Myths Final

Inanna (Sumerian) = Ishtar (Akkadian)

Goddess of war and carnal love/fertility (Mesopotamian)

Kamrushepa

god/goddess of magic; midwife (Hittite)

Gulses

goddesses of the fate; determine human destiny (Hittite)

Funerary Practices / Rituals

Every culture and civilization attends to the proper care of their dead and had three things in common relating to death and the disposition of the dead: o Some type of funeral rites, rituals, and ceremonies o A sacred place for the dead o Memorialization of the dead o NOTE: difference between funerary practices (burial practices) and mortuary practices (cult of the dead)

Succession Myth

Governing god struggles with rivals for supremacy

Oracles

Seeking direct communication (e.g. Oracle at Delphi in Greece)

Hannahanna

creatrix; grandmother; wisdom (Hittite)

Creation Myth

"A symbolic narrative of how the world began and how people first came to inhabit it"; also, creation of the gods

Anu

"Heaven"; sky god; nominal head of pantheon (Uruk) (Mesopotamian)

Ritual

"I take ritual to be a form or structure, defining it as the performance of more or less invariant sequences of formal acts and utterances not encoded by the performer" o formal o invariant o performed o received

Ninhursag

"Lady of the Hills"; goddess of birth / childrearing (Mesopotamian)

Enlil

"Lord Wind"; active head of pantheon (Nippur) (Mesopotamian)

Enki (Sumerian) = Ea (Akkadian)

"Lord of Earth" (Eridu) (Mesopotamian)

Destruction Myth

"Stories relating the past destruction of humanity, the world, or a significant part of either"

Combat Myth

"Supernatural battle between order and chaos (or good and evil)"

Basilomorphism

"king-shaped"; mimicking the structure of king and court

Ereshkigal

"lady of the great earth" (called Allatu on occasion); he and her spouse Nergal live in a lapis-lazuli palace; Namtar = "fate"— Ereshkigal's aide (Mesopotamian)

Ankh

"life" (Egyptian)

Sun Goddess of the Earth

'appearance' of the sun-goddess of Arinna during the night time; came to head the deities of the netherworld and to be associated with Lelwani (Hittite)

Taru / Tarkhun

*Storm God of Hatti/Heaven; Urgatic Baal and Mesopotamian Adad; preserver of order (Hittite)

Wurushemu

*Sun Goddess of Arinna; Queen of heaven and earth; patroness of Hittite king and state (Hittite)

Osiris Myth

1. murder of Osiris by his brother Seth 2. posthumous conception and birth of Horus (son of Osiris and Isis) 3. conflict between Horus and Seth o Myth best known from classical sources (esp. Plutarch, Greek writer in 2nd century CE)

Sacred Kingship

3 basic characteristics: o They are the receptacle of supernatural or divine power o They descend from divine or semi-divine rulers o They are agents or mediators of the sacred

Theodicy

A specific branch of theology and philosophy that attempts to reconcile the existence of evil or suffering in the world with the belief in an omniscient, omnipotent, and benevolent God (e.g. Book of Job)

Religion

Action or conduct indicating a belief in, reverence for, and desire to please, a divine ruling power; the exercise or practice of rites or observances implying this; recognition on the part of man of some higher unseen power as having control of his destiny, and as being entitled to obedience, reverence, and worship

