to granulosa cells to be made into estradiol. estradiol then released from follicles.
spiral ganglia
where cell bodies of afferents are. wraps around the modiolus.
scarpas ganglion
where the cell bodies from the vesitulbar organs are. send axons out to Vestibular part of CN8 through internal acoustic meatus
where can you find the spinal trigeminal nucleus at the end medullary spinal border?
where the dorsal horn is in the spine.
hilus
where veins, arteries, lymphatics enter ovaries
marginal layer
white matter (white margarine)
propriospinal tract
white matter immediately outlining the gray mater. responsible for intersegmental coordination in cross extension, gait
submandibular gland makes 70% of all secretions! it makes a mixed serous and mucous secretion. the mucous secretion is made by cells that appear: ___, with a __ nucleas
white/clear, flattened nucleas agianst basal membrane
cushings triad
widening pulse pressure, bradycardia, respiratory depression
testosterone action
wolffian to vas deferens, seminal vesicles, epididymis
genetics of true hermaphrodites
xx/xy mosaic xy with sry gene messed up (rare) xx (translocation of sry gene)
macula func
yellow pigmented to filter out blue lights so that only red gets in (so light thats getting bent differentially isnt all reaching, blurring)
What does the primordial gut form from?
yolk sac
what happens to ur serum sodium level if u have SIADH and innapropriately release ADH all the time?
you have hyponatriemia bc u are reabsorbing too much water and diluting urself.
what happens if inputs are less than outputs?
you still pee 500ml due to water of metabolism. this further concentrates solutes in your body (increases osmolarity of ecm)
what do you give to a person with low K+ and low pH?
you want to increase their pH by giving them bicarb BUT first you must give them K+, otherwise the bicarb given will incentivize H+ to leave cells and K+ to replace it in cells, further fukking up their low serum K+
hyperventilation results in respiratory alkalosis? why? does this happen during excersise?
your body at a fixed metabolic point makes a fixed amount of CO2. if you breathe out too quickly, you lose too much CO2. This causes your blood to get alkaline (BASIC). Excersise is different, bc increase in respiration accompanies increase in metabolism and co2 produciton.
depth perception in cortex
zero disparity cell- fire most when object is equally close to both eyes binocular disparity cell-fire when two eyes see the object differently
pigment cell layer func
absorbs all light, prevents scattering in eye
effect of estrogen on bones
causes bone growth
adventitia is a non-well defined outer border and is only found in the...
esophagus
hofbauer cells
fetal macrophage in villus.
what cells make progesterone?
granulosa cells
FSH acts on what cells?
granulosa cells to stimulate estrogen synthesis
vagus does 1st half of large intestine upto...
left colic flexure
dorsal root ganglia are derived from
neural crest
schwann cells derived from
neural crest
how does tylenol, aspirin, ibuprofin work
prostoglandin inhibitor
decibel scale: how much louder is a 20db difference?
10:1. db= 20xlog(p/p-ref) so 20db diff= 20*1 =20log(10/1)
glutathione is a tripeptide that acts an antioxidant by maintaining intracellular redox state. it is also a source of amino acids
"GSH-glutathione is in the mM conc in the cell . Its primary function is to maintain the intracellular redox state"
oxidation state values
+1 for all O bonds -1 for Hs 0 for C's
making an ester costs...
+3
Acetyl SCoa is a thioester! releasing it creates...
-8 kcal
spindle waves
11 hz. high frequency. originate from the reticular thalamus occus during stage 2 sleep
To Control the Right Side of the Body, The Left side of the cortex works with the right side of the cerebellum.
...
cardiac output must equal venosu return over a few heart beats
...
. Hair bundles by themselves do not easily deflect. If we didn't have the assembly of basal membrane and tectorial membrane to move up and down and deflect the hair bundles, sound waves entering the cochlea wouldn't do anything.
...
1) G protein can activate PLC phospholipase C Phospholipace C cause PIP2 to split from DAG PIP2 h-philic goes to ER to cause calcium release DAG stays in membrane, activates PKC ( in combination with newly released Ca)
...
1) Normally cGMP causes Na channels in retina to stay open 2)Light activates Rhodopsin 3)Transducin G protein activated 4)Phopshodiesterase 5)cGMP eaten. 6) Na channels close
...
2 lobes Adenohypophysis=Anterior Lobe- endocrine part of pituitary. has a pars distalis (most of lobe) and pars tuberalis (around neck) Posterior lobe=neurohyposhysis, mostly pars nervosa. has infundibulum in middle of neck that contains hypothalamohyophyseal tract
...
3KHz is the optimal sound frequency. we can hear it as low as 3 DB. Lower pitched or higher pitched sounds must be played at a higher DB for us to hear it.
...
4th ventricle roof is cerebellum, floor is brain step
...
8 Thioester 7 Phosphate anhydrive (biphosphate) 3 ester 2 amide (energy released
...
95% of alveoli form postnatally (up to 8 years old)
...
A good Downhill reaction is more than deltG= -5kcal/mol corresponding to a Keq of 10,000 or so
...
ACTH maintains structural elements of fasciculata and reticularis zones (inner two cortical zones)
...
ADH deficiency is associated with diabetes insipidus, in this case you void a large volume of urine, about 25L/day
...
ADH release is cut off completely after an osmolarity drop of just 2%. body is very sensitive to drops in osmolarity
...
AST transaminase and ALT both make Glutamate AST uses Aspartate and makes Oaloacetate ALT uses Alanine and makes PYRUVATE
...
Alar Dorsal (A.D.) Basal Ventral
...
Amount Diffused= -diffusion coefficient (bigger coefficient for small particle) x cross sectional area x concentration gradient
...
Low Effective Vascular Volume causes: 1) Renin release by JG cells - caused by decrease in hydrostatic pressure in afferent arterioles sensed by JG cells Leads to: INcreased Na/water resorption 2) Low Flow to Macula Densa causing chemicals that release and effect JG cells to release renin 3) Norephinephrine increases renin release Negative Feedback!: Angio 2 DECREASES RENIN RELEASE FROM JG CELLS. negative feedback
...
MRI has best spacial resolution. however, PET has good temporal resolution. SPECT is single photon emitting computeted tomography. but ALSO RAPID.
...
Melanopsin containing gnaglion cells are intrinsically light sensitive important for pupillary light reflex.
...
Methionine Reaects with Adenosine to form S-adenosyl methionine (SAM), after giving up its Me, Methionine becomes homocysteine
...
Muscles and other tissues produce Glutamine, which goes to the liver
...
NAD+ has a N-ring(3 double bonds) NADH has an N-ring(2 double bonds) with extra H
...
NTs can lead to PKA activity, which can change transcription as well OPEN channels. PKA always OPENS channels NTs can also activate Protein Kinase C. lead to PLC, PIP2, DAG (membrane), IP3 (goes to ER) and calcium release
...
ONLY PERIPHERAL CHEMORECEPTORS ARE RESPONSIVE TO O2 LEVELS
...
Odontoblasts are important because one side is attached to cementum and one is attached to bone.
...
Ornithine is part of urea cycle. it is made by receiving an N from Glutamate.
...
PEPCK is a way of pulling things out of the kreb cycle. you can get from pyruvate back to PEP
...
PKA will activate a protein and also activate an inhibitor of the phosphotase that turns off that protein
...
Pain is weighed in the brain relative to the mechanosensory info. if there is a loss of mechano sensory info, pain seems a lot worse.
...
Pancreas forms from a ventral and dorsal pancreatic bud that fuse when the duodenum rotates to the right
...
Prilosec works by inhibiting H+/K+ pump, so H+ cant be pumped into stomach lumen
...
Roll- roll a doobie, rotate around axis of it in your mouth. pitch-sound wave in your ear, rotate around axis of it entering your ear. Yaw- Yawea above your head looking into you. rotate around line going into top of head.
...
SAM is used a methyl donator for DNA methylation for example. it is made from methionine +Adenosine Once it donates a methyl group, SAM becomes homocysteine. It is made back into Methionine by Me-THF
...
Scala Media has high K+ (ENDOLYMPH), bathes the surrounding of organ or corti at 80mV The inner hair cells themselves are at -45mV
...
Sertoli cells have SF1 and SOX9 to make AMH and Leydig cells have SF1 and make testosterone.
...
Slow wave sleep is parasympatheticly mediated. slow heart rate, slow respiration
...
So the lung is two intercostal spaces above the pleura all the way around.
...
Speech conveys the maximum amount of information with the least amount of spectral complexity.
...
TCA cycle is driving both gluconeogenesis and ketone body formation and ketone body formation and gluconeogenesis are tied together
...
THE MAXIMALLY CONCENTRATED URINE CAN HAVE NO NACL CONTENT! ITS ALL KEPT OUT. (even though NaCL is 750 in inermost medulla)
...
Taste bud has 40 receptor cells receptor cells dont have APs, they have graded potentials, release Neurotransmitters which cause action potentials in the primary afferent cells. receptor cells arent true neurons (while olfactory receptors ARe neurons) receptor cells turnover every 10 days receptors have a taste they respond best to
...
The alanine cycle is just like the Cori cycle. The Cori cycle is production of glucose by the liver, processing of glucose to give you lactate, transport of lactate back to the liver where it's reprocessed again to give you glucose. The alanine cycle is very similar to the Cori cycle
...
The difference between the hemes in cytochromes and the heme you saw in hemoglobin and myoglobin is that the iron in the cytochromes goes back and forth between the +2 and +3 states. It is a redox carrier, goes back and forth between redox states. Hemoglobin is not a redox agent, it is an oxygen carrier. It is always in the +2 state.
...
The interstitial cells of Cajal generate these basic electrical waves
...
The left anterior canal is paired with the right posterior canal. the left posterior canal is oriented with the right anterior canal the horizontal canals are both orientated 30 degrees above the horizontal and are paired together
...
The renal arteries, lumbar as, and gonadal as are paired and associated with the body wall and associated organs
...
The secretion of proteins stimulated by CCK or ACh is accompanied by NaCl rich secretion through the acinar cells.
...
The spinal tract of nucleus 5 contains the interneurons that relay inforamtion up the thalamus The Solitary Nucleus also contains sensory interneurons that realy up to the thalamus. for Cn 7,9,10. The solitary tract is the internal continuation of the taste fibers and thoracic/abdominal afferent of 7,9,10
...
The term alpha with respect to glucose means it points down. If it points up it's beta.
...
The tip link connecting two hair cells is directly connected to a channel. tension in the tip link opens the channel
...
Tidal Volume = Alveolar Volume + Dead Space
...
When energy is needed 1)Liver provides Glucose. It turns Pyruvate into Glucose using gluconeogenesis 2)This glucose leaves the liver as blood glucose and goes to muslce to provide energy 3)Muscle uses Glucose for glycolysis, generating Pyruvate. 4)Pyruvate needs to get back from muscle to liver, to get gluconeogenesis'd back to glucose. but Pyruvate cant travel through the blood! 5)So, pyruvate picks up an amino group to become alanine. It gets the N from Glutamate, which then becomes alpha-ketoglutarate 6)Upon reaching the liver, the alanine is converted back to pyruvate, handing off its N back to an alpha keto glutarate which becomes glutamate again.
...
When you move the object away from the lens, the image moves closer to the lens, toward FP2. the image gets smaller as the object is further away. always inverted
...
You need to know that F1P is a positive effector of glycogen synthesis from udp-glucose
...
[Aldolase] splits Fructose 1,6 biphosphate into Ga3P and DHAP in a reverse aldol addition
...
a distinguishing feature of porphyrins is the connecting methenyl groups with -CH=
...
a maternal cotyledon is a section of the placenta delineated by a placenta septa. it contains several fetal cotyledon(a fetal villus and its branches).
...
acetyl S-CoA carbons end up as C1, C2/3 in oxacetate. The 2 carbons that leave as CO2 are from the ends of the oxoacetate. The C1 carbon from Acetyl CoA ends up randomized at either COOH of oxoacetate The C2 carbon that originates from AcetylSCoa gets randomized between C2 and C3 at the step of making succinate.
...
acetyl-SCoA is an inhibitor of pyruvate dehydrogenase
...
after birth, myocytes are non-mitotic and grow by hypertrophy
...
alpha motor neurons receive tones of input- IPSPs and EPSPs
...
amygdala responds to fearful faces.
...
an aldol addition is when aldehydes middle C attacks another aldehydes aldehyde C. the reverse of this is happening in aldolase step of glycolysis.
...
an excitory synapse at the superficial tip of a dendrite will cause na+ to rush in to the cell and a negative deflection in the ECM, which will be picked up as a negative deflection by the electrode
...
an excitory synapse deep in the dendrite will cause na to rush in leaving the ecm immediately around it negative. However, the na will escape back into the surroundings below and above the synapse. this will cause a positive deflection read by the electrode.
...
angiotensin causes transcription of aldosterone, which leads to more NaK pumps, leading to more extracellular matrix Na, leading to more Na going into cells
...
antibiotics cause oxidatize stress, requiring glutathione, requiring nadph, requiring GLUCOSE 6-PHOSPHATE DEHYDROGENASE
...
arachnoid villus allows CSF from subarachnoid into dural venous sinus, prevents back flow from venous sinus into arachnoid.
...
arteriole gates in brain constrict in reponse to high bp. resistave vessels respond to catecholamines during high pressure to create greater resistance.
...
as these photons reach the material of higher optical density, they slow down
...
assume water loss due to sweating and lack of access is coming from both ECF and ICF (so 40% form ECf and 60% ICF due to their starting amounts)
...
at 3 montsh, there is a decidua caspularis on the surrounding amnion and itself surrounded by cavity of uterus. lining the uterus is the decidua parietalis at 7 months, cavity of uterus is no longer open, and decidua capsularis dissapears.
...
at 5 weeks, germ cells from yolk sac reach genital ridge. primitive sec cords.
...
at constant velocity, semicircular canals fire at their normal basal rate
...
axons can have a lot of branches! which can be traced with horseradish peroxidase
...
basal ganglia importnat for learned automated motor processes like shoe tying, writing, and dancing
...
basal ganglia is deep to white matter tracts and is itself GRAY matter
...
bile canniculus sourounded by tight junctions between hepatocytes to prevent leaking of bile into sinusoid and into circulation. they contain cholesterol bc it is a precursor to bile
...
bile salt is amphipathic forms micelles to break down fats. pancreatic lipase does the first step of breaking down triglycerides
...
bile salts are acids of cholesterol
...
bile salts are transported out of the liver by MRP2
...
bilirubin is red biliverdin is green urobilin is yellow stercobilin is brown
...
blastocyst implants in uterus AFTER zona pellucida is shed and trophoblast can bind uterine endometrium
...
both follicular uptake of iodine and production of thyroid hormone regulated by TSH
...
branched chain AAs are brought to muscle, muscle is a net EXPORTER of Glutamine, which goes to liver and other places
...
bucilin and mnionless are proteins involved in b12 absorption into cells
...
by definition, a cholinergic neuron is one whic hMAKES acetylcholine (not one thats activated by ACh neccissarily)
...
cardiac muscle cells can not be over stretched, even with lots of stretching u still get good contraction
...
Steps of resorbing Bicarb in the Proximal tubule
1) H+ is secreted into lumen by Na/H exchanger and H pump 2)This H+ combines with filtered HCO3 3)H+ and HCO3 is converted into CO2 by apical Carbonic anydrase 4)The CO2 freely crosses membrane into prox tube cell 5) The CO2 is added to water, reconverted into bicarb and H+ by an intracellular Carbonic anhydrase 6)Bicarb is resorbed into blood side by Na Bicarb cotransporter
Stretch Reflex-dynamic
1) Hammer hit stretches tendon 2)Muscle spindles stretched 3)1a afferent goes through dorsal horn, synapses in ventral horn on alpha motor neuron of homonymous muscle and synergists 4)1a also activates interneuron which inhibits alpha neuron of antagonist muscle
To process fats coming into duodenum
1) I cells respond to FATS by producing CCK 2)CCK acts on ACINI of pancreas, causing release of enzymes
types of folate transporters
1) IN upper small intestine, proton-coupled transporter working at acidic pH 2)High Affinity Folate Receptor in reproductive tissue and epithelium. Anchored to PM by GPI linker. takes oxized folic acid
TO INCREASE production of catecholamines
1) Increase tyrosine hydroxylase activity by using up a lot of catecholamine (so no neg feedback) 2) increase tyrosine hydroxylases tyrosine affinity by phospho'ing it 3)prolonged stress causes increased tyrosine hydroxylase synthesis
Parturition=Labor Steps
1) Increased ACTH leads to increased cortisol 2)Increased fetal cortisol leads to decreased progesterone 3)Progesterone withdrawal leads to more responsive myometrium 4)Cortisol causes release of prostaglandings which cause uterine contractions 5)Oxytocin release also causes uterine contractions
macula densa resposne to increased GFr
1) Increased flow past macula densa 2)Macula dense releases ATP 3A) ATP causes afferent constriction (autoreg) 3B) ATP causes JG cells to DECREASE renin release 4) Less Renin, Less blood pressure
How does increase in renal sympathetic activity or angiotensin lead to increased proximal resorption of na and water?
1) Increased symp or angiotensin 2)Constriction of Afferent and efferent arterioles 3)fall in hydrostatic pressure in peritubular capillaires (rise in peritubuluar oncotic pressure) 4) Drop in hydrostatic pressure of renal intersitium = RENAL INTERSITTIAL HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE RIHP drops. 5) more resrption of water and salt
Two Ways that HDL returns Cholesterol to the Liver
1) Indirect- Gives Cholesterol Esters to apoB lipos which are then endocytosed by liver 2)Direct- Scavenger B protein on surface of liver binds HDL and creates channel for cholesterol to come into liver cells
Three ways to make HDL
1) Intracellular in liver and intesting. requires ApoA 2)Extracellular, ApoA picks up phospholipids from cell membranes from the ABCA membrane protein 3)Extracellular, as a by-product of hydrolysis of apoB-lipos. Phospholipid transfer proteins helps #3 by transfering phospholipids and free cholesterol from VLDL to HDL
how does endothelial injury lead to atherosclerosis 2
1) LDL binds to injured endothelium, gets oxidized 2) leukocytes bind, turn into macrophages, eat oxidized LDL, turn into foam cells, clog **** up
Loop of info back to hippocampus
1) Mamillary bodies to anterior thalamic n. 2) Anterior Thal. N. to cingulate gyrus 3)Cingulate gyrus back to entorinal cortex
Steps of Transimanation
1) PLP binds to N of lysine of transaminase enzyme forming Schiff bond C=N 2)Enzymes Lysine is replaces by amino of Amino Acid 3) Rest of the AA leaves the N stuck to PLP. It leaves as an alpha-keto acid. 4) The N stuck on PLP (now pyridoxamine) phosphate PMP gets transferred onto the Amine-accepting Keto acid to form a new Amino Acid 5)lysine of enzyme reeataches to repeat cycle
When plasma Ca++ is low
1) Plasma PTH is released 2)PTH Causes: Bone to release Ca2+ Kidneys to Resorb more Ca Kidneys to activate Vitamin D, release vit D 3)Vit D increases intestinal Ca resorption
Descending Auditory pathways, three tiers
1) Primary auditory cortex and MGB to Inferior Colliculus 2) Inferior Colliculus to Nuc of Lat. Leminiscus, Sup olive and colliculuar Nuclei 3) From the Sup Olive to the Cochlea (The only efferents to cochlear are from Sup olive)
To neutralize acid coming into duodenum
1) S cells of duodenum make secretin 2)Secretin causes ducts of pancreas to secrete bicarbonate
Crucial to having edema
1) Salt retention. water retention isnt enough 2)what goes into ECV interstitium must be repalced by food and water.
3 neuron sensory relay route to cortex
1) Sensory Neuron in DRG 2) Second neuron terminates in Ventral Posterior Thalamus Relay Center on contralateral side (it is the second neuron that crosses sides) 3) 3rd neuron terminates in post-central gyrus (on
after spinal transection, reflexes initially lost, then slowly come back until they are stronger than ever, how?
1) additional postsynaptic receptors for synaptic transmitters in alpha motor neurons (denervation supersenitivity) 2)Synaptic growth, sprouting of nw synapes
in response to increased renal artery pressure
1) afferent arteriole contraction (myogenic, or in repsonse to macula densa chemicals) 2) mesangial cell contraction to decrease surface area for filtration
steps of pressure volume diagram
1) bottom- volume increases with constant pressure (rapid and slow filling) Bottom right corner- mitral valve closes after heart has filled and before pressure climbs 2) right- increase in pressure, constant volume, until aortic valve opens in top right 3)top- once aortic valve opens, ventricular volume begins to decrease as pressure climbs, peaks and comes down Top left- Aortic Valve closes as ventricle pressure becomes less aortic 4)left- pressure drop with no change in volume = isovolumic relaxation
physiological effects of pregnancy
1) darkening of skin on happy trail. increased melanocyte activity 2-cardiovascular-increased cardiac output, stroke volume, heart rate 3-hemato-increased red blood cells (up to 60-70% hematocrit). also a lot more plasma! so a lot of pregnant women are anemic bc of all the extra plasma 4-deeper breathing 5-low TSH 6- increased pressure on ureters, bladder can cause increased fluid and enlargement of kidneys 7- more fainting because uterus pushes on IVC and cuts off circulation 8-
3ways to get gout- too much urate in serum
1) decreased filtration- loss of nephs 2) increased reabsorption in prox tub (following na and water) 3) decreased secretion- competiting from transporter
macula dense response to decreases GFR (or increased resorption)
1) decreased flow past macula densa 2)PGE2 prostoglandin released from macula densa 3)increased renin release from JG 3B) RELAXATION of afferant arteriole
activity of MaP kinase
1) enters the nucleas and phosphos TFs 2) phospho cyto protein pp90 which then goes to nucleas
to avoid radical chemistry in body:
1) enzymes - superoxide dismutase (o2 to H2O2) gltatione peroxidase (h2o2 to water) catalase-gets rid of h2o2 2) limit free Fe 3) antioxidants
things peroxisomes do 3
1) make O2 into H2O2 (as in fatty acid oxidation i.e. making a double bond and removing 2 Hs) 2)CATALASE uses H2O2 to oxidize organic molecules (like ethanol, formaldehyde, especially in detoxers of liver and kidney) 3-Catalase also can turn unneeded H2O2 back into water and o2 gas
projections of somatosensory cortex
1) sensory processing to superior parietal area 2)sensory motor coordination- to motor cortex 3)filtering of useless sensory info- to spine
Things B12 does (sometimes with Folate)
1)As Me-B12 Serves as a cofactor for Methionine Synthase, when making Methionine from Homocysteine SAM is needed to keep B12 in Methylated form. The methyl group transfered is from Me-THF 2) AS AdoCbl in mito, needed by methylmalonyl coa mutase to complete transition of propionyl CoA to succinyl coa
How does the osmotic pressure of peritubular capillaries increase when bp falls?