Orhpeus and Eurydice: Ovid's Metamorphoses

Apollo gives his son Orpheus a lyre and teaches him how to play. Orpheus played with such perfection that even Apollo was surprised. It is said that nothing could resist his beautiful melodies, neither enemies nor beasts. Even trees and rocks were entranced with his music. Orpheus fell in love with Eurydice, a woman of unique beauty and grace, whom he married and lived happily with for a short time. However, when Hymen was called to bless the marriage, he predicted that their perfection was not meant to last. A short time after this ominous prophecy, Eurydice was wandering in the forest with the Nymphs. In some versions of the story, Aristaeus, a shepherd, then saw her, was beguiled by her beauty, made advances towards her, and began to chase her. Other versions of the story relate that Eurydice was merely dancing with the Nymphs. In any case, while fleeing or dancing, she was bitten by a snake and died instantly. Orpheus sang his grief with his lyre and managed to move everything living or not in the world; both humans and gods were deeply touched by his sorrow and grief. At some point, Orpheus decided to descend to Hades to see his wife. Ovid's version of the myth does not explain this decision,[4] while other versions relate that the gods and nymphs[citation needed] or Apollo himself, Orpheus' father,[citation needed] suggest that he make this journey. Any other mortal would have died, but Orpheus, protected by the gods, went to Hades and arrived at the infamous Stygian realm, passing by ghosts and souls of people unknown. He also managed to charm Cerberus, the three-headed dog. Orpheus presented himself in front of the god of the underworld Hades (Pluto) and his wife Persephone. Orpheus played his lyre, melting even Hades' heart. Hades told Orpheus that he could take Eurydice with him but under one condition; Eurydice would follow him while walking out to the light from the caves of the underworld, but he should not look at her before coming out to the light or else he would lose her forever. If Orpheus was patient, he would have Eurydice as a normal woman again by his side. Thinking it a simple task for a patient man like himself, Orpheus was delighted; he thanked the gods and left to ascend back into the world. Unable to hear Eurydice's footsteps, however, he began fearing the gods had fooled him. Eurydice was in fact behind him, but as a shade, having to come back into the light to become a full woman again. Only a few feet away from the exit, Orpheus lost his faith and turned to see Eurydice behind him, but her shadow was whisked back among the dead, now trapped in Hades forever. Orpheus tried to return to the underworld, but a man cannot enter the realm of Hades twice while alive. According to various versions of the myth, Orpheus started playing a mourning song with his lyre, calling for death so that he could be united with Eurydice forever. Orpheus is ultimately killed either by beasts tearing him apart, or by the Maenads, in a frenzied mood. According to another version, Zeus decided to strike him with lightning knowing Orpheus would reveal the secrets of the underworld to humans. In any case, Orpheus died, but the Muses decided to save his head and keep it among the living people to sing forever, enchanting everyone with his lovely melodies and tones.

Polytheism

Belief or worship of more than one god

Henotheism (or monolatry)

Belief or worship of one god without asserting that he is the only god

Monotheism

Belief or worship of only one god

Science

Branch of study which is concerned either with a connected body of demonstrated truths or with observed facts systematically classified and more or less colligated [connected] by being brought under general laws, and which includes trustworthy methods for the discovery of new truths within its own domain

Anthropogony

Creation of humans (how?, why?, who?)

Inara

Daughter of the storm god; perhaps a goddess of the hunt & wild animals; protective deity of Hattusha (Hittite)

Prophecy

Divinely inspired utterance; someone is spontaneously inspired to foretell the future or issue a divine message (e.g. Amos in the Bible and various women associated with the goddess Ishtar in 7th century Assyria)

Maat

Egyptian concept + goddess; cosmic and social order / balance, truth, righteousness, and justice

Nam

Fate / destiny determined by gods (Mesopotamian)

Ashur / Assur

Head of Assyrian pantheon (Assur) (Mesopotamian)

Marduk

Head of Babylonian pantheon by ~1200 BCE (Babylon) (Mesopotamian)

Omen

If, then type statement for divination

Ancestors in Rituals

Involvement of ancestors or their gods in occasional rituals; Purposes: o Legitimation o Genealogical purposes o Benediction, blessing o Participation

Rites of Passage

Involves some change to the participant, especially in his/her social status; according to Arnold van Gennep there are 3 phases: o separation o liminality (period between states / limbo) o incorporation

Lelwani

King (later lady) of the nethwerold (Hittite)

Divination

Learning what the gods had in store for you (astrology and extispicy)

Syncretism

Merging or equation of one god with another similar god (e.g. Sumerian Utu = Akkadian Shamash)

Charter Myth

Myths are belief-systems set up to authorize and validate current social customs and institutions. Much as the Constitution provides a charter or fundamental social contract for our society; Social Charter Myths were social charters, assertions of the continuity and importance of fundamental moral and social rules.

Odysseus Summons the Shades: Homer's The Odyssey

Odysseus travels to the Underworld and makes the offerings according to Circe's instructions. The shades of the dead (shades = ghosts) gather to drink the blood (gross) and then talk to Odysseus. The first shade is Elpenor, freshly fallen from Circe's roof. Odysseus' eyes bug out when he sees one of his crew members—he weeps and listens to the man's story. Elpenor begs for Odysseus to honor his death by building a burial mound (essentially a pile of rocks) for his dead body. Odysseus agrees, since it's the least he can do after totally having failed to notice that one of his crew members was missing. Odysseus then glimpses his mother's shade among the rest of the dead. This is news to him, since last he heard she was still alive. Not a good way to find out. Fortunately, he is soon distracted from his weeping by the arrival of Teiresias (the dead blind prophet). Teiresias drinks the blood of Odysseus' sacrifice and then speaks. His first words are a warning: don't eat Helios' cattle at Thrinakia. His next are to casually announce that Odysseus will survive alone. In other words, all of his companions will die. Great, that's probably something they're glad to hear.. The good news is, Odysseus will make it home after all, but he'll find trouble there. He'll have to make the suitors pay for their insolence with ... wait for it ... blood. After defeating the suitors, Teiresias continues, Odysseus had better go inland until he reaches an area of earth which has never known the sea. There, he has to pray to Poseidon in order to ensure himself a peaceful seaborne death in his old age, surrounded by all his folk. Okay, that's great, says Odysseus; but why is his mother here, and can he talk to her? Sure, says Teiresias, as long as she drinks the blood of the sacrifice, too. One gory mess later, Odysseus' mother Antikleia tells him of the situation back home in Ithaka: Telemachos is growing up but helpless against the suitors; Penelope is still loyal; and, oh yeah, she herself has died from loneliness. Her son tries three times to embrace her, but this doesn't work out too well, since Antikleia is dead. When she leaves, there's a long line of other dead people waiting to talk to him. The shades don't get too many visitors around these parts. Odysseus draws his sword to hold them back. (Except they're already dead, so we're not sure how effective that would be.) He lets them come and drink one at a time. Odysseus speaks first to a long line of princesses: Tyro, Antiope, Alkmene, Megara, Epikaste, Chloris, Leda, Iphimedeia, Phaidra, Prokris, Ariadne, Maira, Klymene, and Eriphyle. At this point, Odysseus pauses in his narrative. The Phaiakians are all "No way!" Queen Arete, clearly impressed by all these stories, decides that when they do finally send Odysseus on his way, it should be with lots of sparkly things (i.e., treasure). King Alkinoös then asks Odysseus if, while he was down in the underworld, he met any of his friends who died at Troy. He sure did! Back in the Underworld, Odysseus sees Agamemnon and hears the tragic story of his murder and his son Orestes' revenge against Aigisthos and Klytaimestra. Agamemnon is understandably bitter against women and considers all of them treacherous. Oh, except for Penelope, whom he praises for her loyalty. (Nice save.) Then appear the spirits of Achilleus, Patroklos, Antilochos, and Telamonian Aias, some of Odysseus' buddies from the Trojan war. Odysseus praises Achilleus for having earned so much honor and glory in his life; surely his death is like, the greatest death ever. Nope. Actually, Achilleus says, being dead sucks. He'd rather be a poor country farmer who is alive than a glorious lord in the Underworld. Wise words. He then asks Odysseus about his son, Neoptolemos; Odysseus responds with what he knows of the lad's brilliance and luck in battle. Then Odysseus pleads with Telamonian Aias to forget their earlier quarrel in Troy over Achilleus' arms. [Mythological Context Lesson: You've already heard about little Aias in Chapter 4, so here's the deal with big or "Telamonian" Aias: back at Troy, Odysseus and big Aias competed for the arms of Achilleus, who had been killed and therefore didn't need his weapons anymore. The arms were supposed to go to the bravest man, but the Greeks couldn't bring themselves to make a decision since they figured whoever lost would leave the war in a huff. Since they couldn't afford to lose either of these great heroes, so they let the Trojan captives decide. The Trojans picked Odysseus, and the enraged Aias killed himself. Sore loser.] Clearly still peeved, the ghostly Aias turns away from Odysseus. Ouch. Rejected. Before he goes, Odysseus also sees Minos, Orion, Tityos, Tantalos, Sisyphos, and Herakles. These are all figures of Greek myth and, if you're interested in the specifics (obviously you are), check out your text. (And then check out Shmoop's handy-dandy mythology guides!) When all the shades come crowding in to drink the blood, Odysseus freaks out and runs back to his ship. Everyone leaves the Underworld a little bit wiser and less a few sacrificial animals.