1)BP falls, renal plasma falls 2)Filtration Fraction = GFR/RPF INCREASES. more fluid leaves blood, but same amount of albumin left in blood 3)More albumin blood in peritubular caps (post-efferents) so more osmotic pressure to draw fluid from the RIHP renal intersittial hydrostatic pressure
Glycine Cleavage system
1)Calpha of Glycine goes to THF 2) COOH leaves as CO2 3)NH2 leaves as ammonia NH4
Sections of ICA internal carotid=anterior brain circulation
1)Cervical-straight segment. starts from branching of common carotid 2)Petrosal- curved, through petrous portion of temporal bone. one branch=tympanic that supplies the ear. cavernous- arches back and travels along floor of cavernous sinus 3)Cavernous sinus (minengial and hypophyseal branches) 4)Cerebral segment(opthalmic branches etc. etc.)
Steps of Menses
1)Corpus luteum dies, stops making progesteorne and estradiol 2)Increase in prostaglandinds 3)constricts spiral arteries 4) stratum functionalis dies and is shed epithelium regrows from that which is covering glands
blood flow through umbilical cord
1)Deoxyblood that the baby has used goes to placenta through Umbilical ARTERIES (away from baby) 2)Blood is oxygenized when it enters villi 3)Maternal blood on the other side of villi proving oxy blood 4)Oxy blood returns to baby through umbilical VEIN
what r the three things LH does?
1)Enhances theca cell androstenedione production 2)Luteinzes granulosa cells 3)initiates resumption of meiosis
where do the two NH2s in Urea originate?
1)From free NH3+, which is from Glutamate (not glutamine!) 2)From Aspartate (from TCA)
Audio Signal Transduction (hair cells)
1)Wave causes short hairs to push large hairs over, increasing tension in tip attachments. 2)K+ Channels open, K moves fast from +80mV endolymph into cell. (depolarizaiton) 3) voltage gated Ca2+ channels open in response to K+-led depol, to cause vesicle docking 4)NT released to afferent CN 8 Nerve (Hard to pump K+ out back into endolymph, so instead its pumped in the perilempyh on basal side of hair cells through Ca+activated K channels.)
formation of placenta form chorionic plate to cell columns
1)chorionic cavity formed enclosed by chorionic plate. chorionic plate made of extra-embryonic mesoderm=mesenchyme 2) Chorion forms villi (1-just trophoblast 2-tropho and mesenchyme 3- villi with blood vessels in mesenchyme) 3)Cytotrophoblasts cells in villi multiply and form cell columns At this point, synchtiotrophoblast is inner lining of villi, cell column from cytotropho is outer lining.
In an hepatocyte, as blood moves form arteriole towards central venule it gets deozygenated, creating 3 zones in order of increasing deoxygenation. what happens in each zone?
1)glycogen and plasma protein production 2)nothing 3)detox (this region is especially sensitive to hypoxia since its already low on o2)
steps of tyrosine kinase signaling
1)hormone binds (growth factor or something) 2- Tyrosine kinase receptor dimerizes, phosphos eachother 3- GRB2 (=SH2) is an adaptor protein that binds to phospho'd TKR 4-Sos (a GEF) binds to GRB2 and to a Gprotein such as RAS. Sos, as a GEF, induced Ras to drop GDP and pick up GTP. 5-RAs GTP gets to work Ras activates MAP kinase kinase 6- to turn OFF ras. a GAP protein speeds up the hydrolysis of Ras. GAP=gtpase activating protein
Making Creatine Phosphate, and where takes place
1)in KIDNEY, Arg and Gly combined to make Guanidinoacetate, releasing an ornithine 2) in LIVER, Guanidinoacetate reacts with a SAM and a methyltransferase to make creatine (has similar functional group to Arg) 3) in TISSUES, creatine is taken up and kinased to make creatine phosphate, an energy reserve for short-burrst energy
excitory cerebellar paths
1)input from pons comes up in mossy fibers, syanpses on granule cell, (also mossy fibers can go directly to deep nuclei) 2)Granule cell sends info to purkinje 2b) climbing fiber from inf. olivary n also sent to purkinje fiber. 3) purkinje fiber synapses on deep cerebellar nuclei
How do proteins get into mitochondria?
1)made on cytoplasmic ribosomes 2)cyto chaperones wrap it up 3)N terminus mito signal (pos. alpha helix) engages receptor on outer membrane and gets pushed thru TOM (translocase of outer memb) 3B)Cyto chaperones come off (ATP needed) 4)protein fed through to intermembrane space, where same N-term signal engages TIM 5)protein pushed through, N-term signal cleaved 5B) matrix chaperones engage, once the whole thing is pushed thru they disengage (ATP needed)
facts about sleep
1)non rem sleep is large amplitude. includes delta activity 2-stage 4 is reached early in the night only, rem is reached later into sleep only 3- during rem, muscles are paralyzed through loss of excitatory inputs to spinal motor neurons 4-narcolepsy=direct transfer from waking to rem, with accompanying muscle paralysis resulting in collapsing 5- in stages 1 through 4, there is increasingly large amplitude EEG waves as brain activity becomes more synchronized. awake brain waves arent large amplitude or synchronized at all.
reasons a girl doesnt have a period
1)pregnant 2) too much progesteorne turned on due to tumor 3)Not ovulating in the first place- not enough FSH or LH release, or not enough GnRH. no LH surge.
projects from vestibular nuclei
1)projected bilaterally to VPM thalamus 2)projected to ipsiltateral cerebellum through inferior cerebellar peduncle output from cerebellum goes back through inf. cerebellar peduncle to medial and lateral vestibulo-spinal tract
Factors affecting Na resorption
1)renal hydrostatic pressure, starling factors (Proximal tubule) 2) Norepi and Angiotensin (Proximal tubule) 3)Aldosterone (increases resorption in collecting tubules 4) Natriuretic peptides- decrease resorption
Withdrawal Reflex (Flexion/Withdrawal reflex)
1)step on a nail 2)Nociceptive Adelta and C fibers activated 3)Activate multiple levels of the spinal cord 4)Create reverberating loop in spinal cord through multiple exitatory interneurons to make the reflexive flexion last longer, until voluntary sytem catches up 5) alpha neurons cause flexion for a while slower because it uses many synapses and slow afferents.
how does cell regulate when htere is too much cytoplasmic cholesterol
1)stores it as cholesterol-esters in lipid droplets (ACAT1 and 2 to make esters) 2)Efflux- ATP binding Cassette protein A (ABCA1) releases free cholesterol onto ApoA of HDL molecules to circulate
Eye development1
1- Optic vesicle induces lens ectoderm above it 2- optic vesicle invaginates to form inner and outer layer of optic cup 3- inner optic cup becomes neural part of retina outer optic cup becomes pigment layer of retina meanwhile, posterio lens becomes long and transparent, becomes crystalline lens
3 ways that Limbic system interjects itself between sensory input and motor output. Route 1: neocortical
1- Sensory Association cortex sends info (via fusiform gyrus) to HIPPOCAMPUS+ AMYGDALA. AMYGDALA + HIPO sends info to prefrontal cortex which ultimately sends info to motor cortex. also sends info back to sensory association areas.
Regions of hypothalamus
1- preoptic- 2-supraoptic- 3-tuberal-ofer pituitary- 4-mamillary region-
types of synapses
1-onto Dendritic spine and shaft synapses (excitory, Axodendritic). have big thick actin postsynaptic density. (The Exciting stuff happens between two thin things (dendrites,axons). It is M/F ASYMETRIC) 2- onto Cell body (inhibitory, axosomatic). symetric (pre and post synaptic membrane is of equal density) (Contact with your big round body is inhibiting activity) (flat vesicles are inhibiting too)
steps of light-photoreceptor activation
1-photon causes 11-cis on opsin to change into all-trans. 2-trans molecule pops off of opsin, causing opsin to turn on phosphodiesterase 3- cGMP is eaten by phosphodiesterase 4-channels close system is HIGHLY sensitive
types of eye movements
1-saccades-rapid, looking around a scene 2- pursuit- following movement, slow eye movements 3-vergence
how much is usually in reserve volume?
1.5 L
in proximal tubule, absorption percentages
100- Glucose, AAs Protein 67- na+, water 60-Cl 50-urea
what is the normal concentration of o2 in the arterial blood?
100mmHg (IMPORTANT)
timeline of cortical development in humans
12-20weeks neuron migration 20+ weeks- differentiation
PR interval time (as av node spreads conduction)
120-200ms
what is normal pressure of pO2 in air? what is it in blood?
150 in air. 100 in blood.
contents of basilar pons
1longitudinal pontine fibers- continuation of cerebral peduncle 2transverse pontine fibers- middle cerebellar peduncle 3gray matter
Path of lateral corticospinal pathway
2 Neurons 1st: pyramidal neuron in motor cortex, internal capsule, cerebral peduncle, longitudinal pontine fibers, medullary pyramid, decussation, lateral corticospinal tract 2nd:ventral horn of spinal cord to peripheral nerve to muscle
composition of umbilical cord
2 arteries, 1 vein. nose- remnant of yolk sac and its vessels in the middle. they r lost. surface connective tissue=whartons jelly
if u put one mole NaCL in solution what will osmolarity be?
2 osmoles, because Na+ and Cl splits(roughly)
Location of the Special Efferent Nuclei (motor nuclei of branchiomeric muscles)
5 trigem motor nuc- behind pons 7 facial nuc- behind bottom of pons 9,10,11 (nucleus ambiguous)- behind medulla, in front of CN12
structure and func of folic acid
3 Components 1)Neg. Glutamate Handle 2)Middle p-Aminobenzoic acid 3) Pterin 2 rings, which can be reducted to tetrahydrofolate by NADPH it carries single Carbon units
hippocampus organization (of allocortex)
3 layers. 1-molecular- no cell bodies 2-principal cell layer- bodies of pyramidal cells 3-non-pyramidal cells. axons
how many ATPs can you make per oxygen molecule?
2.5
how much is usually the functional residual capacity?
2.5 L
if you give patient 1 mol of NaCl, how many mosmoles are added ?
2000 (1000 for Na, 1000 for Cl)
Range of frequencies we can hear
20Hz to 20kHz
how does oxy blood get to liver? deoxy?
25% of blood to liver is oxy from celiac artery to hepatic artery. 75% of blood to liver is from portal vein (deoxy)
made stomach peptidase is pepsin, longest peptide the stomach can abosrb is _ AAs
3
Stages of Urea cycle in cytosol of Liver
3)Cirtulline is transported out of mitochondria into cytosol 4) Citrulline combines with Aspartate (from TCA) to make Argininosuccinate (4Ns). This is very energetically costly. (ATP becomes AMP and PPi which becomes Pi PI, so two high energy bonds needed) 5)Argininosuccinate is broken down into Arginine and Fumurate (Fumurate is changed to Malate for the TCA cycle by fumurase) 6)Hydroloysis of Arginine causes the release of Urea (A Carbon connected to two NH2s and =O) This forms Ornithine, which can go back to mito
Cranial Nerve Nuclei that Receive Bilateral info from cortex, and are therefore uneffected by unilateral strokes.
3,4,5,6,9,10,11
typical energy released from hydrolyzing phosphate esters is
3-4 kcal, just like oxygen esters
allocortex
5% of cortex. Includes olfactory cortex hippocampus
Audio transduction (starting in CN 8 afferents) (Slide 44)
5)Hair cells activate neurons whose cell bodies are in spiral ganglia 6)Axons continue on through internal acoustic meatus to pontomedullary junction where CN8 enters brainstem 7-Rostral Medulla)Afferents synapse in ipsilateral Cochlear Nuclei (Dorsal, Post. Vent. and Ant. Vent) just lateral to the of the inferior cerebellar peduncle. Mid Pons 8A) From Cochlear nuclei, to BILATERAL Superior Olivary complex (Medial Sup Olive and Lateral Sup Olive) Mid Pons 8B) Nucleus of Trapexoid body 9 Pons-Midbrain) Optional stop at the Nucleus of Lateral Leminiscus 10) EVERYTHING synapses in the Inferior Colliculus 11) EVErytHING synapses again in the MEDIAL GENICULATE BODY 12) Primary Auditory Cortex in inner upper side of temporal lobe
coding of smells
300 different GPCR receptors. Each receptor cell has only one of these 300 GPCR types. Each Glomerulis is responsive only to one receptor cell type with its one GPCR. Different chemicals cause different smells by binding a different distribution of GPCRS/receptor cells/ Glomeruli Olfactory Cortex neurons will be activated by a subset of glomeruli, but its not organized
acetone is
3C, with ketone on middle C
power spectral analysis
3d plot whose axis are x: the frequency of the peak y: time course z: amplitude of the peak.
The SPL (sound pressure level) threshold of human hearing is lowest around
3kHz
bernouli Change in Pressure =
4 x (velocity of fluid)^2
If you SUCCESSFULLY excrete 5moles of acid, how many moles of bicarb gets added into blood?
5. its a 1:1 ratio of H+ lost to bicarb gone into blood.
Ganglionic eminence give rise to
Caudate putamen amygdala. ANGRY BASE GANG. BASAL GANGLIA and amygdala
gonadal dysgenesis
45XO or 46XY no anti-mullerian hormone. can have testicles or streaks. have uterus
fructose
5 membered sugar
What does tricuspid stenosis sound like? insufficiency?
5th intercostal space, left of sternum (but more midline than M sound) stenosis heard during diastole. insufficiency heard during sytole
which week does testicular migration start
5th week. not yet finished as of 24th week. premee babies often have undescended testes
glucose is a ___ membered ring, there are ___ C's with an OH attached, C5 has a CH2OH attached. There is __ in the ring
6 4 1
synapses between ear and cortex
6. hair cell to 8th nerve to cochlear nucleus to superior olive to inferior colliculus to thalamus to cortical neuron alternative pathways generally are also only 6.
how much louder is a 60db difference?
60db diff= 20*log(X/1) 3=log(x) x=1000 1000 fold difference
normal plasma pH is
7.4
how many kilocaries per gram of fat ethanol protein carbohydrates
9 fat 7 ethanol 4 protein, carb
timeline of maleness development
9 weeks- leydig cells 12 weeks- LH receptors on leydig cells 16 weeks- sex cords form rete testis puberty- sex cords canalize to form seminiferous tubules
neocortex=isocortex
95% of cortex. higher animals HAS 6 LAYERS
TAGs are broken down into
FAs and monoglycerides.THEY ARE NOT BROKEN DOWN ALL THE WAY. u smell like fish fats
If ABCA (ATP-binding Cassette Protein A) doesnt work, u get what disease and symptoms?
= Tangiers Disease=yellow tonsils= accumulation of cholesterol esters, low plasma cholesterol levels and low HDL
paramesonephric duct
=Mullerian Duct. female. precursor of fallopian tube.
mesonephric duct
=Wolfian. Male duct. SAME THING
presbyopia
=old vision The lens loses elasticity. when ciliary contracts and lens is freed to round up, it cant very well. Need more refractive power so that rays will converge at the fovea instead of behind fovea. use convex glasses to further refract and focus light so that it converges at fovea. (notice this is only a problem for near objects, parallel rays, which are greeted with a flat lens are correctly refracted. it is only when the lens tries to ball up for a near object that theres a problem)
GABA
AA NT. Main INHIBITORY
glutamate
AA transmitter Main EXCITORY NT of CNS. (Excited Mate)
What happens if you have an ABC cassette protein deficiency=sitosterolemia? how do u treat it?
ABC takes plant sterols back to lumen from enterocytes. ABCs are also used by the liver to put sterols into bile ABC deficiency results in high plant sterols in blood and damage tissues. Treatment- Ezetimibe=NPC inhibitor, dont take in plant sterols (or cholesterol)
How does ATCH reaching thine adrenal gland result in production of steroid hormones?
ACTH binds GPCR, G protein , AC, cAMP, PKA, Transcription Factor that MAKES CHOLESTEROL ESTERASE. causes cholesterol Esterase transfers out of lipid droplets and is made into PREGENENOLONE and then into glucocoricoids, mineralocorticoids, androgens
Indirect stimulation of parietal cells
ACh from Vagus and gastrin act on ECL cells which release histamine. this histamine then acts on parietal cells.
Direct stimulation of parietal cells
ACh from vagus and gastrin from G cells directly act on parietal to cause acid secretion
IMPORTANT- what chemical is released in response to high osmolarity?
ADH. to reabsorb more water and lower osmolarity
3Beta Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase HSD
ALL steroids low! 3beta HSD is needed to oxidize an OH up to an =O for all steroids. (3 year olds cant do anything!)
Glutamate Receptors (positive mate)
AMPA- simple ionotropic receptors, causes depolarization NMDA- channel usually blocked by Mg2+, but leaves in response to other depol. when opened, lets in na and Ca, hto have lots of cellular effects
Atrial Natiuretic Peptide released from, effect is
ANP is released from atrial myocytes in response to stress it causes kidney to excrete more fluid, aldosterone and renin (BNP is released from ventricular myoctes
how do you increase your bicarb threshold? in other words, the kidneys will tolerate more than 24meq/l of serum bicarb?
ANS: by increasing H+ in the lumen of proximal tubule. 1) reduce effective vascular volume- This causes angiotens2 to make more Na+/H+ exchanges in proximal tubule in order to resorb more Na. Side effect of this is that there is also more H+ in lumen. This H+ combines with bicarb to CO2 which gets absorbed and reconverted (normal bicarb resorption pathway of proximal tubule) 2) K+ depletion Loss of K comes from cell (where most of K is). This leaves the cells feeling negative. H+ comes in to balance negative cells. causes drop in cell pH. In prox tubule cells, this extra H+ gets excreted by NA/H exchanger and H+ atpase. more H+ in lumen combines with bicarb, which gets resorbed as co2 .
Effects of Cortisol
ANTI INFLAMATORY. Makes Lipocortin, which blocks the formation of prostaglandings, Leuktrienes. good for:arthritis, dermatitis IMUNOSUPPRESSIVE- blocks activty of T and B cells. blocks production of interleukin 5. good for:use in organ transplants to suppress immune reaction. ECM remodeling- activates collagenase Degredation of FAs and proteins into AAs (some of which are gluconeogenic. GLUCONEOGENESIS from AAs GLYCOGEN STORAGE
Septal nuclei and fever
ANTI-FEVER Releases Vasopressin to reduce fever
how is calcium taken out of cell after contraction?
ATP dependent pumping back into the sacroplasmic reticulum 1Ca out for 3 Na in transport
two types of vessels that dont have autoregulation
AVAs of skin and the portal vein (but hepatic arterial system does have autoregulation!)
what has more basal tone, skeletal muscle or arteriovenous AVAs of skin?
AVAs of skin have NO basal tone! totally relaxed. skel muscle has a lot of basal tone!
CN11 damage means you cant turn head...
AWAY from the lesion. if you have a left cortical lesion, you cant turn your head to the right. (just memorize this. 11 cant turn away from lesion!) (Cant turn away from cn11 lesion)
how semicircular canals detect acceleration
Acceleration- 1)canal moves forward, fluid in the canal moves in opposite direct (cant keep up with solid movement). 2) Cupula is displaced 3)crista hair cells increase their firing rate deceleration to zero 1)
Acetyl CoA made in matrix, but needed in cytosol for fatty acid and cholesterol synth. how does it get there?
Acetyl Coa converted to citrate in mito matrix uses citrate transporter reformed to acetyl coa in cyto
Pyruvate dehydrogenase turns pyruvate into ___ its found in the ___
Acetyl-SCoA found in mitochondria (where krebs is)
Citrate is made into Isocitrate by
Aconitase
Effect of Aldosterone on collecting tubule, how is this messed up in Liddles syndrome (familial hypertension type)
Aldosterone causes insertion of ENaCs in collection system, causing more Na resorption. Liddles syndrome is from too many ENaCs (aldosterone oversensititivty)
Mineralocorticoids
Aldosterone. regulates minerals. na, k,
organization of visual info in LGN
Alternating layers of Left eye-right eye magnocellular pathway is medial, parvocellular pathway is lateral there is a crude visual and fine visual path
what is failure of the anterior neuropore to close called?
Anencephaly
factors that cause increased aldosterone
Ang2 which binds cells in glomerulosa zone, (CAUSING pip2, calcium release, cholesterol leaves lipid droplets) increase in potassium concentration, drop in sodium concentration, ACTH INHIBITED BY: DOPAMINE AND ATRIAL NATRIURETIC PEPTIDE
What is the effect of AntiDiuretic hormone on the Na absorption from apical side and how does it have this effect?