Storm God of Nerik

Son of Storm God and Sun Goddess (Hittite)

Etiology / Aetiology

Story explaining origin of a practice or phenomenon

Ishtanu

Sun god of heaven; dispenser of justice (Hittite)

Magic

The pretended art of influencing the course of events by compelling the agency of spiritual beings, or by bringing into operation some occult controlling principle of nature

Telipinu(s)

Vegetation god and also a storm god; son of Storm God of Hatti and Sun-Goddess of Arinna (Hittite)

Wisdom Literature

Wisdom literature is a genre of literature in the Ancient Near East. This genre is characterized by sayings of wisdom intended to teach about divinity and about virtue. The key principle of wisdom literature is that while techniques of traditional storytelling are used, books also presume to offer insight and wisdom about nature and reality

Anunnaki

a later text refers to 600 Anunnaki gods assigned to the netherworld; chthonic deities (Mesopotamian)

Nergal

also called Erra on occasion; called 'son of Ishtar' in myth Nergal and Ereshkigal; Ishum = night watchman, herald — Nergal's aide (Mesopotamian)

Ziggurat

temple / tower (wedding cake) connects heaven and earth (Mesopotamian)

Me

essential / divine order of things (Mesopotamian)

Anthropomorphism

human-formed

Katabasis

journey down to the netherworld

Anabasis

journey up to heaven

Aqhat Cycle

o Ugarit o El grants a childless man (Danel) (not a king) a son (Aqhat), but in end son killed by Yatpan at the command of the goddess Anat since Aqhat refused to give her his bow (created by the god Kothar-wa-Hasis); after 7 years of mourning, his sister (Paqat) avenges his death o mid 14th century; three tablets long o Daniel o El, the creator god o Aqhat, Daniel's son o Kothar-wa-Hasis, god of magic and crafting o Anat, the goddess of the hunt and El's daughter o Yatpan, Anat's henchman o Pughat, Aqhat's sister and Daniel's daughter o El (creator god; senior god) grants a pious man, Daniel (not a king), a son (Aqhat), but in the end the son is killed at behest of the goddess Anat (sister of the god Baal) for refusing to give her a bow that she wanted. o The bow had been a present for the god Kothar-wa-Hasis (god of wisdom and magic) to his Daniel. Anat had offered Aqhat immortality for the weapon. o It appears that Aqhat's sister Pughat avenges her brother's death. o Baal approached El with his petition: "... O, bull El, my father, bless him! You who created all creatures, strengthen him so that there can be a son and offspring in his palatial house, who will raise a stele in the sanctuary for his divine ancestor, even a votive memorial for his clan, one who will bring his spirit out of the netherworld and protect his steps from the dust, who will shut the jaws of any who malign him and who will expel any who wrong him, who will grasp his hand when he is drunk and support him when he has too much wine, who will partake of his meal offering in Baal's temple and his portion in El's temple, who will plaster his roof when it become muddy and wash his gear when it becomes dirty." o Anat's Offer of Immortality and Aqhat's Refusal Virgin Anat replied: "Ask for life, champion Aqhat! Ask for life and I will give it to you, even immortality and I will grant it to you. I can make it possible for you to count the years with Baal, the one who lives will live indeed ..." Aqhat the champion replied: "Do not lie, Maiden, for to a hero your lies are rubbish! What does a mortal get for his fate? What does a mortal get in the end? Glaze will be poured on my head, lime on top of my skull ... the death of all will I die. I too will certainly die!" o El's 'permission' to Anat "When she stamped her feet, the earth shook." Anat slanders Aqhat to El, but El says: "I know you, daughter, that you are all to human, and your volatile nature is otherwise not to be found among goddesses. Be gone, impious daughter! You will seize whatever you wish and attain whatever your desire. Anyone who stands in your way will be utterly annihilated" o Anat gets a nomaid warrior Yatpan to kill Aqhat o His death causes nature to go wrong o Daniel curses the towns in the area where Aqhat was killed o Apparently Daniel's daughter Pughat takes vengeance on Yatpan, but due to damage to the text his it no clear o "Let him have a son in his house, an heir inside his palace, to set up a stela for his divine ancestors, a votive marker for his clan in the sanctuary; to send his incense up from the earth, the song of his burial place from the dust; to shut the jaws of his abusers, to drive off his oppressors; to hold his hand when he is drunk, to support him when he is full of wine; to eat his grain-offering in the temple of Baal, his portion in the temple of El; to patch his roof when it gets muddy, to wash his clothes when they get dirty."