Antidiuretic hormone causes increased Na absorption through apical membrane. It does this by binding a basolateral receptor, causing cAMP to increase apical Na intake.
splachnic circulation, starting from when it leaves heart to getting to the organs
Aorta to Celiac Artery to Liver Spleen Stomach (to liver via hepatic artery) Aorta to Pancreas Small Intestine and Colon (colon also gets from inferior mesenteric artery
function of ApoE
ApoE is associated with REMNANTS. help rememnants once theyve been hydrolyzed get taken out of plasma BY BINDING LDL-R E as in exit from plasma
Golgi Tendon Organ
Attached at end of muscle fibers in series, to sense tension. Collagen in golgi tendon moves together during passive movement, causing no response Collagen moves differentially during ACTIVE movement of the muscle due to firing of alpha motor neurons at different times, attached to different collagens in the golgi tendon organ.
2Brainstem-medial forebrain bundle
Axis: Midbrain - Lateral Hypothalamus. Septal Nuclei- fornix - Stria Terminalis - Hippocampus Amygdala Flow is Bidirectional This Route allows unprocessed sensory information to reach limbic structure "Goal Directed Action Patterns"
tetrahydrobiopterin struct funct
BH4, it is used in the oxidation of phenylalanine to tyr. structure is two N rings
basophils
BLUE. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone-development of thyroid, secretion of T3.4. Follicle Stimulating Hormone- Growth of ovarian follecules Luteinizing Hormone (LH)- Stimulated ovulation, promotes androgen secretion of leydig cells Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone- ACTH- promotes glucocorticoids and mineralacorticoids in adrenal cortex
glycogen phosphorylase func
BREAKS DOWN glycogen. does opposite of glycogen synthase.
Alpha Ketoglutarate DEHYDROGENASE IS COUPLED TO GTP PRODUCTION! HOW?
BY ADDING SCoA and then removing it to make GTP from GDP
when does bainbridge dominate and when does baroreceptor reflex?
Baroreceptor is for low volume baroreceptor slows down firing to relay that there is a lack of pressure, resulting in increased heart rate bainbridge is for high blood volume signals increase in heart rate to increase excretion
3- Basal Ganglia
Basal ganglia influences motor patterns (to initiate and terminate motor action effectively) Limbic loop-hippocampus and amygdala to ventral striatum (n. accumbens) to ventral glob. pall. to DM thalamus to Prefrontal cortex. This route allows hippo and amygdala to influence behavior.
how beta cells detect high glucose and release insulin
Beta Cells quickly take up glucose with GLUT transporters Glucose converted to ATP quickly by special glucokinase High ATP causes K+ channel to close. membrane potential gets more positive (depolarization) Ca++ channels open. Insulin Released
How do duct cells of pancreas secrete bicarbonate (cell bio)?
Bicarbonate is pushed into lumen in exchange for intake of Cl- from lumen. This Cl- then escapes back into the lumen by Cl channels (outward rectifyers)
Suffering pain path
C fibers to superficial laminae of dorsal horn to a)posterior thalamus to secondary somatosensory and insular cortex b) intralaminar nuclei of thalamus and DM thalamus to Anteior cingulate cortex c) pontine reticular formation to amygdala (emotional/aversive) d)centrla grey to medullary reticular formation e) Nucleus Tractus solitaris
Gallbladder releases bile in response to
CCK hormone release from I cells of Duodenum
what happens to athletes CO, TPR, HR, and SV
CO is same! lower TPR, lower HR, and higher SV
layers and products of Adrenal Glands
CORTEX Capsule- connective Glomerulosa- thin, superficial layer. makes ALDOSTERONE. mineralocorticoids Fasciculata- thickest layer. makes CORTISOL. glucocorticoids Reticularis- bottom of cortex, makes androgens MEDULLA- Epi and Norepi
Addisons Disease
CORTISOL DEFICIENCY caused by: immune disease, antibodies that attack adrenal glands, loss of adrenal glands causes: anorexia, muscle weakness, weight loss, hypoglycemia, poor stress tolerance results in high ACTH in an attempt to get some cortisol effect. high ACTH can lead to hyperpigmentation (melanocyte stimulating hormone function of ACTH) primary- no cortisol response to high ACTH. problem with adrenal gland. secondary- hypothalamic pituitary problem
17 Hydroxylase CAH
Can only make Mineralocorticoids Glucocorticoids and Androgens Knocked out adrenal hyperplasia (absence of cortisol neg feedback) hypertension (excessive mineralocorticoids and precursors) Sexual infantilism in men, absence of puberty in femalse (no androgens) (
Distal Renal Tubular Acidosis
Cant Make Acidic Urine Collecting Tubule- problem with either H+ ATPase pumping H+ into tube, Bicarb/Cl exchanger (needed to pump bicarb into baso side when H+ and bicarb is made), or leaky collecting duct epithelium prevents pH gradient from being set up Urine not acidic enough, so NH4+ is made, turns into NH3, and diffuses back into body (problem)
what does Carbomoyl phosphate synthase do and what effect does N-acetyl glutamate have on it?
Carbomoyl phosphate synthase combines bicarbonate with ammonia to make carbomoyl phophate (takes 2 ATPs) N-acetyl glutamate is a POSITIVE allosteric effector. is pro-urea production
Loop of Henle intakes Chloride from apical surface using a Furosimide-inhibited 2Cl-:Na+:K+ transporter and a basolateral Cl- channel. how does this drive Na Sodium movement and in what direction?
Chloride transport moves Cl from apical to basolateral surface, making the apical more positive (loss of Cl). this drive Na+ into apical (moves with Cl)
Steroid Synthesis
Cholesterol is made into PREGNENOLONE (key intermediate) occurs in mitochondria PREGNENEOLONE is hydroxylated to make steroids Hydroxylation on C20 is rate limiting step (to make cortisone The difference in the synthesis will occur with the hydroxylation on C17 for the glucocorticoids, and C18 for the mineralocorticoids
structure of B12
Cobalt in the middle 4 bonds to Nitrogen of a Poryphin Ring 1 Bond to N of Dimethylbenzyl... 1 Bond to R group
Other route with stop in mid pons
Cochlear nuclesu to MNTB to Lat Sup Olive to INferior Colliculus
Sound Localization above 3KHz...where...mech
Cochlear nucleus to Lateral Superior Olive (excitory on ipsilateral LSO, and inhibitory on contralateral LSO via a short interneuron from the MNTB). Stronger side sends info to inferior colliculus.
Pit stop at mid pons
Cochlear nucleus to Superior Olive (MSO or LSO) to Inferior Colliculus
spino-cerebellar path for upper extremity
Cuneo-Cerebellar path neuron1-sensory affernt ,cell body out of spinal cord, axon goes to accessory cuneate nucleus. neuron 2- accessory cuneate nucleas to cerebellum
PYROPHOSPHATASE
PYROPHOSPHATE
ANP BNP and Urodilaitn(kidneys) all _ Na resorption
DECREASE RESORPTION.
PHOSPHODIESTERASE
DIESTER cAMP
thyroid hormone receptor starts up transcription by blocking histone deacetylases and activating histone acetylases mediated by...
DRIP/TRAP (vitamin D receptor interacting protein, thyroid hormone receptor associated protein
female genes
Dax 1 (turns OFF sf1), WNT4, Ovary
under what circumstances would a person be able to see pulsatile circulation in the diffuse capilaries of the finger?
Decrease peripheral resistance (in arterioles) makes it pulsatile (when the pressure is too low. the high pressure of the system creates a constant flow in periphery, rather than pulsing)
paneth cells secrete alpha-defensins, which do what? how?
Defensins have positive and hydrophobic domains that attack the negative membranes of bacteria and lyse them
Coris Disease
Deficiency of Debranching Enzyme abnormally, short overbranched glycogen builds up in liver and tissues theyre okay because they can get energy through gluconeogenesis of AAs (high protein Diet) cori is a short, branchy armed person who is overbranched bc he lacks a debranching enzyme
how does csf leave 4th ventricle?
Foramina of Luschka on corners of 4th ventricle foramen of magendie at bottom CSF seeps into subarachnoid space
Delta G is negatively linearly related to Keq
DeltG= -(RT ln Peq/Req)
effect of dopamine and seretonin on GnRH
Dopamine and serotonin INHIBIT the release of GnRH (So, dopamine blockers for schizophrenia can cause extra GnRH hormone) (norepi is stimulatory)
path of dorsal column lem. in thoracic spinal cord
Dorsal Column can be seperated into two parts: medial column=gracilis fasciculus which is already complete by the time u reach thoracic. lateral:cuneus fasciculus which is where the primary sensory afferent are coming in at the thoracic level.
spermatids maturation into mature spermatazoon =sperm (Spermiogenesis)
During spermiogenesis, cell attached to sertoli cell memebrane golgi phase-acrosomal granules from golgi accumulate at anterior pole cap phase- acromosal cap forms. cell and flagellum elongate. nucleas condenses acrosome phase- acrosome covers front of nucleas. mitochondria head to tail maturation-excess cytoplasm dumped into connected sertoli.
CETP function Cholesterol Ester transfer Protein
Exchanges between HDL and apoB-lipoproteins Takes Cholesterol Esters from HDL and gives it to apoB Takes TAGs from apoB and gives them to HDL
histo Features of the Anterior adeno Pituitary
Features Acidophils, basophils, and in between chromophobes. Has dense capillary network baso
Role of Ferretin in Iron absorption
Ferretin binds Iron, when iron levels are high. this bound ferretin-iron is sloughed off when u lose epithelial cells.
Flow in systemic circulation =
Flow in pulmonary circulation
focal point
Focal Point 1- beams from FP will spread out to reach the lens and form parallel lines after it Focal Point 2-parallely rays will reach the lens and converge on the the focal point 2
examples of parvocellular responses to colors
For a Red on-center parvocellular: responds to red center. turned off by green surround for a red off-center: responds to red surround, turns off to green center
Ganglionic Eminence-
Forms Caudate, putamen, Amygdala (derived from telencephalon). some precursors also generate cortical neurons.
Fast Track
From Cochlear Nucleus directly up to the contralateral Inferio colliculus
Pit Stop at pons-midbrain junction route
From Cochlear Nucleus to Nucleus of Lateral Leminiscus up to Inferior Colliculus
Path of the Fornix
From Hippocampus to: 1)Anterior Commisure 2) Septum and Nucleus accumbens 3)Anterior. Nuc. of Thalamus, mamillary bodies (hypothalamus)
The Limbic system part of Basal Ganglia
From anterior to post: The Nucleus accumbens (ventral striatum) The Ventral Pallidum
pupillary light response
From retina to optic nerve to olivary pretectal nucleus (bilateral input) to nucleus of Ed-West From Ed West back out to ciliary ganglion (travels w. cn3) to ciliary nerve to ciliary ganglion to short ciliary nerves to ciliary muscles(sphincter muscle)
How do action of G proteins relate to secretory diarrhea?
G proteins get you from step 1 to 2. G proteins activate adenyl cyclase which makes the cAMP
G6P Dehydrogenase deficiency
G6PD is needed or the pentose phosphate pathway. iT geenrates NADPH (needed for maintenance of glutathionine levels which fights free radicals) problem is with free radicals- after consumption of fava beans, antimalaria medications, infections causes hemolytic anemia, heinz bodies
(-) delt G =exergonic spontaneous +delt.G=endoergonic, nonspontaneous deltG=deltH - (T x deltS)
G= spontaneity of reaction H=heat of reaction S=entropy
GALT def association
GALT is Gut Associated Lympoid Tissue a mesenteric lymph node is associated iwth a peyers patch (hill-like instead of villus mountain) associated with an M cell that tests bacteria in the gut
PHOSPHORYLASE
GLYCOGEN
what does respiratory alkalosis do to blood bicarb amounts?
GOES DOWN in resp alkalosis, loss of CO2 pushes (CO2 and water to H+ bicarb) reaction in favor of making co2, and this both h and bicarb levels go DOWN
function of the following HMG CoA ACAT ABCA1
HMG enzymes make cholesterol in the ER ACAT- stores cholesterol in droplets as esters (a cat stores) ABCA1- releases free cholesterol onto HDL molecules to circulate (ABCA release, abra cadabra!)
2mesencephalon=midbrain
Gives rise to Midbrain (= part of lower brainstem)
N from ingested AA goes to liver and ends up in
Glutamate (makes an alphaketoglutarate into glutamate)
Glutamate Dehydrogenase funct
Glutamate is the main way to store aminos. Glutamate Dehydrogenase takes the N off glutamate, creating FREE NH3 and also leaving a oxo-glutarate acid
where does free ammonia NH4+ for urea cycle come from?
Glutamine is made into Glutamate, releasing ammonia
Concentration of Urea in systemic blood is only 20micromolar. In portal circulation it is .3-1 mM headed to liver. The caromoyl phosphate synthetase in liver is an inefficient enzyme with a high kM, so it doesnt start to work well until about 1mM. This leaves some free ammonia escaping. how is it dealt with?
Glutamine sythetase picks it up and mixes it with glutamate to make glutamine. this is more efficient, with a lower kM
which one is useful Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate or Dihydryacetone phosphate? which enzyme converts them?
Glyceraldehyde 3-phoph is useful (its aldehyde's H is used to make NADH) [triose phosphoate isomerase] turns DHAP into G3P
which hormone deficiency is associated with inability to smell?
GnRH from hypothalmus. travels along nasa lepithelium developmentally
H202 peroxide can be detoxified by combination with glutathione (tripeptide with cysteine in middle), reaction:
HOOH + 2GSH to 2H2O and GSSG
Buffers of urine need to have pK between 4.4 and 7 so they can accept H+s at urine pHs. they include
HPO4 which becomes H2PO4 Creatinine which becomes Creatinine+
Cushing Syndrome
HYPERCORTISOLISM. can be caused by adrenal(primary), secondary (hypothalamus) tumors. LOSS of muscle INSULIN Resistance Thin skin (loss of collagen connective tissue) fat accumulation- in moon face and buffalo hump To Remember: brian cushing, stressed out, hyfy,lots of cortisol.
Na+ is reabsorbed into endothelium coupled to ANTIport of ....
H+ being pushed into lumen NH4 being pushed into lumen
How does histamine stimulate parietal cells to pump acid?
H+/K+ pump hangs out in tubulovesicles, right near apical membrane. In response to histamine, vesicles dock and H+/K+ channel gets to work (this fusing of vesicles creates webbed CANALICULI appearance
pregnancy effects of thyroid
HCG looks a lot like TSH and can bind TSH receptors. it causes a dip in the release of actual TSH in the first 8 weeks of pregnancy. So all pregnant women will have low TSH initially.
Apo A mainly found on
HDL
which lipoprotein has the most cholesterol?
HDL. high density. less triglycerides, more cholesterol and protein
Other ways to bring iron into the cell
Heme with Iron can be brought into cell, where the heme is broken down to go to bile salts, and the iron is freed and goes to mobilferin to be excreted
blood flow through the liver
Hepatic A. (25%) of blood goes inter interlobar A , then hepatic arteriole, where it mixes with venous blood. Portal V (75% of blood) goes into interlobar vein, then to portal, mixes w. arteriole blood. mix goes thru sinusoid to central venule, out through hepatic vein into inf. vena cava
oxygen is a good oxidizing agent, meaning it has a very high Redox potential. it likes to go from _ to _
High redox potential. good oxidizing agent. likes to be reduced. from O2 to H2O
What proteins are elevated in Orinithine Transcarbamoylase disease? which are low
High: Glutamine, alanine (also orotic acid). also high blood ammonia levels obviously Low: Citrulline, Arginine
long neg feedback example
Hypo releasing hormone Pituitary ATCH Adrenal Cortex Cortisol, which inhibits hypothalamus
Hypothalamus releationship with anterior pituitary=adenohypophysis
Hypothalamus neurons release RELEASING HORMONES into the superiorly located primary capillary plexus. -Releasing homrones stimulate adenohypophysis to release packaged granules of hormones into circulation
Adrenal Axis
Hypothalamus responds Positively to Stress, inflammation cytokinees,ADH Hypo releases CRH (corticotropin releasing hormone) pituitary releases ACTH Adrenal cortex releases cortisol cortisol is negative feedback on BOTH hypo and pituitary ATCH peaks in the early morning, dips in sleep
Gonad Axis
Hypothalamus- GnRH Anterior Pituitary- FSH and LH male- testosterone secretion (which inhibits hypothal and ant Pit) female- prosterone estradiol secretion (neg feedback on hypo and ant pituitary) inhibin from gonad also neg feedbacks on FSH secretion from ant. pitu. dopamine supresses LH relese from hypothal.
subthalamic nucleus loop
INHIBITORY neu1-excitory motor to subthalamic nuc neu2- excitory to glob pal int neu 3- inhibitory to VA/VL thalamus neu4- exc back to motor cortex
How does notochord induce neural tube to form above it?
INHIBITS: BONE MORPHOGENIC FACTOR BMP PROMOTES: SONIC HEDGEHOG
Spino-Cerebellar Pathways overview
IPSILATERAL. 2 Neuron path. Upper Extremety: 2 paths for upper extremety-(pain,temp and crude touch path, and mechanosens path) Lower Extremety-same 2 divisions
why is CETP deficiency a good thing?
If CETP cant transfer cholester-esters from HDL to apoB lipoproteins, then u get more, bigger HDL. and hdl is good cholesterol because it takes cholesterol out of circulation and returns it to liver
women cycle
If fertilization does not occur, there is no HCG to maintain the corpus luteum, and the corpus luteum will regress. When it regresses, the levels of estradiol and progesterone decrease. So stratum functionalis cannot be supported, the spiral arteries are constricted, get necrotic and cell death ensues. Entering into the menses, we start bleeding, losing stratum functionalis. As a result of the decrease in estradiol and progesterone, which normally surge as a result of FSH, we start to see a rise in the FSH level. With the rising FSH, follicular growth is stimulated. Follicles get bigger. We get secondary follicle, theca interna and theca externa. To produce estradiol, you need theca interna and granulosa cells. Androstenedione is produced, then converted to estradiol. With a dominant follicle, a lot of estradiol will be produced. It can act locally or go into the blood, to theca externa and to the rest of the body to feedback to stimulate the regrowth of the stratum functionalis. Rising estradiol also feeds back and contributes to LH surge. First it feeds back to the hypothalamus and causes surge in GnRH, which in turn stimulates LH and FSH release. This increase in LH and FSH leads to ovulation. The Graafian follicle turns into corpus luteum, which now in addition to estradiol is making a lot of progesterone. And they together feedback on the endometrium, and push it into secretory phase and make it ready for implantation. Fertilization doesn't occur, we don't make HCG, don't maintain corpus luteum, it dies, we lose the level of estradiol, and the cycle starts again.
if superior lobe is pneomia'd, lingula will be bright, but inferior lobe will not be, ull still be able to see border with left hemidiaphragm
If the left heart border is seen, then the lingula is probably aerated, but if the hemidiaphragm is not seen, that means that the lower lobe is what has the disease
The Methyl Trap
If there is no B12, than your Me-THF is stuck, cant get back to THF
where is IgA found in mucous from? hows it get to where its going? how is it different from igA in blood?
IgA is made in plasma cells of the lamina connective tissue, combined with J chain to form dimer. Endocytosed and transfered to lumen by epithelial cell. have secretory component to survive in mucous.
causes of stroke
Infarct thrombosis-atheroscleroritic Infarct embolism-from extra cranial vessels infarcts are common, survivable. hemorrhagic- subarachnoid hemorrage of subdural hemorrage. deadly ischemic stroke- due to systemic hypotension
Brain stem loop
Inferior olive climbing fibers through inferior peduncle to cerebellar cortex and deep nuclei. deep nuclei to red nucleus through sup. cerebell. ped red nucleus descending projects back to the inferior olive loop imporTant for learning
effects of aldosterone on collecting system
Initial effect- more ENaC channels dock on luminal side to intake sodium secondary effect-more Na/K pumps basolaterally
Cochlear IMplant
Insert electrode into Scala tympani to directly stimulate cell bodies in spiral ganglia (even if hair cells are dead) . uses only a limited range of frequency channels, so good for speech. crude freq perception. dont appreciate music. no good at a loud party.
flow of CSF
Internal carotid a. Anterior choroidal A CSF made in 3rd ventricle, enters travels down to 4th ventricle (where more CSF made) from 4th ventricle, travels into CSF circulation into lateral ventricles, back into 3rd ventricle via foramen of monroe
definition and example of trans-airway pressure
Intra-airway pressure - intra-plrueal pressure During early forced expiration, 20 intra-airway - 35 intrapleural = -15 transair pressure
main solutes of intracellular fluid
K+ 160 phophate 60 various proteins and other anions
what is the effect of k+ efflux on vessels in muscle?
K+ efflux due to contraction causes vasodilation
when a reaction is at equilibrium, will Keq=0? will Delta G0? will Delta G?
Keq will equal some amount of Peq/react.eq Delta G0 never changes ONLY DELTA G will = 0, this is the definition of equilibrium
Keq equilibrium constant equation and relation to delta G
Keq= [prod]eq/[reactants]eq delt G0= -RT ln Keq
leptin
causes u to feel satiated (lept in bed) goes to arcuate nucleus of hypo to have this effect.
Ependymal cell (glia)
Line Ventricles. guide neurons during development choroid plexus makes CSF
Hers Disease
Liver Phosphorylase- responsible for starting the breakdown of Glycogen is broken. disease also caused by problems in the enzymes that activate liver phosphorylase causes hepatomegaly, dont do well with extended fasting (but ok for a while with gluconeogenesis) Hers disease. as in a weak woman who is too weak to break apart glycogen. picture a woman trying to break a glycogen molecule Why is it liver? LivHers
Proximal Renal Tubular Acidosis
Low Serum Bicarb, Acidic Urine Prox tubule unable to resorb normal 24 of bicarb (subthreshold resorption) results in an immediate bicarb in urine, but then plasma bicarb goes down and no more bicarb in urine (these people have acidic urine) can be part of general prox tube resorption problem= Fanconis syndrome
Dorsal Column Leminiscal Sensory Pathway
MECHANOSENSORY. touch. vibration. large myelinated axons. needed for fine mechanical sensation. Neuron # 1) Sensory cell- body in DRG, receptor in skin, sending axon up dorsal column to synapse in Dorsal Column Nuclei with 2) Dosal Column Nuclei cell- cell body in nuclei. receives input here and sends it up, across contralateral to form fiber path=MEDIAL LEMNISCUS where it synapses in VPL thalamus 3)VPL Thalamus cell has cell body in VPL Thalamus. axons travel through posteroir limb of internal capsule to postcentral gyrus
unpredictable or uncontrollable negative stimuli are ___ stressful than predictable and controllable stressful stimuli
MORE
over the course of brain development
MYELINATIon increases Axon number decreases synapses increase
Thyroid Hormone synth
Made from glycoprotein globulin Tyrosine residues. Made in Thyroid Glands follicular cells Needs iodine from diet not active until freed from globulin complex
4- Mamillary Region
Mamillary bodies- connected to limbic system. memory and emotions. connected to hypothalamus through mamillo-thalamic tract. Posterior Hypothalamus area- sympathetic ANS. blood pressure etc.
Sound Localization below 3Hz happens in....mech...
Medial superior olive MSO has Coincidence detector neurons that only fire if they receive input at the same time. If a signal comes from the left, it will have a head start and travel far in the MSO before the same signal reaches the MSO from the Right. This will cause a neuron on the right side of the MSO to fire. When the L-R signals hit at the same time, the neuron fires to the inferior colliculus. This tells the inferior colliculus the sound is from the left.
how do the kidneys try to fix a metabolic acidosis?
More H+ secretion in collecting tubule intercalated cells (more H+ ATPases inserted) Urine pH down to 4.4 More NH4 produced in prox tubule to eat up more H+ and have it excreted
ventrovagal nucleus (nucleus ambiguous)
Motor nuclei of Cr. 9,10,11
Layers of the GI Pipe
Mucosa (epithelium, lamina propria[with embedded Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue], muscularis mucosae) Submucosa with Glands (that have ducts going to lumen of pipe) and VANs Muscularis externa- circular and longitudinal muscle Serosa- CT and Epithelium Mesentery
Layers of digestive system
Mucosa: epithelium, lamina prorpia, muscularis mucosa(but not in gallbladder or oral cavity) Submucosa- support tissue outermost layer- adventitia serosa
Uterus Layers from superficial to deep
Mucosa=endometrium muscularis externa= myometrium serosa= perimetrium
myopia vs hyperopia in terms of lens and point of convergence
Myopia is nearsightedness, you cant see whats far away because your lens cant get flat enough, rays are to refracted and meet in front of fovea. (MYOPIA, i can only see myself) hyperopia is farsightedness. you cant see whats close to you because your lens cant ball up enough to focus light at fovea, rays meet behind it.
what u see when u look with opthalmoscope
Nasal: Optic disk=BLIND SPOT, which a lot of blood vessels arround it, where blood vessels enter eye. Lateral: Fovea surrounded by Macula. AVASCULAR., vessels avoid fovea
Myopia.
Near Sightedness. You can ONLY see things that are near. far away is out of focus. your lens is too good at refracting, rays meet in front of fovea. You need a negative refractive power lens, so that lens are refracted less and will meet back at the fovea
properties of ligand gated channel at NMJ
Nicotinic Acetylcholine receptor lets Na+ and K+ both pass
reduction of o2 happens in complex 4, whats the reaction?
O2 + 4e- + H+ = 2 H20 oxygen molecule, 4 electrons, and 4 H+s become 2 water molecules this detoxes o2 and makes atp
The three types of radicals are
O2* radical superoxide H2O2 hydrogen peroxide OH* radical hydroxyl radical
H2O2 peroxide can, in the presense of iron, become
OH* (hydroxyl radical) and OH-.
Cause of Ascites Belly
Obstruction of flow through Portal System. Either of the presinusoidal obstructions within the liver, or of the hepatic capillaries. this causes albumin to leak out of the liver, drip into peritoneal cavity, where it pulls water in with it.
Locations of Somatic Efferent Nuclei in the Dorsal part of theTegmentum
Occulumotor Nuc- In front of Sup. Colliculus Cn4 Nucleus- in front of inf. colliculus. (cn3 heads dorsal to exit below inf. colliculus) Cn6- in front of midline of fourth ventricle. (Cn6 exits at pontomedullary junction) Cn12- behind the medulla
effect of PTH binding on bone
On osteoblasts: cause cytokine release On Osteoclasts- in response to cytokines and PTH release more proteases and collagenases to break down bone and release ca2+
why dont CNS neurons regenerate?
Once their is a cut in Nueron B, Nueron A that synapses on it withdraws its axon. Neuron C which relied on Neuron B degenerates. Neuron B's cut axon is wallerian degenerated by microglia. oligodendros and the white matter of the CNS in general, inhibits regrowth of axons (UNLIKE schwann cells in peripherry which help regrowth)
organization of microtubules in axons
Organized! all positive ends downstream. KINESIN brings stuff downstream towards positive end. KINESIN like KINESIS. Movement. KINESIn is staying positive, doing its job going downstream, MOVING in the right direction.
ear
Outer ear- cartilagenous auricle,wax middle ear- Tympanic Membrane, Malleus(hammer), Incus(anvil), Stapes. stapes is on oval window of cochlea Inner Ear- coclea (shell) Saccule and utricle (little sacs, linear acceleration), Semicircular canals (angular acceleration) Cochlea- three tubes, coiled in parallel
layers of the eye anteriorly
Outer layer-cornea vascular middle -stroma of iris inner- posterior epithelial layers of iris
What will Aspartate be turned into?
Oxaloacetate
how do you find alveolar ventilation expired as a fraction of total ventilation expired?
P.expired-co2/P.alveolar-co2= 31/40=~75% alveolar ventilation (so dead space ventilation is 25%)
Anterolateral Spinothalamic Path
PAIN. TEMPERATURE. CRUDE MECHANOSENSORY. axons can be any size, any mylenation state. cell # 1)Sensory cell with body in the Dorsal Root Ganglia. Travels into the dorsal horn. doesnt travel up. 2) Cell body in Dorsal Horn of spinal cord (Gray matter). Axon crosses midline still in spinal cord ANTEROLATERAL FASICULUS. axon continues up, through foramen magnum and becomes SPINOTHALAMIC TRACT. Collatoral axons are given off at midbrain, thaalmus, hypothalamus etc. some reach VPL Thalamus 3) Cell bodies in VPL thalamus, project up to postcentral gyrus
function of PCSK9
PCSK9 binds LDL receptors and doesnt let go, even in lysosomes, causing them to be degraded (so if u have antibodies to PCSK9, LDL receptors dont get degraded
Scala vestibuli and scala tympani are filled with... resting potential is...
PERILYMPH. low K+ (0mV)
PFK (phosphofructokinase), which does _____ Is inhibited by ____ATP, one of its substrates. this is an example of ___tropic allosterisism
PFK converts fructose-6-P to fructose 1,6biphosphate inhibited by HIGH ATP homotropic allosteric inhibitor
preload def, how is it measured?
Preload is how much ventricle is stretched before it begins to contract measured by End Diastolic Pressure (EDP)
Reelin
Produced by Cajal Rietzus pioneers. Allows for proper lamination and establishment of cortical layers in correct order. mutations in Reelin Cause: Schizophrenia, epilepsy, autism, and bipolar disorders
Accessory Ocular nucleus
Provides input to the vestibular pathway Receive input from direction sensitive ganglion cells matinain gaze with head movements
acidophils-
REDPINK- Growth Hormone, and Prolactin(stimulates breast enlargement during pregnancy, milk production after birth)
Lateral=Limb Controlling bulbospinal path
RUBROSPINAL from red nucleus to contralateral spinal cord
Refractive Power of the eye
Refractive power is equal to 1/focal distance Focal distance=from eye to fovea= .017 m. This gives eye a power of around 59 diopters. CORNEA provides 43 diopters. Lens provides 20 diopters. They dont lign up perfectly so you get 59 diopters instead of 633.
Anterior Thalamus
Relays info from hippocampus and mamillary bodies to limbic lobe (cingulate gyrus)
Ghrelin
Released by the Stomach, induces the release of growth hormone from ant pit (by binding GH secretagogue receptor in ant pit) works synergistically w. GHRH ghrelin stimulates calcium release. it is a 28 AA peptide. ghrelin also causes increase in appetite, blood sugar (Drop in ghrelin when loss of stomach in gastric bypass)
Medial=axial muscles, posture bulbospinal tract
Reticulospinal from pontinue and medullary reticular formation to bilateral spinal cord
rod vs cone morphology
Rods- cylindrical ends. long. non tapering cone- color. tapering pencil tip ends. shorter cells. the tip of rods and cones is filled with sacs (reminiscent of chloroplasyts)
timing of the three heart sounds
S1- end of diastole- closing of mitral valve S2- end of systole- pulmonary and aortic valves close S3- beginning of diastole as ventricle fills
parasomnias like sleep walking and talking occur during hwat phase of sleep?
SLOW WAVE SLEEP!
Secretory Diarrhea
SOLUTES are secreted into intestinal lumen in reponse to infection 1)E choli infects, toxins 2)Increase cAMP in response to toxins 3)PKA activated 4)Cl channels opened on apical side, drawing CL into lumen 5)Na follows Cl into lumen 6)Water follows into lumen THIS IS SECRETORY DIARRHEA
factors that establish ventral-dorsal differentiation
SONIC hedgehog highest in ventral, lowest in dorsal
Pompe Disease
SOme Glycogen can be broken down in lysosomes by Acid Maltase Acid Gluucosidase. In Pompe disease, these enzymes are broken. Glycogen deposits in body, causing problemos cardiomegaly, high creatine kinase. no muscles pompeii was destroyed by hot, ACIDIC lava. like pompee disease, problem is in acidic lysosomes
SREBP Sterol response element binding proteins (properties)
SREBPs are ER-membrane bound proteins. They respond to low cholesterol levels by going to nucleas (they go back to golgi where the TF region is snipped and goes to nucleas)
Cholecystokinin released by duodenum CCK
causes you to feel full ( KK im full!)
Serine Glycine Shuttle
Serine differs from glycine by having an extra CH2 and OH. The CH2 from serine is given to THF and OH leaves as water to make glycine from Serine. THF becomes N5,10 Methylene H4folate
anchoring villus are held in place by
cell columns.
law of laplace for eccentric hypertrophy
So law of Laplace leads us to the idea that you need greater developed force to generate the same pressure pressure = tension / radis (so when radius increases, you need to generate more pressure to generate adequate tension
Amygdaloid Axis func and axis
Social and Emotional Behavior. Conditioned Fear Amygdala-Orbital Prefrontal Amygdala- DM Thalamus Amygdala (via stria terminalis) to Bed. N. Stria term. and VMH Hypothalamus
second degree av block, mobitz 1 vs mobitz 2
Some p waves cause qrs, some dont. Mobitz 1- the p to q gap gets bigger and bigger and then fails (if it fails on the 5th one, it is a 4:5 block) mobitz 2- constant p to q gap, with intermettint failure
Transverse Cerebral Fissure
Space above roof of third ventricle (with choroid membrane) and below the fornix. Continuous with the subarachnoid space of the cerebellum.
phase 1- rapid ventricular filling
Starting with ESV (bottom ventricular volume), ventricle begins to passively fill Mitral Valve is open as ventricle fills (bc atrial pressure is above ventricular pressure) aortic pressure is decreasing
Generating PRPP, the key intermediate in nucleotide metabolism
Starting with Ribose 5 phosphate, you add biphosphate from ATP to make 5P, 1-PPi Ribose
blood flow to pituitary gland
Starts up high from the Sueprior Hypophsyseal artery into the median eminence above the lobes. Branches into primary capillary plexus travels down, branching into secondary capillary plexus in the lobes. carries blood from hypothalamus down along with releasing hormones
When u give statins and cholesterol synthesis, what happens in feeback? why doesnt this lead to an increase in cholesterol?
Statins Given, bind HMG Cellular cholesterol goes down LDLR upregulated, takes more cholesterol from plasma (GOOD, lowers plasma cholesterol) SREBPs TFs are cut and go to increase HMG production (through INSIG sensing and SCAP regulation) SO HMG production is increased, BUT statins are soooo good at binding HMG's that it doesnt matter, all them HMGs still cant do work
How do Statins reduce the amount of cholesterol in the blood
Statins are competitive inhibitors of HMG (cholesterol synthesizers)
Input to retinal Ganglion Cells
Strait line Pathway Photoreceptor to bipolar cells to the ganglion. uses glutamate. lateral pathways: define the complex properties of ganglion cells. photoreceptor cell to horizontal cell in outer retina (gaba) amacrine cell (in contact with bipolar cells)
Tabes Dorsalis= loss of thick axons
Stretch reflex dependent on 1As, so its abolished. Golgi tendon organ reflex also dependent on fairly large axons, its lost loss of position sense (dorsal column)
Basal ganglia components
Striatum (caudate nucleus + Putamen) + globus pallidus the putamen and globus pallidus are together known as the lenticular body.
Anastomosic veins and what they connect
Superior anastomotic vein of TROLARD- connects sup. sag. sinus to superficial middle cerebral vein (running up long. fissure) inferior anastomotic vein of LABBE. connects middle cerebral vein with posterior sup. sag. sinus.
major white mater tracts connecting regions within a hemisphere
Superior and inferior occipto-frontal fasciculus (occipital to frontal) Superior longitudinal arcuate fasciculus-
blood flow to adrenal gland
SupraRenal Artery Capsular Artery Cortical Arteriole capillary (of glomerulosa and fasciculata zones) Adrenocortical sinuoids of fasciculata Adrenomedullar collecting vein central medullary vein
from Seminiferous tubules to the outside world
TESTICLE sem tubules- sperm produced into lumen, bigish tubuli recti- smaller, sperm propelled, columna epi, link to rete testis rete testis-big open network of spases w. mediastinum. squamous epi Extra Testicle Ductus efferents- spiral winding ducts to connect retes to epididymis. short tubules epididymis- highly convoluted, peristaltic motion from smooth muscle Vas Deferens- SO MUCH SMOOTH MUSCLE. vast amounts of muscle.
in which layer is the lamina propria considered?
THE MUCOSA LAYER! MOST INSIDE ONE
What effect do amiloride, triamterene have when they block the Enac channels?
THEY ARE DIURETICS. they prevent reabsorption by cells of Na and therefore water, Cl.
how does muscle and kidney break down cholesterol?
THEY DONT. ONLY LIVER BREAKS DOWN CHOLESTEROL
Vestibular paths
TO BRAIN superior and lateral nulcei- MEDIAL LEMNISCUS- VP THALAMUS- VESTIBULAR cortex near sensory cortex TO EYES FOR VOR vestibuloocular reflex Medial and Inferior nuclei- Medial Longitudinal fasciculus - cn 3,4,6 TO CEREBELLUM Medi and Inferior nuclei - Inferior cerebellar peduncle- floccculonodulas TO SPINAL REFLEXES lat, med, and inf through vestibulospinal tracts
both asthma and COPD involve overactive autonomics. which one, and what are the effects
TOO much parasympathetics involves too much secretion bronchoconstriction
mechanism of TRH causing TSH release from ant pit
TRH binds receptors, activates G protein , PKC, causes more release of TSH
Phases of Valsava removal, which you can use to see if patietns heart rate changes (thus diagnosing autonomic dysfunction) (4 phases, 4th being release of pressure)
Tensing 1) Aorta is compressed, increase in pressure, heart rate falls (basoreceptor) 2)Vena Cava is compressed, decrease in venous return, decrease in cardiac output Leads to crash in aortic pressure, and thus an increase in heart rate(basoreceptor) 3) Transient- mouth opens and aorta pressure drops due to drop in pressure on it, causing spike in heart rate (basorec) 4- vena cava pressure drops, venour return increases, aortic pressure spikes again, then heart rate drops to even it out.
Muscles that reflexively muffle sound in ear
Tensor Tympani stiffens Tympanic membrane (Trigeminal nerve) Stapedius stiffens stapes (facial nerve)
an example of a vessel influenced by PARASYMPATHETIC (not symp., so its unusual)
The Coronary Arteries recieve parasympathetic acetylcholine from vagus, respond by DILATING
Osmotic Diarrhea
The SOLUTE is Exogenous (Eaten). You eat lactose, cant break it down, your intestinal lumen is full of solute draws water from intersitial space of intestine (the water itself originates endogenously)
Fick Princible in words and formula
The amount of oxygen consumed by the body is equal to the cardiac output x (the amount of oxygen that goes into blood stream in pulm circulation) O2 consumption/minute=cardiac output x (O2 level in artery- O2 level in vein)
logic behind CETP
The main reason for the transfer of cholesterol esters by CETP is so that you can transfer these to apo-B-containing lipoproteins and then cholesterol can be removed as part of the apo-B-containing lipoproteins involving LDL receptors, endocytic mechanisms that we've discussed previously. Again, the whole purpose of the HDL metabolism is to remove cholesterol from the body. It can pick up the free cholesterol, convert it to cholesterol esters and then give it off to apo-B-containing lipoproteins. CETP helps cholesterol get where its going
how does Cl transport from apical to basolateral surface?
The transport of Na sodium means that the basolateral solution is significantly more positive (120mV) than the apical Cl, which creates a driving force for Cloride to passively diffuse.
LH acts on what cells in women?
Theca cells to produce androgens
Cochlea Anatomy
Three tubes coiled in parallel Top tube- Scala Vestibuli (where sound enters from vestibule middle- Scala Media bottom- Scala Tympani bottom membrane of Scala Media- basilar membrane with organ or Corti containing hearing sensory cells top membrane of scala media- Reissners membrane Modulus- center core around which tubes are wound. spiral ligament- outside with basilar membrane osseous spiral lamina- inside where basilar membrane is attached spiral limbus- HILL on top of osseous spiral lamina
Amygdalar info flow
To Amygdala: from entorhinal and parahippocampal gyrus Out of Amygdala Directly to Orbital Prefrontal Cortex
Caudal Trigeminal-thalamic path
Touch, Temp, Pain neuron 1- cell body in trigeminal ganglion. enter pons, head down to specialized levels to synapse in the SPINAL NUCLEUS of 5. neuron 2- to VPM thalamus neuron 3-to internal capsule
Ventral Tier of Dorsal thalamus (from front to back)
VA- send signals from basal ganglia system to the premotor/motor planning area VL- Sends motor signals from Cerebellum to Primary Motor Cortex VP- VPL and VPM sending info to the somatosensory cortex
brain areas that increase pain, decrease pain
VPL thalamus is important for silencing pain. intralaminar thalamus and cingulate cortex increase pain.
during excersise, baroreceptors rest to higher level, venous return __ MAP ___
VR increases, MAP stays basically the same
gamma motor neurons
When the brain wants to contract a muscle using alpha motor neuron, it simultaneously activates a gamma neuron to contract the muscle spindle to maintain constant tension so it can respond to a further change in length. if u activated a gamme neuron by itself: cause the ends of the muscle spindle to contract, lengthening the muscle spindle and activating the 1a and 2 afferents. gamma neurons are only activated by higher brain levels.
hcg produced by
ZYGOTE
Beta ARK B-ARK
a GRK -g protein receptor kinase. it can specifically inactivate a GPCR, and only do so when the GPCR is bound by its ligand.
what does it mean if something is very elastic
a big pressure change DOESNT result in a big volume change. it is rigid ELASTICITY=STIFFNESS
motor nucleas def
a collection of neurons whose axons go out in a nerve. = lower motor neurons of brain and spinal cord
emotional behavior
a response to a stimulus (u see child, your heart races)
serous demi lunes
a serouns and mucous(clear) gland are sitting on top of each other and secreting into same duct. serous part forms dark half-moon
what precipitates the surge in LH that causes ovulation?
a spike in estradiol release from the dominant follicle.
explain atrial A C and V waves
a wave- atrial systole c wave- closing of mitral valve v wave- venous inflow to atrium
How does sodium transport from apical to basolateral surface?
active transport. On basolatoeral surface, NaK pump keeps intracellular Na low. On apical side, Enac (non-voltage-dependent, often open) Na channel lets in Na to low sodium cell, where it can then be pumped out.
special features of sympathetic nervous system
acts as a unit (either whole, or large parts), divergent connections, continually active (sympathetic tone), sympathetic stimulation activates the adrenal medulla to relase epi and norepi
neuromodulator
additional NT in vesicle (like a peptide). peptide itself has no effect on membrane potential. but it alters the effect of the main transmitter when both are released together
Role of PFK-1 phosphofructokinase-1
adds phospho group onto C1-OH of fructose-6-phosphate (it adds the second phosphate)
thyroid peroxidase
adds to tyrosines w. Iodine to each other to make T3 or T4. target of hyperthyroid interventions.
how would firing of atrial stretch fibers effect ADH levels?
adh levels would decrease in order to excrete more fluid
osmalarity is controlled by...
adjusting water intake and excretion.
where is aldosterone made?
adrenal cortex
how does regular qiuet paced inspiration happen?
afferants in DRG 3-5 have I-neurons which cause inspiration (firing highly correlated with inspiration)
edema is caused by lymph formation or poor lymph removal?
almost always caused by INCREASED reate of lymph formation
util of blood brain barriwr
alows in o2 +gas byt not NTs in blood
Alpha 1 receptors bind to, function
alpha 1 receptors bind Norepinephrine (less so epi) causes CONSTRICTION of smooth muscle ALPHA Constriction (alpha wolf choking someone)
alpha 1 rec alpha 2 rec beta 1 receptor beta 2 receptor
alpha 1- constricts smooth muscle alpha 2- autofeedback for presynaptic cell beta 1- in heart, increase heart rate and contractility beta 2- skeletal muscle, cause dilation
Glutamate will be turned into...
alpha-ketoglutarate
two different receptors can activate the same G protein. convergance Also, one receptor can activate more than one g protein divergence also, multiple g proteins can activate or inactivate the same enzymatic activity
als
morphology of salivary gland
also has an acinus. has a TWO PART intralobular duct (unusual) 1)Intercalated duct, dark ,narrow 2)Striated duct- more typical duct appearance with clear lumen This leads into an interlobular duct
Pineal Gland
also important for circadian rhythm. Pineal gland does REM sleep and core body temperature. Releases Melatonin in response to DARK. melatonin as sleep aid.
compensetory mechanisms for altitude
altitude causes alkalosis bc increased respiration to get o2 leads to hyperventilation of co2. to compensate, kidneys retain more H+, excrete more bicarbonate, make more erythropoietin (to get more hemoglobin to bind o2) red blood cells produce more BPG to reduce hemoglobin affinity for o2, to get it to tissues easier
what brain part is responsible for conditioned fear response?
amygdala- it makes the association. it takes what the MGB is sending it (sound info), and then alerts the hypothalamus to have a fear response (behavioral, autonomic, endocrine)
non-hyperpolarizing IPSP
an IPSP results in CL- channels opening. which DOESNT hyperpolarize, instead, it just block another EPSP elsewhere from having any effect. all depolarization is dissipated by Cl leaving making the cell normal again.
explain myogenic response in skeletal muscle
an increase in perfusion pressure (flow in), leads to constriction to keep a consant flow rate a decrease in perfusion leads to dilation to keep a constant flow rate
alcohol is an.... of ADH
an inhibitor. it causes u to pee more.
angiotensin 2 vs aldosterone-where, what
ang 2- in the proximal tubule- causes more than 67% of BOTH water and NA to be reabsorbed aldosterone- in the collecting tubule- causes more NA to be resorbed ONLY (ADH needed to resorb more water in collecting tube)
angiogenesis vs vasculogenesis
angiogenesis is new blood vessels from EXISTING endothelium vasculogenesis- new blood vessels from endothelial PRECUROR CELLS (angioblasts)
how does angiotensin cause vasoconstriction?
angiotensin 2 binds AT1 Receptor (GPCR), activating IP3 and G protein to let in calcium from Sacroplasmic reticulum AND outside the cell
how does angiotensin increase lead to increased peripheral resistance?
angiotensin causes calcium release from tunica media leading to more contraction, more pressure peripherally
ACE Inhibitor effect
angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor. stops Angiotensin 1 from becoming Angiotensin 2
in middle cranial fossa, internal carotid a splits into
anterior cerebral a and middle cerebral a.
supply of internal capsule
anterior- reccurent a. of heubner=medial striate a. posterior- lenticulostriate and the anterior choroidal retrolenticular limb- anterior choroidal
parasympathetic controlled by what part of hypothalamus?
anterior.