Epithet

name or description attributed to a god

Egyptian "The Man who was Weary of Life"

o Wisdom Literature o My ba is senseless in disparaging the agony of life / and impels me to death before my time. / And yet the West will be pleasant for me, for there is no sorrow there. o Whom can I trust today? / One's brothers have become evil, / and friends of today have no compassion? o Death is before me today / like a man's yearning to see his home / after passing many years in exile. o "Love me here (and) now, and forget about the West. / Continue indeed in your desire to reach the West, / but only when your body in buried in the earth."

New Year's Festival at Babylon

o takes place over 12 days; month Nisan days 1-12 o first new moon following Spring equinox o so important that its non-celebration at Babylon reported in chronicles o hymns, prayers, offerings, rituals, processions, feasting, etc. o involves statues of other gods coming to Babylon; gathering of the gods had both a cosmic and political meaning o Day 2: [Said by the priest to god Marduk:] "Have pity on your city of Babylon; Turn your face upon your temple Esagila; Maintain the freedoms of the privileged citizens of Babylon" o Day 4 real beginning of festival recitation of Babylonian Epic of Creation (Enuma elish) to statue of the god Marduk in evening o Day 5 High Priest takes king's scepter, ring, mace and crown/tiara (i.e., all the symbols of royal power), putting them on a throne in the cella of Marduk High Priest • strikes king on cheek • pulls him to the ground by his ears, making him kneel before the statue of Marduk [Said by the high priest:] "Have no fear ... The god Bel [will listen to] your prayer ... he will magnify your lordship ... he will exalt you kingship ... The god Bel will bless you ... forever. He will destroy your enemy, fell your adversaries" High Priest strikes him again, but this time to obtain an omen • omen: tears = Bel favorable; no tears = Bel angry [humiliation of king is a personal humiliation; i.e., he is not representing the people here or atoning for their errors] o Day 8 Marduk decrees destinies for the king (how?) in a grand procession, the king takes the statue of Marduk to temple outside city o Day 11 Sacred marriage ritual involving statues ? Marduk decrees destinies (for the land?) return to Esagila and gods continue their meeting o Day 12 Gods return to own temples o an attempt to celebrate or ensure the success the spring harvest of barley o a patronal festival in honor of the god of the city (Marduk), including his enthronement o the marking of the calendrical New Year o to confirm and renew the recognition of the divine sovereign on the part of the gods who participate in the festival o to renew and confirm the link between the king of the gods, the divine ruler of Babylon, Marduk, and the human ruler o the reception and enthronement of the god Nabû o a symbolic representation of certain episodes in the Epic of Creation o commemorate the victory of order over chaos o a series of rites of passage that are variants of the theme of renewal, not in a cosmic sense but as a celebration of the validity of the political, social and religious order of the central values of Babylonian civilization; the old order is momentarily jeopardized, emerges intact and is reaffirmed o reassert the king's authority and remind people of need to have the goodwill of the gods o renewal of kingship o ensure stability o an event of national and political significance, celebrated Marduk's supremacy, the position of the king, and the divine order