How does the collecting duct of the kidney regulate water movement when it is normally water impermeable?
antidiuretic hormone on basolateral side causes cAMP to induce vesicles loaded with aquaporin channels to dock on the apical side, letting water into the cell (to retain water)
secondary follicle
antrual fluid accumulates in between follicular cells. outside basement memebrane- theca interna and externa
peripheral chemoreceptors, where r they found, what do they respond to
aorta and carotid bodies respond to O2 and pH changes
important pressures in the heart aorta and large arteries= right atrium= pulmonary circulation= left atrium=
aorta and large arteries= 100mm Hg right atrium= 2-5 pulmonary circulation=18-20 left atrium=5-12
Group 1A afferents
attached to both dynamic nuclear bag fibers and static nuclear chain fibers
cardiac notch
area of pleural space where lung leaves for heart on the left side
decorticate posture=antigravvity
arms flexed, legs extended. happens in isolated upper motor neuron lesions
what is o2 and co2 production at rest?
around 250ml/minute for both, with o2 slightly higher than co2
as you go from top of lung to bottom, what happens to relative alveolar, arterial, and venous pressure
arteriole pressure always greater than venous, alveolar pressure starts as high in apex, and is the lowest at the base of the lung
pH scales with HCO3/pCO2 aacording to CO2+H2O = H+ + Bicarb so...
as HCO3 goes up, pH goes up (more basic) As pCO2 goes up, pH goes down
phase 6 isovulmic relaxation
as ventricular pressure drops below aortic pressure, the aortic valve closes, causes small transient spike in aortic pressure
Assembly and Fate of Liver VLDLs
assembled just like in intestine: 1)ApoB100 made by ER, gets TAGs and Phospholipids from MTP activity 2)VLDLs form, go straight into blood where they pick up apoC and supply tissues by getting eaten by lipases
interpret a 2nd intercostal space to right of sternum murmer during systole? diastolic
at 2nd intercostal right of sternum is A. (APTM) if you hear sound at diastole this is regurgitation (insufficiency). if you hear it at systole this is stenosis
why do alveoli at base of lung shrink and contract with each breath more than alveoli at apex
at base, there is a little fluid, more pressure on alveoli to close at apex, there is less pressure, more open alveoli all the time
features of macula densa
at end of thick ascendling loop. close geographically to the glomurules and vascular pole. consist of densely packed tall cells facing afferent artieroles.
Internal Medullary Lamina of thalamus with intralaminal nuclei
at midline, its the interthalamic adhesion. it is smiley face shaped. seperated the dorsomedial nucleus from the lateral posterior and ventral lateral nucleus.
fallopian tube
at ovary end, bigger wider, more mucosal folds, more diffuse. as u approach uterus, smaller lumen, less folds, thicker wall.
trachealis position function
at posterior part of trachea (opening of c), buffers esophagus from tracheal rings
where are nicotinic acetylcholine receptor found?
at the ganglions (pre and post interface) for both para and symp
In the intestinal villus/crypts, where are the absorptive cells?
at the top! the secretory cells are mostly at the botto mof crypts
allosteric effects on PFK phosphofructokinase of: ATP AMP Citrate Fructose 2,6 biphosphate
atp neg amp pos citrate neg fruc 2,6 bisphosphate POSITIVE (excess fructose 6-p gets made into fructose 2,6 biphosphate by PFK2, and is signal that F-6-P is high)
phase 3- atrial systole
atrial contraction drives the final filling of the ventricle, aortic pressure still droping a surge in ventricular pressure causes mitral valve to close
what does atrial flutter look like? why is qrs still hapening quite normal (90 a min) even though atrial beats are up to 250- 360 a minute
atrial flutter looks like saw teeth, with lots and lots of p waves with a qrs every 4th or 5th p wave (this is happening very rapid pace) ventricle is relatively normal because long refractory period of av node ensure that ventricle goes off no more rapidly than 90 a min, even if there is atrial rapidness.
atrial pressure and sounds during mitral regurgittation
atrial pressure spike during systole as blood flows back into atria, causing looong song throughout SYSOLE
stripe of genari
axon terminals in layer 4 of the the visual cortex coming from lgb. visible to naked eye.
bulbo-SPINAL pathways funct
balance, posture, routing of some forebrain info to spinal cord
unusually, smell receptors die regularly nad are replaced every 30d by...
basal cells
basal ganglia vs cerebellar influence on movement
basal ganglia-complex, motor action patterns, sequences, perceptual-motor patterns, rhythmicity. shoe tying. cerebellar- simple movements. force vectors, calibration, cross-joint synergy, movement in inertial frame (stable head). feedback during motor actions. error correction.
superior cerebellar, pontine, and internal auditory=labyrinthe a.s all branch fromm...
basilar a
for acinus of pancreas, why does basolateral outside surface stain blue while apical is pink?
basolateral is where ER is
in response to fluid loss, ADH increases. a modest increase brings the collecting tubule ADH permeability to its maximum. why does ADH levels continue to rise as the blood volume is lost?
bc ADH also has a vasoconstricting effect.
why make pregnant lady lie on her left side?
bc it takes uterus pressure off of IVC on right side
so why isnt it possible to push last 1.5 liters of air out lungs?
because as u squeeze harder, you collapse airway, because intrapleural pressure is much higher than intraairway pressure( there is a very neg. trans-airway pressure)
increasing carbohydrate intake will increase TAGs
because high insulin (when eating sugars) inhibits breakdown of TAGs and favors the storage of TAGs
a drop in pO2 levels elicits a particularly strong increase in ventilation at LOW O2 pressures, why
because of dissociation of Hemoglobin from O2, no big changes in association at high o2 concentrations, but big drop off at alower ones
why does NH4+ leave the lumen in the Ascending Tubule lumen?
because the lumen is POSITIVE in the ASCENDING positive, ascending
why does the o2 level drop in the left heart?
because venous blood from broncioles and myocardium mix with the fresh blood, slightly dropping the o2 level and creating a venous admixture.
meanwhile, the graafian follicle sans oocyte...
becomes corpus luteum which secretes progesterone during the 2nd half of the menstrual cycle granulosa lutein- derived from granulosa cells, pale, make progesterone. continue to make estradiol. theca lutein- derived from theca cells. continue to make estradiol precursor. also make progesterone.
1Prosencephalon=forebrain
becomes telencephalon- becomes Cerebral Hemisphres and Diencephalon - gives rise to THALAMUS and hypothalamus (= Upper brainstem)
On Their way to the hypothalamus, the fornix gives off fibers to the septal nuclei. the stria terminalis gives off fibers to ___ nearby
bed nucleus of stria terminalis
consummate behavior
behavior towards a drive that ultimately decreases that drive
what changes in a metabolic alkalosis?
bicarb goes up. as result of eating bicarb or vomiting acid.
pancreas exocrine secretes two things:
bicarbonate enzymes-trypsin, chymotrypsin, pancreatic lipase, and pancreatic amylase
mature graffian follicle
big central antrum liquid. big cell making lots of estradiol, visible w. naked eye in ovary. primary oocyte itself is still surrounded by zona pellucida and special follicular cells= corona radiata which will leave follicle with the oocyte
enteroendocrine cell appearance and location
big nucleas, face basolateral side so they can secrete into blood, not the lumen
magnocellular retinal ganglion cells
big, involved in reflexes
dentate nucleus of cerebellum
biggest, central deep nucleus of cerebellum
Beta 2 receptors
bind EPINEPHRINE, causes VASODILATION in skeletal muscle
receptor tyrosine kinases
bind receptor and have enzymatic activity in cell (= bifunctional protein) single pass transmembrane 2 Receptor Tyrosine kinases autophospho each other They are receptors for many hormones dimerize in response to ligand binding, create macrosignaling complex intracellularly
function of secreted IgA in mucosa
bind to flu and viruses so they cant bind epithelium and get in
how does epinephrine promote glycogen breakdown?
binds GPCR, activates G protein, which activates adenylate cyclase to make cAMP, which then leads to phosphoing and activation of glycogen phosphorylase
how does pth induce calcium release?
binds GPCR, cAMP, Inositol triphophate leads to calcium release
FSH
binds setoli cells. stimulates testosterone aromatization into estrogen. spermatogenesis
thyroid response element
binds thyroid receptor. located near Retinoic Acid response elements. retenoic acid receptor and T3 receptor can form heterodimer bound to dna.
fovea
bipolar, retinal ganglion cells and axons are pushed away leaving a depression so that light can directly reach the cones in the center of the retina. no light scattering.
lung alveoli are fixed in place during expiration while chest expands, creating negative pressure between
bivsceral pleura and parietal pleura (the alveoli are connected to visceral pleura thru capillaires, the parietal pleura is more connected to chest cavity) so this creates negative presure during expiration
how does ru486 abortion pill work?
blocks progesterone receptorrs in endometrium, causes
general concept of GI and liver blood flow
blood comes from aorta, through unpaired arteries into the GI tract+ spleen Leaves GI tract through the portal vein (partially deoxygenated) goes to the liver leaves liver through hepativ veins into IVC
NaK ATPase on what side of epithelium? where is the high permeability K+ channel?
both are on basolateral side.
what happens during baroreceptor response to hemorrhage: to brain blood flow? to map and venous tone in body? what receptor does this?
brain flow is maintained during hemorrage through vasoconstriction. bodies veins and arteries constrict to increase venous return through alpha 1 receptors constriction
BAEP
brainstem auditory evoked potential. can measure response in brainstem to clicks. Take lots of measurements to get high SNR
posteromedial arteries
branch from pos. communicating art. through post. perforated space. supply nearby tuber cinereum, mamilly podies.
Anterior Choroid A
branch of Internal Carotid itself. supples choroid plexus, hippocampus. posterior limb of internal capsule
Anterolateral arteries
branch of MCA. go through anterior perforated space. supply internal capsule. caudate,putamen
post choroidal a.
branch of PCA supply choroid plexus of third ventricle. lateral anastomoses with anterior choroidal art. to supply lateral ventricles.
posterolateral arteries=thalamogeniculates
branch of post. cer. a. supply thalamus, geniculates.
Anteromedial Arteries
branching of ACA. through perforated space. supply hypothalamus, optic chiasm,
Monamine oxidase (MAO) (found on mitochondria membrane) and Catechol- methyl transferase (COMT)
breakdown catecholamines. put into urine.
function of amylase
breaks sugars into 2-units, which can then be further broken down
thelarche
breast budding (happens first in puberty)
intrinsic patterns organized in brainstem
breathing swallowing eye movements, some cardiovascular control
lateral lemniscus of mibrain
brings auditory input fibers into the inferior colliculus lateral lemniscus inferior colliculus inf. colliculus brachium medial geniculate body auditory cortex
pseudo glandular period 5-17 weeks is when
bronchi and terminal bronchioles develop
goblet cells only in conducting portion, where are clara cells found?
bronchioles and respiratory bronchioles (not alveoli)
epithelium of bronchus vs pulmonary artery
bronchus- cuboidal epithelium blood vessels- simple squamous epithelium
Glycogen Synthase Deficiency
cant make 1,4 linkages, cant make Glycogen Muscle version= Excersise Intolerance Liver version= high blood sugar after meals, low blood sugar when fasting
Type 1 Von Gierkes hypoglycemia, hepatomegaly caused by defect in glucose-6-phosphatase. what is efect?
cant make glucose from g6p. cant get glucose in blood from gylcogen starting product.
alexia without agraphia.
cant read. but can write. if u injure left visual cortex and corpus collusum, visual info has no way of getting to the left language area to be read. but u can still write
embryology of adrenal gland
capsule and cortex of connective tissue mesodermal origins. cortex has epithelial cells that make steroid hormones medulla in middle- neuro-extodermal origins. modified neurons.
Otoconia
calcium carbonate crystals lying on top of hair cells. are DENSE. more interia. do not respond to linear acceleration as readily as body, deflecting hair cells.
effect of mutations in cytoplasmic T3 thyroid hormone receptor
called thyroid hormone resistance syndrome. same symptoms of hypothyroidism (short stature, goiter)
acetylcholine in cns
can activate nictoninic or muscarinic receptor. nicotinic- activated by nicotine, blocked by curare muscarinic- activated by muscarine, blocked by atropine (atrophied mushrooms)
hypothyroidism
can also have goiter! goiter can be either hyper or hypothyroidism. if hypo, its attempt to sequester more iodine. causes: Iodine Deficiency low TRH or TSH treated w. oral synthetic T4 symptoms: easily fatigued, cold sensitive, slow reflexes, weight gain, depression, puffy face due to water accumulation
ineffective osmole def ex
can freely diffuse across membrane, for example alcohol, urea
effect of free radicals on proteins
can fukk up iron-containing proteins can cause general fragmentation, cross-linking, aggregation
transect just above brainstem
can result in random walking. or walking can be initiated by electrical stimulation of the mesencephalic locomotor region MLR.
Danon disease
cant get glycogen into lysosomes, causes autphagic vacuoles in muscle fibers
Lipid soluble stuff can cross the cell membranes necessary to get into brain. what cant get through? what can?
cant get through B-B barrier: mannitol, dopamine, ions, protein ABLE to get through: L-dopa, Heroin, ethanol, nicotine. gases pass freely water passes freely through channels.
what enzyme catalyzes the H+ bicarb to water and co2 change?
carbonic anyhdrase.
which will have the most effect on blood sugar in type 2 diabetes?
carbs
differences in timing of excitiation coupling of cardiac vs skeletal muscle
cardiac muscle has a much longer (250-300ms action potential, and the peak tension occurs while the AP plateau is still going on long absolute refractory period (no tetanus summation)
what is an automatic way to increase stroke volume with increasing blood flow (think stretching, force of muscle tension graph)
cardiac muscle is optimally forceful when stretched a bit (as in lots of blood is coming in and stretching ventricles)
bronchioles (unlike bronchi) lack..
cartilage, serous mucous glands
What is effect of aldosterone and how does it had this effect?
causes increased sodium reabsorption by increasing transcription of Na apical channels.
effect of oxytocin
causes milk RELEASe. by causing myoepithelial cells to contract. decreases anxiety, shyness, released during sex, maternal behavior
Tangier disease cause phenotypr
cause: no ABCA to give cholesterol to apoA pheno-enlarged tonsils, foam cells in tissues
causes and effects of high calcium
cause:parathryoid overproduction (adenoma of parathryoid) effects: lethargy, depression, weakness, hypertension
vit d deficiency causes and effects
caused by inadequate sun exposure (needed to dering cit d) effects: bone pain, rickets, osteomalasia u can also have vit d resistance (messed up vit d receptor
erection
caused by nitric oxide release from nerve endings in erectile tissue Nit. Oxide parasympethtic diffuses to blood sinusoids. cGMP, casues smooth muscle relaxation, blood fillings, ended by phosphodiesterase (which eats the cGMP)
Virilized XX female
caused by testosterone tumor or ingestion, or enzyme deficiency that shifts it towards testosterone production
T3 can also have non-transcriptoinal effects! these include
changing membrane potential (depolarizaiton) activating MAP Kinase
to make estrogen
cholesterol pregnenelone testosterone estrogen Hydroxylation on c-2 is rate limiting step RING A IS AROMATIC IN ESTROGEN UNLIKE EVERYTHING ELSE
why does cholesterol stay in the enterocytes instead of going back to lumen and how is this different for plant sterols?
cholesterol gets selectively esterified by ACAT (AcylCoA-Cholesterol Acyl Transferase) to stay in enterocyte. Plant sterols dont, and are taken back to lumen by AB C G5 and G8 binding cassette protein ACAT Transfers Acyl group onto Cholester-making it an ester
area where pia and ependymal meet, at ventricles is called. what happens here?
choroid where CSF is made, by pumping in NaCL and water follows. blood is wrapped in pia, then outside that is the ependymal layer
What does ciliary muscle contraction cause?
ciliary muscle atttaches to lens through zonule fibers. Zonule fibers are Lens Flatteners Ciliary contraction releases zonule fiber tension so that lens can become thicker and more high power. Its contract results in lens THICKENING
stria vascularis
circumferential border of scala media responsible for establish high K endolympyh environment
parvocellular receptive fields
collor OPPONENCY in their on center off surround organization. (prefer red in center, dont like green off center) make sustained responses. dont prefer movement. mainly in the fovea.provide high resolution vision and color vision of the fovea (parVo lives in foVea)
V4
color
Asparagine synthetase can make aspartate (1N) into Asparagine (2Ns), where does the N come from?
comes from Glutamine (2Ns) which then becomes Glutamate (1N)
response to common pain vs deep pain
common pain is sympathetic, deep pain is drop in hr, co, and bp (parasympathetic, u fall over)
concentric vs eccentric hypertrophy and when do they happen? what happens during aortic stenosis vs aortic regurgitation?
concentric hypertrophy= thickening of the wall in response to increased pressure. eccentric hypertrophy=increase in ventricular space to accomadate increased volume. in the ventricle, during aortic stenosis there is an increase in pressure, so there is concentric hypertrophy. during aortic regurgitation there is increased volume so eccentric hypertrophy
conducting vs respiratory zone in capacity, flexibility
conducting zone is a rigid .15L the respiratory zone can fill from 1.5 to 6L
what is conducting system? what is respiratory?
conducting- trachea, extrapulm bronchi, intrapulm bronchi, bronchioles respiratory- ONLY respiratory bronchioles alveolar duct, alveolar sacs
Hirschprung Disease
congenital problem of enteric nervous system with spastic contractions of intestine, stuck in contracted state, can not move bolus forward, so this part of intestine must be removed to fix it
Medial longitudinal fasciculus
connects Cn3 and CN6 during conjugate eye movements. not used during vergence eye movements connects eye movements to vestibular input
fornix function
connects limbic system to subcortical areas. (hippocampus to mamillary body and others)
tuber cinereum
connects to pituitary gland. just behind optic chiasm
bronchial smooth muscle responds to parasympathetic tone by...
constricting (bronchoconstriction) (sympathetics cause dilation)
what happens to blood vessels in brain when cerebral perfusion pressure is very high?
constriction of vessels
norepinephrine causes vaso___ via ___receptor
constriction, via Alpha receptors
content of the medullary pyramids
contain upper motor neurons from the cerebral peduncle, which cross at the decussation
neck of sperm
contains basal body 9+2 microtubule arrangement=axoneme
Relay of Visceral afferents from cranial nerves 7,9,10 (including special sensory info)
cranial nerves- axon goes postolivary sulcus, synapse in NUCLEUS OF THE SOLITARY TRACT. neuron 2- cell body in nuc of solitary tract, axons travel up to (1)hypothalamus and amygdala and (2) VPM Thalamus STAY IPSILATERAL
getting rid of creatine
creatine spontaneously cyclizes and is lost in urine. the rate of creatine loss in urine is constant regardless of urine output and is result of muscle mass
no lymph in brain, what instead
csf, ventricles
histo characteristics of thick ascending limb
cuboidal epi lots of mitochondria to power the lots of n+k+ pump activity on baso side
endometrium comp
cuboidal epithelium with secretory cells=parenchyma connective tissue=stroma stratum basalis connects to myometrium, is not shed. (straight artery, hormone insensitive) stratum functionalis- more superficial, shed (spiral artery, hormone sensitive)
where does glycolsyis take place? krebs cycle?
cytoplasm mitochondria
NADH and FADH2 in cytoplasm cant be used for Elec trans chain. how can this be gotten around?
cytosolic malate is reduced by NADH, goes through inner membrane with transporter there it is oxidized to Oxaloacetate making an NADH in the mito matrix
what gets transported down axon slowly?
cytosolic peptides( vesicles, NTs, and non-cytosolic peptides get transported fast)
edema has what effect on diffusion?
decrease diffusion bc of increased distance between cells and capillaries
lateral hypothalamus lesion
decrease in feeding
aprosodies
damage to right hemisphere equivalents of broccas and wernickes cause problems with intonation and gesturing
herring bodies
dark spots at the end of axons that are filled with oxytocin or ADH waiting to be released.
Steps of trophoblast growth after binding up to 3 weeks
day 7-synchytiotrophoblast begins to invade. one cell, many nucleii. day11-synctiotrophoblasts eats into stratum functionalis (only) day 13 of implantation=day 27 of menstrual cycle- bilaminar disk, amnion and chorionic cavity formed. synchtiotrophoblast producing hCG (acts on corpus luteum back in ovary to make progesterone and estradiol) 3 weeks-allantois blood vessels form (will become umbilical vessels)
atresia
death of follicles not destined to become graafian
limbic system function
decided which of several behavioral drives to pursue. hypothalamus simply wants to consummate desires. limbic systems modulates hypothalamus, selects the appropriate goals.
orbitofrontal cortex
decides how much salience to put in a reward
immediate reaction of endometrium to blastocyst attachment
decidual reaction- stroma cells of endometrium transform into decidual cells increased vascular permeability
age effects on respiration
decreased elastic recoil of lungs (more compliance of lungs) due to loss of elastic fibers in alveoli less compliance of chest wall (overall net decreasein compliance) decreased respiratory muscle stretnch decreased number of alveoli and gas exchange area Residual volume increases (more air trapped due to loss of lung elasticity) drop in vital capacity no change in total lung capacity( loss of compliance in chest wall balances increase in compliance of lung) there is the same minute ventilation, but smaller tidal volumes with more respiratory frequency (making it difficult to adjust to excersise)
how does restrictive aging disease show up on flow volume curve? how does obstructive show up?
decreased maximum flow, with a dip (obstructive)during the end of expiration
when you lay down the arterial pressure in your leg
decreases
when you lay down the venous pressure in your leg
decreases
CRH cortisol releasing hormone causes decreased mood, depression. whats the effect of taking prednisone=cortisol
decreases CRH, so improves mood
effect of diuretic on hydrostatic pressure of capillaries
decreases it, so fluid flows from interstitium to capillary
long term downregulation to hormone such as opioid occurs by
decreasing number of receptors for hormone
Recurent artery of Heubner=medial striate artery
deep branch off of ACA. passes through anterior perforated space, supplies caudate, putamen, anterior limb of internal capsule.
SURFACTANT PROPERTIES
deep layer- water based. superfic layer- lipid based with dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine to reduce surface tension
nystagmus
def: alternating series of fast eye movements and slow eye movements (saccades and pursuits)
familial advanced sleep phase syndrome
defect in enzyme made in response to light. so less enzyme made in response to light, they get to sleepy phase quicker.
Lissencephaly
defect in the mictrotubule associated proteins of the radial glial cell scaffold so neurons develop over wider area rather than just in the cortical plate
hartnup disease
defect in transpor of neutral AAs like typtophan. one of the things tryptophan is used for is to make NAD. so can lead to NAD deficiency
Homocystinuria def phenotype
definiciency in cystathionine synthase (part of the pathway to make cysteine, needed for proteins and glutathione) you can also have early atherosclerosis possibly due to build up of homocyseine in body
Anterior Poliomyelitis=Polio
degeneration of alpha motor neurons. loss of reflexes and voluntary movement. muscles waste away, flaccid paralysis
huntingtons chorea
degeneration of striatum, and cognitive decline. chorea-dance like movements, incoordination and poor gate (choreographed dance-walking)
a reaction turning an C-OH to C=O or vis versa is done by what kind of enzyme?
dehydrogenase
what is the Delt G of splitting a biphosphate into 2Pi
delt G=-7 (very favorable)
Dendritic response to learning
dendrites filopedia form new synapses with axons in response to learning Learning: overproduction of neurons, pruning and specialization.
logic of use of defribillator
depolarize all the cells at the same time so u can repolarize them and start them together synchronysly
ketone bodies are a transport form of Acetyl CoA made by ____ Acetly CoA
dimerizing it
upper motor neurons
directly synapse on lower motor neurons. deficit casues spastic paralysis- excessive motor tones, stiff extremeties, hyperactive reflexes
features of parasymp nervous sys
discretely organized, act as individuals, ganglia NEAR effector organ, from 4 cranial nerves and sacral cords more modulated, controlled, activation because of this discrete 1:1 correspondence between pre- and post-ganglionic fibers.
ataxia def and cause
disruption of pathways that bring info into cerebellum or to cerebellum itself. cause dyscoordination of movements of trunk and extremeties
transcortical sensory lesion
disrupts connection between wernices and meaning-determining part of the brain. but connection to brocas fine. so u can repeat a sentence but cant repeat it.
Shape of the lens dictated by
distance of the object. If 20 feet plus (optical infinity), rays are parallel, lens is flat to focus it on the fovea at closer distance, rays are angle coming in, need to be bent more to focus it on the fovea, so lens fattens
congenital adrenal hyperplasia example
enzyme deficiency in XX individual results in super large clitoris with urethra in it. genitals resemble males even though female.
formation of choroid plexus
epedyma and pia form choroid membrane. invasion of blood vessel into the membrane forms choroid plexus
brain is cut off from the ventricles by
ependymal layer
galactose
epimer of glucose
effect of epinephrine release from adrenal medulla
epinephrine binds receptors on vagus nerve projects to tractus solitarius projects to amygdala greater memory of stressful situations
hippocampus does what kind of learning?
episodic
fallopian tube layers
epithelial- secretory and ciliated cells muscularis externa- inner circular, outer longitudinal serosa
EFFECT OF hormones on thickness of cervical fluid
estrogen makes it more watery, more receptive to pregnancy, stickier progesterone makes it thicker.
ApoB found on, properties
everything except HDL. ApoB sticks to lipoproteins very well, not exchangeable, does not exist free in solution
where does cilia in mouth, nose ,throat push particles towards?
everything gets pushed towards oropharynx
what is the RAS role in atherosclerosis?
exacerbate effects of endothelial injury (ex. increases adhesion of oxidized LDL to endothelial cells)
acromegaly
excess GH in adulthood. causes bone and cartilage growth of feet, nose, hands
valvular insufficiency definition
failure of valve to close fully, results in blackflow
mullerian duct becomes
fallopian tubes, uterus, upper vagina
describe things moving across capillary wall from fastest to slowest
fastest gases diffuse lipid soluble small things diffuse water soluble small things diffuse water soluble over 10k MW ultrafiltration (pushed across) over 60K MW are pinocytoses (like albumin) plasma proteins dont diffuse Slowest
____ is the major source of Acetyl Coa A for the krebs cycle
fat
what kind of thing can you absorb through your rectum?
fat soluble stuff like medicines, hallucinigenics. colon is also good at aborbing lots of water and NaCL. it secretes K+ and HCO3-
steps in bile release
fats and protein detected by endocrine cells in duodenum, trigger CCK release 2)CCK goes into blood, cause gall bladder to contract 3) bile acids go into intestine, they are absorbed in terminal ileum, get into portal circulaiton and back to the liver.
how does stomach react differently to a fatty meal vs a watery one?
fattty foods stay in stomach longer
emotions
feelings themselves
parts of fallopian tube starting from ovary
fimbriae infundibulum ampulla isthmus find in american islands.
spermatogonia
first phase, diploid. basal end of seminiferous tubule the ones with light nucleas are type b, actively transcribing. light b types undergo meiosis prophase to become primary spermatocyte
succinate dehydogenase reaction is ___catalyzed it procudes fumarate
flavin FAD
cardiac tamponade
fluid filling pericardial space inhibits ability of ventricles to fill, big problemo
Encoding of FREQUENCY of sound (pitch)
for low pitch: pattern of firing=temporal coding Neurons fire at the same point in the sound wave (as it crosses 0 on its way down the sine wave). ensemble of afferents are phase-locked but offset to provide a spike for each wave of the sound (this works up to a few kHz) Cochlear Tonotopy:High pitched sounds preferentially excite base, low pitch soudns make it out to the apex An afferent neuron will respond only to a small range of frequencies depending on where the hair cell it is connected to lies along the cochlea.
FEV1 def vs FVC
forced expiratory volume- the mount expired in 1 second FVC- the amount of air expired in total
steps 3-8
form a lineary tetrapyrrole, releasing 4 ammonia molecules then cyclization occurs then decarboxylate all 4 acetate groups add some vinyl groups go back to mitochondria oxidize to get methenyl groups with resonance, the structure is now protoporphyrin 9- it is heme except doesnt yet have Fe2 Ferrochelatase adds the iron to make heme (this enzyme inhibited by lead poisining)
Hippocampus and Denate Gyrus func
formation of explicit memories and spatial awareness
The hippocampus projects to its subcortical targets via the
fornix
Gordons syndrome is caused by overexpression of Na Cl Cotransporter (NCC) which are found where? causes what?
found in distal convuluted tubule causes hypertension
where is cholesterol found in hdl particle?
found in the center as cholesterol esters. NOT IN THE MONOLAYER (in ApoB containing lipoproteins (non-HDL), there is also regular cholesterol in membrane)
nociceptors
free nerve endings in skin, joints, synovial membranes, in cardiac muscle, in viscera(triggered by wall stretching as in constipation)
define dead space:
fresh air that you breath in is not used for gas exchange.
Thalamus
from Diencephalon. ventral=subthalamus dorsal=main part epithalamus= pineal gland and habenular nuclei
path of stria terminalis
from amygdala to bed nucleus, VMH hypothalamus DM Thalamus
superior peduncle
from cerebellum dentate nucleus to contralteral red nucleus, thalamus, cortex (providing error signal feedback to cortex)
optical axis
from fixation point, through center of pupil, optical center in lens, to fovea at back.
Complex 1, 3, and 4 pump H+ from where to where?
from lumen to intermembrane space.
mamillo-thalamic tract
from mamillary bodies to anterior nucleas of the thalamus
initially, form dorsal to ventral we have Aorta dorsal Mesentery Spleen Stomach Liver ventral after rotation....
from right to left Liver Stomach spleen
course of the fornix
from the hippocampus, in a forward going circle to end in the mamillary bodies
costodiagragmatic recess
from where lungs end at 6th rib or so down to 8-10-12 where pleural space ends
to get fructose into metabolism
fructokinase makes f1phosphate aldolase can then make that into dhap and g3ap
fructose uses fructokinase, and then Aldolase B ( it never becomes a biphosphate before being split), at a later point glyceraldehyde is phosphod to become G3P whats the significance of this?
fructose is less regulated.
fumarate is changed into malate and then oxaloacetate by . this reaction is __ hill it produces
fumarase dehydrogenase, then malate dehydrogenase uphill NADH, CO2, H+
drivers of inestinal circulation
functional (not reactive) hyperemia after eating. mediated by gastrin, cholecystokinin, and adenosine, which rise in response to eating, and cause increase in flow
square wave
fundamental frequency and all of the odd harmonics wave a 10/s+3rd harmonic (30/s) etc.
Papilla in the tongue are increasingly jagged as you go back, the three are
fungiform(taste buds), filiform(no taste buds), circumvallate(taste buds) lamina propria contains serous glands
helicotrema
furtherest end (apex) of the cochlear tube where the 3 chambers are continuous.
lactose
galactose and glucose
what gets retrogradely transported up axon?
garbage. used organalles, growth factors
dht action
genital tubercle to penis, ug sinus to prostate
main function of HDL
get cholesterol from tissue and blood to liver where it can be processed and excreted=reverse cholesterol transport
how to treat prolactin secreting tumor (which causes infertility in M/F and loss of menses in F)?
give dopamine or dopamine agonists to supress PRH release from Hypothal
Ventricular layer
give rise to astrocytes, oligodendros, and then the layer itself becomes the ependymal layer.
sucrose
glucose and fructose
to get lactose into metabolism
glucose is glucose. galactose needs to be converted into epimer by using UDP-heose epimerase and NAD+
does glucose from mother go to baby? does insulin
glucose yes. insulin no (baby has own functional pancreas) high glucose(diabetes) causes fat big babies (extra glucose gets to baby)
cortisol and sleep cycle
glucosteroid. gets high in the morning to anticipate you waking up and being hungry.
N from Alanine from Muscle goes to liver and ends up in
glutamate (making pyruvate from alanine)
glutamate+Free Ammonia NH3= Glutmaine this is done by..
glutamine sythetase and requires ATP this is reversed by glutaminase (creating free ammonia, when this happens in kidney the ammonia can be excreted as pee)
heme made from
glycine, succinyl coa
glucose is stored as
glycogen
how do u measure left ventricle pressure
go backwards in through aorta
unlike sugars and proteins that go from enterocytes strait into circulation and to liver, fats....
go into lymphatics, through thoracic duct and to tissues first, so that tissues can collect fats rather than just the liver first
posterior cerebral artery
goes around cerebral peduncle, supplies parieto-occipital and calcarine fissures
if flow in portal vein to liver increases, what happens to flow in hepatic arteries?
goes down. Portal Vein and Hepatic arteries are RECIPROCAL! to maintain constant O2
what will gordons syndrome to k levels?
gordons- extra Na Cl cotransporters (NCC) in the distal convuluted tubules. leads to more water and salt resorption, which causes aldosterone levels to go down. less aldosterone will mean less na resorption in collecting system, so less K+ will leave cell high k levels
mantle layer
gray matter, where neurons go once theyre post mitotic. (mantle matters)
The greater the preload, the ___the muscle force/ventricular pressure
greater (up to a point, the ventricle can only work so hard)
the dorsal mesentery just inferior to the stomach elongates and folds over itself creating a 4 layered mesentary called the
greater omentum (with the inferior recess of omental bursa in the middle)
sulcus limitans
groove that seperates cranial sensory and motor nuclei
nuclear neuron formation
group of cell. closley grouped and delineated. nuclei only have 1 function (unlike cortical with different functions)
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
group of disorders involving deficient adrenal corticosteroid biosynthesis Results in adrenal hyperplasia (lack of adrenal cortex steroids to neg feedback on pituitary ATCH release)
Genes that are activated by T3 binding
growth hormone, Beta adrenergic receptor, glucose transporter, ATPases (t3 causes atp hydrolysis into heat) many others
how much of the extracellular osmolarity is due to Na?
half. so if you have 300 mosmoles/L extracellular, 150 will be from Na+
distal convuleted tubule
has Sodium Chloride Cotransporter (NCC). also absorbs 10% of Magnesion MG2+ (fine tuning)
external medullary lamina of thalamas
has a thalamic reticular nucleus. it seperates the lateral aspets of the thalamus from the internal capsule.
saccade details
have refractory period (up to 200ms) Pontine Reticular Formation (PPRF) controls horizontal saccades
what happens during diving reflex- holding breath
heart rate drops, cardiac output drops (parasympathetic) vasoconstriction (sympathetic)
quick desensitzation occurs by 2 methods
heterlogous- decreased response to many hormones (The GPCR activated by hormone activates a PKA which negative feedback phospho's the 3rd intracellular loop of the GPCR where it usually interacts w G Proteins. PKA can have this neg feedback non-descriminately hence heterlogous ) homologous-decreased response to only the one hormone. Done by GRK Gprotein Receptor Kinases which are highly specific
The first step in making nucleotides is making ribose5 phosphate which can be made through
hexose-monophosphate shunt- generates NADPH and ribose.
precapillary sphincters in brain will open in response to
high CO2. low O2. to get more blood nutrients where theyre needed
cyclicAMP has what effect on respiratory and intestinal Cl secreation?
high cyclicAMP means high Cl secretion. cAMP activates 2Cl-NaK transporter.
gamma rhythm
high frequency, 40hz. associated with consciousness
to compensate for resp acidosis
high h+ and high bicarb buffers take up more H+ then, kidneys excrete more H+ (and also put in more bicarb) (this requires both more bicarb production and inceased bicarb threshold so it can actually be resorbed)
Cushings reflex is in response to...
high intracranial pressure and therefore low perfusion (and cerebral ischemia) ischemia leads to high co2 and low pH, leading to Cushing Reflex
how to test for neural tube closure defect
high levels of alpha fetoprotein leaking from the unclosed anterior neuropore=Anencephaly
k secretion promoted by
high plasma k aldosterone (more NA resorption, more k secretion) fast flow rate in tubule
HISTAMINE is the main cause of acid secretion! Histamine is secreted by ___ cells in response to ____ and acts on ___ cells
histamine secreted by ECL (Enterchromaffin-like cell) in response to gastrin, acts on parietal cells
yaw detected by
horizontal canals
utricle axis of acceleration
horizontal plane only!
insulin turns off hormon sensitive lipase (which breaks down fat in adipose), but insulin TURNS ON lipoprotein Lipase, which breaks down fat in blood for eventual storage.
hormone sensitive lipase is the one in cells for break down!
skin has arteriovenous connection to increase heat exchange when you are too...
hot
compliance def and what is the compliance of the lung
how much does an increase in pressure increase the volume of the lung. for every 1cm H2O pressure there is .1L expansion 1 cm^3 pressure=.1L
factors that establish rostral-caudal axis
hox genes
mechanism of cortisol effects
hydrophobic so goes through membrane, binds receptor, which goes to nucleas and binds Glucocorticoid response element, changes transcription
what type of hormone is thyroid hormone?
hydrophobic. crosses membranes to get to nucleas
an overactive Renin Angiotensin System (R.A.S.) leads to
hypertension along with cardiac hypertrophy, aneurysm, renal failure
graves disease
hyperthyroidism type hyperplasia of thyroid gland (goiter) caused by antibodies binding TSH receptor
short loop feedback
hypo GHRH pituitary- GH (which inhibits hypo)
ultrashort feedback loop
hypo makes GHRH hypo itself has receptors for GHRH that cause neg feedback
Growth Hormone Axis
hypo- GHRH Ant pit- GH Liver and tissues release IGF insulin-like growth factor (IGF from tissues causes somatostatin release from hypo, which inhibits AP release of GH) (somatostatin vs. GHRH opposite effects)
prolactin
hypo- Prolactin Releasing Hormone PRH ant pit- prolactin suckling blocks dopamine, which had been blocking hypothalamus from releasing PRH
trauma such as heavy excersise, nausea, anxiety, smoking , drugs can cause inappropriate ADH release causing...
hyponatremia
Thyoid Axis
hypothal- TRH Anterior pituitary- TSH Thyroid- T4, T3 neg feedback on hypo, ant pit.
amygdala projects smell info to
hypothalamus (for endocrine and reproductive purposes)
what happens to pH during hypoventilation and why?
hypoventalition- too much co2, too much co2 being converted to hco3 and H+, too much H+, LOWER pH
if adenosine is building up, that is an indication of
hypoxia or increased metabolism (adenosine is important for regulating coronary flow
types of hypoxia (insufficient o2 to tissues)
hypoxic hypoxia- not enough o2 in air. anemic hypoxia-hemoglobine cant get and transfer o2 (sickle cell, CO poisining) ischemic hypoxia- bleeding huge
how do bundle of his branch blocks appear on the ekg?
if one bundle of his is blocked, that side will have a delayed ventricular contraction and you will get two R peaks
blocking
if stimulis is presented with second new stimulis, the animal only associates the one it knows as being important. it cant learn that the new stimulus is also now correlated with prize, it just simply thinks that the stimulis it already knows is what is important
toxic stress causes
immunosupression (greater risk of infections) insulin insensitivty (diabetes mellitus)
Impedence Definition and what are the three types
impedence is the force OPPOSING INSPIRATION intertia- weight of chest has to be moved friction- airway friction as air particles rub agianst each other . Lung tissue and pleura also rub against each other. MOST friction is from air. (both frictions also happens during exhalation) Elastic Recoiil- tissue acts as a coil and wants to be in rest position (expiration) (so this is a force resisting inspiration, but HELPS expiraiton)
vestibulo-ocular reflex
important diagnostic tool. constant gaze in spite of moving head. how it works: 1) Head turns left 2) scarpas ganglion to vestibular nucleus to abducens (LR) and occulomotor (MR) nuclei 3) muscles are excited to counter the movement
hypospadias
improper urethral opening
Aldosterone synthesis
in Glomerulosa Zone- most superficial zone of cortex. From Prenenolone, usind aldosterone synthase which ads OH to C18
orbitofrontal cortex damage
inappropriate emotional and social behavior. loss of inhibition.
principal neurons
include pyramidal cells and fusiform (modified pyr. cell) cells long axons use glutamate pyramidals in layer 2,3,5 fusiforms- layer 6
what are the effects of baroreceptor response in shock? at what low bp do u get the maximal baroreceptor response?
increase i nsympathetic tone causes peripheral vein constriction to increase VR, arteriole constricito nto increase TPR maximal baroreceptor response down to 60 MAP. below that, no additional help possible.
hyperemia def reactive hyperemia active functional hyperemia
increase in blood flow reactive- flow increases after tourniqute comes off functional hyperemia- flow to intestine increases during digestion
what changes to co2, pH, and lactic acid concentration,adenosine lead to vasoDILATION?
increase in co2, decrease in pH (H+ increase), Lactic Acid increase, adenosine increase (like during hypoxia)
paraventricular hypothalamus
increase in eating, decrease in satiety
features of aortic valve stenosis (pressures, sv, esv)
increase left ventircle pressure, increased aortic pressure,systolic sounds that decrescendo (as ventricular pressure decreases), less stroke volume and therefore more end systolic volume
Prostoglandins role in pain
increase pain. act on synapses in dorsal horn.
effect of obesity on beta cell islets
increase size and number
how does atrial valve stenosis lead to fluid in lungs
increased atrial pressure means more pressure in pulmonary veins draining into left atrium. thus an increase in pulmonary capillary pressures.
hyperthyroidism
increased heart rate, increased Beta adrenergic receptors, sensitivty to catecholeamines increased metabolic rate hyperactivity muscle weakness gluceoneogenesis
when you lay down, the arterial pressure in your head
increases
when u lay down, the venous pressure in your head (inc. dec.)
increases (less gravity
how does CHF cause edema?
increases capillary hydrostatic pressure caused by low evv leading to renal salt retention and increased blood volume
why give dopamine during shock?
increases flow to kidneys, to prevent kidney ischemia during shock
during inspiration, what happens to the pleural pressure?
it gets even lower, due to diaphram contraction, so Ppl= -8
Where does Methionine's Me come from? (how does it go from homocysteine to methionine)
it gets it from Me-THF via B12 mediated reaction
whats special about the axon hillock that this greatly faded EPSP can start an AP here?
it has a lot of voltage-gated sodium channels that open to a low threshold depolarization.
what happens to apical perfusion during excersise?
it increases due to increased cardiac output, more blood makes it to top of lung, so you decrease dead space because more alveoli are being effectively used
unlike the proximal tubule, the thick ascending limb has a TIGHT junction and TRANSTUBULAR (NOT transcellular) potential. this potential is ___ in the lumen
it is positive. it pushes Na, Mg, and Ca to be reabsorbed out of lumen
How is Sodium transported in the Small intestine, proximal tubule of kidney?
it is transported by non-inhibitable Na+Organic Solute channels from apical to basolateral.
Wht feature of glomelural capillaries make it filter a lot into glomerulus, besides its high hydrostatic pressure?
it is very permeable! fluid flows out of cap into bowmans space
why is acetaldehyde toxis? what does it react with?
it reacts with proteins (the N replaces the O= of aldehyde) making an imine, fukking up liver proteins and cells
how does ezetimibe lower cholesterol?
it reduces the amount of cholesterol taken in by enterocytes by INHIBITING NPC1
how is the selective uptake process different in terms of what it takes in? the type of receptors and where those receptors are found? in the movement of the receptor?
it take in cholesterol estors off of HDL, Scavenger Receptor B In Caveolae, not clathrin coated pits Scav Receptor B doesnt move off of the membrane, it simply grabs cholest. esters off of HDL and puts them in PM
Purine Salvage, what does it do?
it takes Hypoxanthine Guanine ( a result of Purine Metabolism), and recycles it by combining it with a new PRPP to generate IMP. The enzyme that does this is called HGPRT lack of HGPRT causes gout like-symptoms
what does phosphoglycerate kinase do? why is it a weird kinase?
it transfers ATP to a substrate (ADP), but it also takes a Pi from something else (1,3 biphosphoglyceric acid) (lec 10 slide 21)
What does Phosphoglyceromutase do?
it turns 3-phosphoglycerate into 2-phosphoglycerate
effects of fructose 2,6 biphosphate, as made by PFK2
it turns on PFK1 to convert more fructose-6-phosphate into biphosphate. it ALSO turns off the fructose 1,6 bihosphatase (normally drives the reaction in the opposite direction)
what happens to edv in mitral valve regurgitation?
its bigger because the atria pumps what ever comes into from pulm veins PLUS what flowed back into it from ventricle, so more stuff in atria to push into ventricle (more EDV)
what is the increased breathing during excersise called if it isnt hyperventilation?
its hyperpnea, which is simply breathing faster
glucose 6 phosphatase REMOVES phospho from G6P (does oppositie of hexokinase) to make glucose that can go into blood. where is it found, muscle or liver?
its in the liver. muscle will use any g6p to go into metabolism
features of gallbladder
job is to store, concentrate, and release bile Simple Columnar Epithelium mucosa Dense CT in Lamina Propria Muscularis of smooth muscle Outer layer (serosa or adventitia)
lec 4, slide 3 resting expiratory position
just after a breath, everything is pretty much relaxed
costomediastinal reflection
just behind and to the left and right of sternum (there are two of them)
Fluid Movement equation FM=Pressure pushing out- Pressure pushing in
konstant (Cap. hydrostatic pressure + interstit. osmotic press) - (Interstit. hydro. pres. + Capillary Osmotic press)
spina bifida cause
lack of closure of vertebral arches (and sometimes spinal cord too)
wernicke
lack of comprehension. unable to repeat a sentence. can talk grammatically, but words lack meaning
decompensation- when compensation fails involves...
lack of perfusion to heart means less cardiac output (pos feedback) livers lack of perfusion results in release of toxins to heart which further slow it down (pos fback) kidney disfunction leads to electrolyte imbalance which can further lead to arrhythmias lack of nutrition for vascularture results in loss of vascular tone, drop in bp (also causes pooling which can lead to clots and thrombi) capillarys become more permeable to solutes increase the osmotic pressure pulling fluid out of caps into intersitium acidosis as brain dies there is a loss of sympathetic tone
Von Gierkes Disease
lacking G6Phosphatase, needed to make G6P into glucose to go into the blood stream. This normally happens in both glyconeogenesis and gluconeogenesis during fasting. hypoglycemia,hepatomegaly Think of a depressed Van Gogh lacking any energy. Tragicaly close, he has G6P but cant make the Glucose needed to go into his blodo because he doesnth ave the phosphatase.
layer 5 of the cortex
large pyramidals project to everything sub-telencephalon thalamus,midbrain,pons,medulla,spinal cord
GH receptor definiciency leads to dwarfism, two example types, laron and african pigmy
laron- less GH RECEPTOR. high GH levels, but NO IGF can be produced African Pigmy- also less GH RECEPTOR. however, there is some IGF release.
primary auditory cortex localized to
lateral fissuere. more on the left side.
3-tuberal region (where the pituitary hangs from)
lateral hypothalamic- feeding center VM hypothalamus- satiety center Median Eminence- where releasing hormone destined for pituitary are released arcuate nucleus-dopamine - eating,drinking, and satiety
Which part of the hypothalamus do u stimulate to make reward feeling?
lateral hypothalamus (lateral to fornix) this is where the medial forebrain bundle is running from hypothalamus
optic nerve exits from the nasal part of the retina, so what part of visual field is blind?
lateral side. left in the visual world corresponds to right in the image on the retina. image inversion. (top and bottom and also left right inversion, that what refraction does)
cortical neuron structure
layered organization at surface. each layer has different function
why arent there electrical gradients across proximal tubule? why are there no ion gradients?
leaky tight junctions prevent establishment of elctrical gradients in prox tubule
pathogens medial to intestinal borders, but lateral to mesentary can escape to rectum only if they are to the __ of mesentery
left
difference between Long and Short loops of Henle
long (juxt) has ascending thin and thick short goes straight from thin descending into thick ascending
apneusis definition
long inspiration and then expiration resulting from cut of vagal and pons
what is long qt syndrome? what can it cause? what are two causes of it?
long interval of q to T, the t goes into the next p. can degrade into tachycardia and fibrillation. caused by wonky: 1) Na channel- normally these open and close very quickly. in long qt they cant close, so stay open longer, lead to longer action potential 2) K channel- I-k is less functional in letting k out to repolarize
main cause of vertigo
loose oticonia from utricle end up in semicircular canal
how does vomiting lead to alkalosis (which requires both more bicarb and a rise in kidney threshold for bicarb)
loss of H+ in vomit pushes equation towards H+ and bicarb formation. loss of vomit causes drop in EV and loss of K+
why is there k depletion when someone vomits?
loss of acidic vomit leaves behind bicarb. this bicarb goes into collecting tubule, where, unlike HCL, it can not follow Na as it is resorbed. this means thats all the Na resorbed must lead to K+ being excreted. thus, more K is excreted.
conduction aphasia
loss of connection between wernickes area and brocas. good comprehension. good speech. but cant repeat a sentence
Chronic Renal Disease
loss of nephrons means cant make NH4+, cant filter in phosphate, cant get rid of acid. so severe serum acidosis
paralysis
loss of voluntary activity. doesnt include reflexes and automatic motor response
theca and granulosa lutein cells, much like adrenal steroid secreting cells, looks similar under EM...
lots of smooth ER, lipid droplets and mitochondria
reticular neuron formation
lots of space. no organization, orientation. space between is white matter.
how to compenstate for respiratory alkalosis
low H+ and low bicarb initial-H+ made available by coming off of cellular buffers long term-kidneys resorb less bicarb, excrete less acid to resorb less bicarb- less co2 around which is the intermediate form of bicarb when it is absorbed into prox tubule
Hexokinase does first step of glycolysis, making glucose-6-P. It has a low Km, Low Vmax meaning...
low Km so it converts whatever glucose is there, even small amounts. but it has a low vmax output
what is the effect of low O2 and high CO2 in pulmonary blood flow locally?
low O2 and high CO2 causes vasoCONSTRICTION (paradoxical) in attempt to avert blood from poorly functioning alveolar
how does nephrOtic syndrome cause edema?
low blood oncotic pressure due to loss of albumin leads to edema and low EVV, which is compenstated further worsening the problem
primary effect of insulin is to inhibit lipolysis
low insulin/high glucagon will cause more cAMP, which will lead to hormone sensitive lipase breaking down stored fats. high insulin prevents this.
High Testosterone in utero brain primes a fetus to respond to high testosterone during puberty with male sexual behavior. what happens in female?
low tosteosterone in utero primes brain to react to high testosterone during puberty with female sexual behavior
type of cells that project to post. pituitary
magnocellular
vestibulo-ocular reflex
maintains fixation by eye adjustments to match head movements semicircular canals to medial vestibular nucleus to cn3 and cn6 fastest reflex in body- 12 ms
chief cell
make pepsinogen. lots of ER for protein synth have ZYMOGEN glands with the pepsinogen and some lipases for secretion
succinyl SCoa (of the end of krebs cycle) turns off citrate sythetase, which does...
makes citrate from OAA and Acetly-CoA
reaction catalyzed by glutamate dehydrogenase
making alpha ketoglutarate from glutamate (or vis Versa) a transamination
Step 1 of heme synthesis
making delta-aminolevulinic acid (ALA)(commited step) made from Succinyl-CoA+Glycine in MITO
G6P is oxidized in the hexose monophosphate pathway. used for
making ribose-5-phosphate for DNA and RNA if u dont need ribose, u can use it just to make NADPH
SRY, SF1, and SOX9 ( ) genes
male
how ganglion cells respond to light
many types off-center ganglion cell: decreases firing rate(action potentials) in response to light. on-center ganglion cell: increases firing rate in response to light. direction-sensitive ganglion cells: increase AP rate in response to direction of motion.
microglia derived from
mesoderm (Tiny Garbage Men. Midgets as garbage men. cleaning stuff. phagocytse. a mesoderm like thing) MICROGLIA
kupffer cells are derived from
mesoderm. they are macrophages=blood=meso
what dominates in skel muscle? neural regulation or metabolic?
metabolic dominates during excersise/need
DHF is reduced back to THF by NADPH, what blocks this?
methotrexate
tube and filaments of nerons
microfilaments- actin, neurofilament- intermediate filamentsmain structural components of neurons, keeps shape. wound set of 24 monomers. microtubules- railroad tracks of neuron for carrying macromolecules.
wakefulness nts and locales
midbrain-pons juncture- accetylchol locus coeruleus-norepi raphe nuclei-serotonin
how far down does the pleaural cavity come down midclavicular? midaxillary? posteriorly?
midclavicular? 8th rib midaxillary? 10th rib posteriorly? 12th rib
which artery runs up lateral fissure
middle cerebral.
hearing aid
middle ear stiffens with age. Hearing aid simply amplifies sound going into middle ear so it can reach oval window with adequate pressure.
appendix derived form
midgut. it rotates during development to get down from the upper abdomen
more na+, water resorption means __urea resorption
more
high carbs results in
more TAG, More LDL, less HDL
compare the lung compliance at maximally exhaled vs normal resting exhalation
more compliance at maximally exhaled (steeper part of the volume pressure graph)
lungs are ___ compliant They resist increases in resistance (stay low resistance by:
more compliant. they avoid resistance by opening up closed vessels and distending all the vessels
flow is higher to red slow twitch or white fast twitch?
more flow to red slow twitch (thats why its red)
where is more water, intracellular or extracellular?
more is intracellular (60%)
most extracellular fluid is in:: what is the diff between plasma and interstitial flid
most in interstitial (70%) plasma is in blood, has MORE protein
Overview of Heme production, where does it happen? in body? in cell? where do the steps take place
most made in red cell precursors for hemoglobin, the rest made by liver for cytochrome p450. Step 1 in mito Step 2-5 in cyto step 6-8- back in mito
ventral tegmental area
most medial aspect of the substantia nigra
pancreas exocrine function
most of the pancreas, its secretion goes through pancreatic duct into duodenum with bile form gallbladder. has digestive enzymes(exocrine cels) and alkaline fluid(duct cells)
what does adrenal cortex release mostly? when does it release this?
mostly Epi, some Norepi too. The adrenal cortex responds to sympathetic stimulation (acetylcholine from presynaptic) by releasing epi and nor. (so the adrenal cortex acts like a postsynaptic cell that releases into blood)
40-60% of filtered urea is ultimately absorbed. where is it absorbed?
mostly in the proximal tubule, where it is freely permeable. a little absorbed in inner medullary collecting duct at end.
somatotopic organization
motor cortex- face is lateral. feet are up high.
premotor cortex involved in
motor learning
dynein
moves towards negative end of MTs. cant go down the axons (bc they are all oriented with positive downstream) (going back home to die. negative end.)
compared to systemmic capillary pressures, whats going on with pulmonary capillary?
much less capilary hydrostatic pressure, more interstitial osmotic pressure(stagnant albumin build up). net result is very little filtered into lymph
relay of visceral afferents
much like Anterolateral Fasicle, except aftery synapsing in the dorsal horn at the level of entry, the second neuron can either stay ipsilateral or go contralateral. so there is bidirectional representation of visceral afferent info from body. info ultimately ends up in amygdala and hypo (hedonic) or VPM thalamus (discriminative info)
T4 and T3 in circulation
much more T4 made. bound byL thyroxine binding protein and albumin only unbound exerts effects. t3 less afinity for binding protein (more is free) overall, same amount of t4 and t3 free unbound in blood
what can cause hypercholesterolemia?
mutant ldl receptor fails to take in ldl from blood or mutant ApoB (ApoB is linker for LDL to bind LDL receptor) Or gain of function mutations PSK9 so LDL receptor cant get to membrane
Abetalipoproteinemia
mutation in MTP gene. Can not make any apoB-associated lipoproteins. neuropathy, growth studented, cant absorb lipid-soluble vitamins
Hypobetalipoproteinemia
mutation in apob gene. leads to lower cholesterol, not a problem
Lipiod CAH
mutation in steroid protein that transports cholsterol into mitochondria FATAL
effect of acetyl coA on Pyruvate dehydrogenase) the enzyme that makes acetyl coA
negative feedback
Effect of excess iodide on thyroid hormone
negative feedback directly on thyroid gland. excess iodide blocks iodide uptake, t3 and t4 secretion
effect of high T3 and T4
negative feedback on hypothal TRH and Ant Pit TSH production
benefit of the golgi tendon reflex
negative feedback. if muscle is pulling too hard, overcontraction, it activates 1b afferent, which decreases the tension in the muscle. if muscle is begining to fatigue and loose tension, less 1b signal, more powerful alpha neuron activation maintains appropriate muscle stiffness slower than stretch reflex because 1b afferents are thinner than 2a and also there are 2 synapses.
what is the effect of Glucagon hormone on PFK1
negative. it promotes glucogenesis not Glycolysis
Cortical Thalamic System-Lateral Forebrain
neocortex, dorsal basal ganglia, thalamus, outflow through internal capsule to cerebral peduncles
pathway for jaw proprioception (including stretch receptors of mastications mms, joint capsule, innervation of teeth)
neuron 1- weird. primary affernt cell body skips trigeminal ganglion, is in the mesencephalic nucleus of 5. sends axon to primary sensory nucleas of 5. neuron 2- primary sensory nucleas of 5 to vpm thalamus neuron 3- to somatosensory via internal capsuel point of weirdness- to allow modulatory signals to effect primary afferents, so u dont bite off your tongue?
examples of ligand gates quick acting channels
nicotinic acetylcholine receptor glycine receptr
loss of 21-hydroxylase (which is used to make pregnenolone into cortisol and aldosterone) results in...
no cortisol and aldosterone. more androgens, hirsutism
vagina histo
no glands. secretions all come from cervix.
special features of oral cavity histology
no muscularis mucosa in the mucosa layer, submucosa has a lot of glands skeletal muscle support the tissues (and bone)
sensory- nociception-firing of receptors perception- pain- in thalamus. modulated by endorphins. whats phatnom pain?
no peripheral receptor firing. all in thalamus/other brainregions.
androgen insensitity
no testosterone, so external genitalia are female, but there IS Anti mullerian hormone so the mullerian ducts disapear and there is no uterus etc.
H+ is secreted into tubule, is it excreted?
no, it reenters the cell by mixing with bicarb to make co2 and water which is resorbed
blood brain barrier morphology
non-fenestrated, continuous blood vessel endothelium with adjoining tight junctions. surrounded by pericyte (pia component) and the big feet of astrocytes
parasympathetic motor nuclei of cranial nerves are positioned just behind (dorsal to) the motor nuclei of those nerves, includes...
nucleus of edinger westphal (3) salivatory nuc (7,9) dorsal vagal nuc. (10) weird point: parasympethetics to heart come out of nucleus ambiguus (with normal motor), rather than the dorsal vagal nuc behind it
properties of Arteriovenous anastomoses of skin what happens when o2 level increases? do they have basal tone? what kind of NTs are they sensitive to and how do they respond? how do they respond when hand is in ice water?
o2 has no effect, not under metabolic control no basal tone respond to Nor Ep by Constricting initially constrict, then open up, cyclically
insensible persperation
obligatory evaporation of water. not sweat. no solutes.
occular dominance column
occular dominance column- stripes of neurons in visual cortex that respond to input from only one eye. receive input only from certain layers of LGB
mutations of TBX5 causes Holt-Oram syndrome, with deficits in ...
of atrial ventricular septation and cardiac conduction
CNS myelin by
oligodendrocytes. each oligo has several processes, covering several different nearby axons.
where is the hormone response element located?
on dna, they are enhancers. it is the part of the dna that the steroid-receptor complex binds
where are myoepithelial cells found in ducts?
on the lumenal side, have elongated appreance. help with squeezing.
bipolar
one process bringing in info from dendrites, one axon
cortical output originate at which level
output to cortex from level 2 and 3. output to thalamus from layer 6 to subcortex (striatum, brainstem, spinal cord)
why is pancreatic bicarbonate secretions messed up in Cys Fib?
outward rectifier Cl channel is broke, so harder to lose Cl and then bring in bicarbonate you need.
severing connections of amygdala/ results -Bucy syndrome:
tameness hypersexual continually thinking everything is new.
group 2 afferents
only attached to static nuclear chain fibers
what epinephrine works on vs what norepinephrine does
only epi does skeletal muscle relaxation, norepinephrine does not (epi can relax pharyngeal constrictor muscle during asthma)
dopamine containing neurons
only in the substantia nigra and neighbouring ventral tegmental area (these neurons project in the frontal lobe
pyloric antrum properties
only secretes mucus, is very thin, has no pits or folds
Papilla of Vater def
opening in duodenum where pancreas, bile contents are emptied. has sphincter, under endocrine control.
receptive fields organization in cortex
organized in columns. sensory information from a common general area will project into neurons organized in a column in the cortex.
what type of diarrhea does milk of magnesia cause?
osmotic. water follows non-absorbable magnesium in intestinal lumen
you can find vasa recta, ascending thick limb and descending thin limb all in the...
outer medulla
outer vs inner mitochondrial membrane
outer- fewer proteins in membrane. but more porous. has porn channels that let stuff in up to 5K daltons. inner membrane- loaded with proteins in membrane. IMPERMEABLE. has cardiolipin- a very large glycerophospholipid Intermembrane space is similar in small molecule content to the cytoplasm
outer vs inner hair cells
outer- not sensory, just increase sensitivity. mostly receive input from CN8 efferents. inner hair cells- true sensory cells. Each inner hair cell has 10 devoted neuron afferents.
hepatic diverticulum (made from, becomes)
outgrowth of endodermal epithelial lining of foregut. becomes liver, gallbladder, biliary duct system
third degree block
p depolarization completely unrelated to a qrs. qrs happens 40 times a min or so by purkinje depolarization alone
function and distribution of INTERSTITIAL CELLS OF CAJAL ICC
pacemaker cells (nerve endings go to them) distributed in tunica muscularis
central gray of midbrain . loc func
pain center of midbrain. receives input from spinothalamic tract. surrounds cerebral aqueduct
posterior brain circulation
paired vertebral as join at basilar artery, go to circle of willis
pelvic splanchnic is what kind of fiber?
parasympathetic
cajal retzius neurons
pioneer neurons that establish the cortical layers and are found closest to the pia. at 7 months they disapeear
how are place cells effected by ZIP which blocks PKMzeta needed to establish AMPA recepteors
place cells are destablized, even within a familiar enviornment. so ZIP is even worse than blocking NMDA channels (ZIP and AMPA needed to maintain learning)
how are place cells affected by blocking nmda channels
place cells are unchanged in a familiar environment place cells can learn and respond differently to a new environment BUT, this learning doesnt stick for the next day. (NMDA needed to establish + mtinain new LTP)
Sound path in cochlea
plate of stapes-oval window-scala vestibuli-Scala Media
path of anterolateral spinothalamic path in lumbar spinal cord
primary afferents enter spinal cord, axon enters gray matter, synapse on second neuron whose cell body is in the gray matter DORSAL HORN. the axon of this secondary neuron crosses midline at the anterior white commisure. travel up in anterolateral fasiculus. (unlike dorsal column len., the axons that enter earliest are the most posteroLATERAL)
middle cerebella peduncle connects..
pons to the cerebellum. interuption can cause dyscoordination of movements of trunk and extremeties.
brainstem def
pons, midbrain, medulla oblongata. leads into spina l chord. connected to the cerebellum and the cerebrum by fiber bundles=white matter
95% of bile is recycled back to the liver from the small intestine via the...
portal vein
splachnic circulation, from the organs up
portal vein picks up all the blood from the spleen,stomach,pancreas, intestines and brings it to the LIVER, via the PORTAL vein, from liver through vena cava, to heart
formation of placenta at week 8
portion of chorion facing decidua capsularis becomes smoth= chorion laeve (villi lost) same time- chorion associated with decidua basalis and base proliferate=chorion frondosum
Insula
portion of the cortex usually hidden! underneath lateral fissure
orientation of sensory tracts at level of pons
positioned behind true pons, the medial lemniscus has swung around, so that the cervical info dorsally has stayed put and is medial. the sacral info has swung around to be lateral. just lateral to this sacral info is the spinothalamic tract
what is the effect of apositive trans airway pressure on the size of the airway?
positive makes the airway expand (airway pressure greater than pleural pressure)
volume change as a function of transmural pressure is (pos,neg), and (linear, leveling off) and an example of (compliance, elasticity)
positive, logarithmic, and example of compliance (same during excersise- increase in excersise so that increase in pressure results in big increase in volume, although only to a point)
effect of insulin on PFK-1
positive. INSULIN DRIVES GLYCOLYSIS FORWARD
quadrigeminal branch of posterior cerebral artery arises from
posterior cerebral a. supplies superior and inferior colliculi
blood supply to dorsal medulla by
posterior spinal and posterior inferior cerebellar a.s
anhedonic pain path
primary afferents synapse in dorsal horn, secondary neuron goes to central gray, from central gray goes to insula and anterior cinculgate cortex
areas and brain functions supplied by MCA
primary motor and sensory cortex. brocas expressive speech area transverse temporal gyrus of heschle- auditory. wernickes receptive speech area.
portal vessels 3
pre-terminal vein, hepatic arteriole, bile duct
whats in the intermediolateral cell column
preganglionic autonomic motor neurons
preload vs. afterload
preload is the starting tension in ventricles, more preload means more power in ensuing ventricular contraction afterload is the resistave downstream pressure. more afterload means ventricles will work harder against it.
three rostro-caudal zones of hypothalamus
preoptic area tuberal area mamillary area
hypothalmic regulation of body temperature
preoptic area contains temp sensors Anterior Hypothalamus responds to TOO HOT causes vasodilation, sweating Post. Hypothalamus responds to TOO COLD causes sympathetic contraction, shivering
afterload def., how does it effect ventricular pressure
pressure in downstream things (aorta is downstream of ventricle) the more afterload, the harder the ventricle works to pump (to a point)
presynaptic alteration vs postsynaptic
presynaptic=a neuron alters the presynaptic neuron this can modulate SPECIFIC inputs to a postsynaptic neuron. postsynaptic neron- alters response to all inputs
effect of ACE inhibitors
prevents conversion of Ang 1 to Ang 2, preventing Angiotensins from being made and having itseffects
utricle and saccule project to
primarily the lateral nucleus
inhibitory surround is what? effects which neurons? how is it accomplished? benefit?
primary afferent simply has receptive field to which it responds to. secondary neuron ( in nucleus cuneatus) will respond most strongly to a strong stimulus in the center of its receptive field, and will be inhibited by additional stimualtion in the surrounding area Accomplished by LATERAL INHIBITION of neighbouring cells in dorsal column nuclei. benefit: sharpens two point discrimination
collecting system cells principal cells vs intercalated
principal cells=water channels and enacs intercalaed-pH balance
special features of cerebellum
principle cells are purkinje- inhibitory, stay within the cerebellum (projects are from deep nuclei)
acute intermittent porphyria
problem in the synthesis of heme, results in red urine during attacks.
Andersens Disease
problem with glycogen branching enzyme. have abnormally strait glycogen, which deposits in tissues diffuse symptoms Anderson Cooper as a Tree. Just picture a tree with lots of branches, with anderson coopers face. andersens disease.
brocas aphasia
problem with speach production. problem with grammatical (what is on top of what?)
Orniithine Trasncarbomoylase Disease (OTCD)
problem with this enzyme, cant make citrulline from ornithine and carbamoyl phosphate
how does progesterone physically stimulate ovulaiton itself?
progesterone causes release of plasminogen factor that makes plasmin to distend the follicular wall and faciliate rupture of the ovum from follicle
Intralaminar nuclei of thalamus func
projections throughout cortex, and to basal ganglia. receive input from reticular formation from brainstem
entorhinal cortex involvement in smell
projects to the hippocampus body. smell context and memory
prolactin vs oxytocin
prolactin- milk production oxytocin-milk release
appearance of uterus in different phases
proliferatie- straight glands, few and far between. secretory phase- (after ovulation) lots of secreting, tortuous glands menstration- lining breaks down, lots of WBCs,
effect of insulin on liver
promotes glucose storage as glycogen .
why is it harder to reinflate the lung after pneumothorax. what is this called.
properties of deflated lung change making it very elastic=stiff initially initial stiffness is Hysteresis
sensory feedback for error correction comes to cerebellum from
proprioception path. also vision.
radial glial cells
provide scaffolding that other cells move up to get to the right cortical level in development
schematic through the tubule
proximal tubule- most of the sodium and water reabsorbed descending limb of henle- only long loops reabsorb only water ascending limb- sodium reabsorbed distal convulted tubule-again sodium, not water collecting system- where ADH works
effect of psycho meds on prolactin
psycho meds inhibit dopamine, causing increased prolactin
defining features of left lung
pul a's are by themselves on top. only two lobes oblique sinus IT HAS THING POKING OUT CALLED THE LINGULA it has cardiac notch
pulmonary arteries develop from the ___aortic __
pulm arteries from 6th aortic arches
basal ganglia in motor pathways
receives ipsilateral input form motor cortex, sends info back to ipsi motor cortex sustains motor action to completion(direct route) and then turns it off (indirect) DIRECT ROUTE ultimately excitory (the 2 negs cangel eachother to make positive) neuron1- motor input to striatum(caudate and putamen) excitory neuron 2- inhibitorry from striatum to internal globus pallidus (and to substantia nigra pars reticulata [clear]) neuron 3- inhibitory from internal globus pallidus to VA/VL thalamus neuron 4- excitory thalamus back to motor cortex INDIRECT ROUTE ultimately inhibitory (3 negs) neu1- excitory motor to caudate and putamen neu2- inhib striatum to glob pal EXTERNUS neu3-inhibi glob pal externus to internus neu4-inhib to VA/VL thalamus neu 5- excitory back to motor cortex
nucleus solitarius
receives visceral input 7-taste from ant. tongue 9- taste from post tongue 10-visceral sensation from thorax and abdomen
Wernickes area=superior temporal gyrus
receptive apagia (cant understand language)
anorectal agenesis is most common butt malformation, what is it?
rectum (end of intestine) doesnt meat anus opening
arcuate line indicates lower boundry of
rectus sheath
lesions in preoptic area of hypothalamus is different in males and females. lesions here cause
reduce male sex drive
The more negative a redox potential is, the better the ___
reducing agent. So NAD+-NAH is -.32 This is negative, meaning NAD is good at being reducing agent. it reduces something else and is oxidized to NAD+
lower brainstem function
reflexes. Where cranial nerves enter the brain. Link cranial nerve input to spinal cord function (i.e. sneeze input form trigeminal, sneeze itself from trunk muscles) lower brainstem acts as linker between cranial nerves and trunk
superior colliculus func
reflexive head turning, eye shift to look at something.
reinforcer vs reward
reinforcer- simple prize for automated behavior. sit, get a treat reward- result of deliberative planned behavior- look up directions to the cafeteria, get food.
polycistic kidney diseas PKD
related to cilia on principal cells
gamma neuron conduction speed
relatively slow. Alpha moto neurons have large diameter fast conduction. gamma have smaller diamter slower conduction.
somatostatin
released by delta cells of pancreas. is anti-insulin. suppresses glucose influx. suppresses amino acid influx.
what is the effect of a rise in pH on plasma K levels ?why?
rise in serum pH causes H+ to leave cells to go to plasma. this loss of positive charge from the cell causes more K+ to enter cell than usual. so serum K+ will go down.
vomeronasal organ- pheremone perception
roof of mouth. like olfactory receptors but without cilia. used by some animals to detect pheromones. project to the acessory olfactory bulb which projects to amygdala to hypothalamus.
root of the lung def difference between right and left
root of lung is where wiring comes in. right lung has pulm arteries next to bronchiles, left lung has pulm arteries on top (dive down)
nissl bodies
rough ER staining. found throughout cell bodies, surrounding nucleas, and extending into large diameter proximal dendrites. NOT in axon
stria medullaris thalami function
runs axons to the habenular nucleus (axons cross in the habenular commisure)
somatosensory organization in the postcentral gyrus
sacral stuff is more superior hand,cervical is more inferior
axis of acceleration covered by saccula
sagital plane
Anterolateral spinothalamic pahtwya in thoracic
same as in lumbar(primary afferent synapses in dorsal horn of gray matter, second neuron crosses ant. commisure, new thoracic level stuff goes up anteromedially. older sacral stuff is posterolateral)
myelination in peripheral NS is done by
schwann cells=glial cells one schwann cell wraps around one internode.
histo of breasts
sebacous glands to lubricate skin. not connected to hair follicles. areola-adjacent to nipple, sebacous glands of montgommery
what breaks down carbohydrates in lumen?
secreted amylase
Neurotrophin func ex)Nerve Growth Factor NGF
secreted by target organ to induce axons to head towards it. losing axons arent able to uptake the neurotrophin and die.
amylin
secreted with insulin from beta cells. causes saciety.
functions of syncytiotrophoblast
secretes hormones transports o2, nutrients, IgG, immunological barrier
accessory sex glands
seminal vesicles- paired, fructose rich yellow fluid prostate- below bulburethral glands- clear pre-ejaculate
gamma motor neurons
send efferent info to the spindle (motor, not sensory)
dorsal medial nucleus of thalamus
sends info to association areas of FRONTAL LOBE. receives input from amygdala- so you learn in an emotional context
v5=MT
sensitive to direction of motion big receptive fields output to posterior parietal cortex as part of dorsal path
flow of info to motor cortex, where movements are initiated
sensory association cortex to prefrontal cortex Prefrontal cortex & som. sensory cortex to motor cortex
vestibular nuclei
sensory vestibular input from 8th nerve
muscle spindle
sensory! axons wrap around group of muscle fibers.
third ventricle
seperate right and left halves of diencephalon= hypothalamus and thalamus
lateral fissure
seperates frontal lobe from occipital lobe
central sulcus
seperates frontal lobe from parietal lobe
septum pallucida
seperates the two lateral ventricles. fornix at bottom
the ventral mesentary for the developing liver is called
septum transversum
melatonin is made from
seretonin (which comes from tryptophan)
serosa vs adventitia (in gallbladder and elsewherE)
serosa is a well defined, single-layered outer border. adventitia is a non-well defined outer border
serous mucous glands are under ___ control, the secretions from the goblet are under ___ control
serous mucous glands are under autonomic control, the secretions from the goblet cells come from local irritation
anti mullerian hormone produced by
sertoli cells
Epilepsy
sharp waves and, spike-and-slow wave complexes can be indicative of seizures a person w. epilepsy may have epileptiform sharp waves in the left temporal region, even if they arent having a seizue.
how do you develop hypertension in spite of compensetory mechanisms?
shift in baroreceptor sense of normal -misfunctioning kidneys require greater than normal pressure to excrete
visceral pleura appearance and sensory innervation
shiny layer adherent to lung surface. NO SENSORY INNERVATION
interneurons
short axons. work locally INHIBITORY, GABA facilitate communication amongst cells within the grey matter many types
defining features of right lung
side by side bronchioles and pulm a's three lobes (has horizontal fissure) smaller (right side is where liver is)
effects of epi and norepi
similar to corisol. increased glucose production. blocks insulin increases lipolysis
complex vs simple cells in visual cortex
simple cells have a small receptive field, to which they respond to an angle of contrast. complex respond to an angle ANYWHERE within a large piece of the visual field (respond to shape rather than location)
Central Pattern Generator for walking
spinal cord disconnected from body will fire leg alpha motor neurons in left right pattern of walking. baby makes walking motion if you touch its feet.
muscular and connective tissue of digestive tract derive from
splanchnic mesenchyme
visceral peritoneum surrounding gut is from
splanchnic mesoderm
sleep eeg
stage 0-wakefullness, low voltage random fast activity, alpha waves (8-12 hz) stage 1- dooze off. theta waves. slower frequency. stage 2- sleep spindles (14 cycles/s) K complexes- large amplitude waves stage 3,4-Slow wave sleep.High amplitude delta waves. REM- low voltage, high frequency. (similar to beta activity during wakefullness)
golgi stains
stains ENTIRE neuron, but only a few neurons
weigert stain
stains for myelin. shows myelinated cell processes
stria terminalis origin, path, func
starts at amygdala, runs between thalamus and caudate in a circle. connects the amygdala to cortical structures and the HYPOTHALAMUS
primary follice development
starts off with squamous follicular(=granulosa cells) becoems cuboidal.in the multilaminat primary follicle, from inside out it is oocyte ZONA pellucida, granulosa cell layers, basement memebrane, and outside that is theca with blood connections.
arrangement of cells of gastric pit in stomach
surface and shallow are mucous cells then neck mucous cellls stem cells, parietal cells= HCL acid and B12 absorption intrinsic factor chief cells dominate bottom of the pit-pesinogen
opiate receptor sites
superficial dorsal horn central grey medial thalamus hypothalamus
what does each cerebellar peduncle connect to?
superior cerebellar peduncle- to midbrain (decussates in midbrain) middle cerebrllar peduncle- to pons inferior-to medulla
pretectum loc func
superolateral to the superior colliculus. controls size of pupil. measures size and motion of objects.
two superoxides *O2- react to form hydrogen peroxide, catalysed by
superoxide mutase
difference between supraventricular tachycardia vs ventricular tachycardia
supra originates in atrium or AV node, looks like basically a normal tachycardia, ventricular tachycardia looks crazy, with wide QRS and no p wave neccisarily discernable.
2-supraoptic
supraoptic nuc-post. pituitary hormones paraventricular nuc- post. pituitary hormones (ADH, oxytocin) suprachiasmatic nuc- takes in visual info for light dark cycle anterior hypo.-parasympathetics, temp regulation
part of hypothalmus responsible for circadian rhythm
supraoptic nucleus. gets light input from retina
the hypothalamus is the direct controllar of emotional behavior coordinates somatic, autonomic, and endocrine responses. what does limbic system do?
surrounds hypothalamus, selects targets of emotional expression. gatekeeper of emotions
how does sweat lead to vasodilation?
sweat has enzyme that makes bradykinin
fimbrae of ovary function
sweep ovum to come out
what type of receptor makes the walls of the gi tract relax?
sympathetic makes GI relax (bc its not working), Beta 2's do this (BETA 2s are the sympathetic relaxing receptors)
what happens in cushings reflex (sympathetic, initial)
sympathetic stimulation of alpha adrenergic receptors (in response to ischemia) leads to constriction of vessels in brain, more total peripheral resistance, increase in blood pressure increase in pulse pressure MAKES MATTERS WORSE by increasing pressure in head
the spleen and liver act as reservoir of blood and excrete it in response to hemorrhage and ___stimulation
sympathetic stiumulation causes constriction which decreases flow to hepatic system and even expels some blood from hepatic and portal system
only __ autonomics affect limb vasculaturew
sympathetics
alpha rhythm
synchronized activity during wakefulness with eyes closed.
what is the corticohypothalamic pathway responsible for?
systemic responses (it can bypass the medullary cv center altogheteR) it is responsible for vasovagal increase in parasympathetic in response to emotional stimuli blushing- decreased sympathetic tone to the skin
phase 5- ejection
systole, aortic and pulmoniry valves open,
where and when would u hear mitral insufficiency
systole, in 5th intercostal space
What does Enolase do?
takes 2-phosphoglycerate, removes alcohol on end (creating enol)
ventroposteromedial nucleus
takes care of trigeminal input and gustatory input.
what does pyruvate kinase do? (IMPORTANT)
takes phosphoenolpyruvate and removes phosphate, leaving pyruvate, a ketol. this is high energy, releasing --14.8 kcal
portal lobule def
three hepatic lobules (each hexagonal with central venule) are aligned to share a common portal area, with a shared bile duct between them.
how color vision works.
three types of cones. each maximally absorbs at blue, green, and cone. a single cone absorbing doesnt tell u what color something is. it is the relative amount that the different cones are activated that is compared to form color perception. the rods maximally absorb at 498, somewhere in the green range
how does liver intake lipoprotein Remnants?
through the space of disse, the livers LDL-Receptors bind ApoE
during early excersise, u respond by increased the (lung property)
tidal volume, because, the lungs are still fairly compliant and u can increase alveolar respiration by just increasing volume taken into lungs
Microglia
tiny garbage men after cns injury, they lose their processes, migrate to lesion, phagocytose dead stuff, become compound granular corpuscles
How do parietal cells secrete HCL acid?
to Pump out H+: 1)Water diffuses into cell from blood 2)There is a lumenal H+/K+ ATPASE PUMP exchanger. it pumps OUT H+ to lumen takes in K+ from lumen The H+ comes from water To move Cl: 1)OH from water mixes with CO2 to make bicarbonate 2) On blood side, bicarbonate out exchanged for Chloride brought in 3)Chloride channel allows Cl to passively get to lumen
vasa recta and role in countercurrent exchange
vasa recta come off after the efferent arteriole for only juxtamedullary nephrons. for descending, water leave tube to vasa recta, for ascending, water leaves vasa recta for tube. "The bottom line here is that it's just a well-designed thing that allows us to keep the concentration in the inner medulla high instead of totally messing it up. The low blood flow helps as well to not mess up the high concentration gradient out here. "
how do bronchial vasculature respond to SYMPATHETICS
vasoconstriction (dont want too much fluid causing pressure on airways)
adh
vasopressin. released from post pituitary, increases water resorption by kidney
venous drainage of brain stem starting from third ventricle
vena terminalis runs w. stria terminalis. mixes with choroidal veins to run on roof of ventricle in internal cerebral vein. these join with basal veins to form great vein of Galen going through cerebellum.
which side (arterial, venous) is capacitive?
venous
appearance and function of venous plexi in mucosa
venous plexi are clear openings with thin walls. they swell periodically so one passage isnt constantly being bombarded with air
cardia output ( a flow rate) =
venous return
during intense exercise, u respond by increasing (lung property)
ventilation rate (bc the lungs are already stretched a lot, so u cant easily increase tidal volume)
Dopaminergic paths
ventral tegmental area to nucl. accumbens and frontal. also substantia nigra to caudate and putamen=stritatum. Related to Addiction Cocaine addicts have larger nucleus accumbens with more dopamine receptors
phase 2- slow ventricular filling
ventricle continues to fill, atrial pressure still greater than ventricular, at the end of phase 2 P wave happens as atria contraction
space in neural tube=neural canal becomes
ventricles
sometimes u hear a third heart sound in children, what is it?
ventricular filling during diastole
All other (non-microglial) glia derived from
ventricular layer
phase 4- isovolumic contraction
ventricular pressure rises as contraction continues, aortic valve opens, aortic pressue and ventricular pressure both spike
part of cerebellum that receives spinal input
vermis and surrounding intermediate zone.
parieto occiptal fissure
very deep prominant.
compared to systemic capillary pressures, how is a glomerular capillary?
very high capillary hydrostatic pressure to push stuff into glomerulus and into filtrate. needs to be especially high because bowmans space has no protein so it has low osmotic pressure pulling stuff in.
veins and venules of longs have how much smooth muscle?
very little smooth muscle, because its a low pressure system
nodulus and flocculus involved in
vestibular. called the vestibulocerebellum
effective vascular volume
volume moving in body that is actually getting to tissues. this is the volume sensed by body to tell kidneys whether more volume needed
Histo of Adrenal Glands
zona glomerulosa- groups of 3-5 cells. CLEAR lipid filled cells. make aldosterone. fenestrated capillaries. zona fasciculata-long cords of red acidophilic cells filled iwth enxymes. have some vesicles fof lipid droplets with steroid hormone precursors. SPONGIOCYTES. capillaries between cords zona reticularis- make androgens. less acidophilic, less steorid-making enzymes. have lipid droplets medulla- basophilic.big cells. modified neurons. chromaffin cells. polygonal. medulla has gigantic veincalled 'central adrenomedullary vein'.