Ka

untranslatable Egyptian term; creative life-force of an individual (human or divine)

Theogony

Creation of the gods (how?, why?, who?)

Cosmogony

Creation of the universe (how?, why?, who?)

Underworld Vision of an Assyrian Prince

o "I saw Namtar, the vizier of the underworld, who fashions the visceral omens; a man stood before him, while he held the hair of his head in his left hand, and wielded a dagger in his right [...] Namtaru, his wife, had the head of a cherub, (her) hands and feet being human. Death had the head of a dragon, his hands were human, his feet [...] The Evil Genie had a human head and hands, was crowned with a tiara and had the feet of an eagle. With his left foot he was trampling on a crocodile ... The Upholder of Evil and the head of a bird, his wings were spread out and he flew here and there; his hands and his feet were human. Humut-tabal (="Quick, take [me] there!"), the ferryman of the underworld, had an Anzû head, ..." o "The Ghost had an ox's head, his four hands and feet were like those of human beings. The Evil Spirit had a lion's head, (his) hands and feet were those of Anzû. Shulak was a lion, standing constantly on his hind legs. The Oath had a goat's head, (his) hands and feet were human. Nedu, the porter of the underworld, had a lion's head, and human hands; his feet were those of a bird. Total Evil had two heads; one was the head of a lion, the second was the head of [......] When I raised my eyes, (I saw) the valiant Nergal seated on a regal throne, apparelled with the royal tiara; with both hands he grasped two grim maces, each with two ... heads. ... Lightning was flashing in ... his arms; the Anunnaki, the great gods, knelt to his right and left. The nether world was full of terror; a mighty silence lay before the crown prince"

Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the Netherworld

o "In those days, in those distant days, in those nights, in those remote nights, in those years, in those distant years; in days of yore, when the necessary things had been brought into manifest existence, in days of yore, when the necessary things had been for the first time properly cared for, when bread had been tasted for the first time in the shrines of the Land, when the ovens of the Land had been made to work, when the heavens had been separated from the earth, when the earth had been delimited from the heavens, when the fame of mankind had been established, when An had taken the heavens for himself, when Enlil had taken the earth for himself, when the netherworld had been given to Ereshkigala as a gift; ... At that time there was a single tree, a single halub-tree, a single tree, growing on the bank of the holy Euphrates ..." o "He (=Gilgamesh) took his bronze axe used for expeditions, which weighs seven talents and seven minas, in his hand. He killed the snake immune to incantations living at its roots. The Anzu bird living in its branches took up its young and went into the mountains. The phantom maid living in its trunk left her dwelling and sought refuge in the wilderness. As for the tree, he uprooted it and stripped its branches, and the sons of his city, who went with him, cut up its branches and bundled them up. He gave it to his sister holy Inanna for her chair. He gave it to her for her bed. As for himself, from its roots, he manufactured his ball (pukku) and, from its branches, he manufactured his mallet (mekku)." o The ball and mallet fall into a hole and end up in the Netherworld o "At the gate of Ganzer (=Netherworld), in front of the nether world, he sat down. Gilgamesh wept, crying bitterly: "O my ball! O my mallet! O my ball, I am still not satiated with its charms, the game with it has not yet palled for me! If only my ball waited still in the carpenter's house for me! I would treat the carpenter's wife like my own mother -- if only it waited still there for me! I would treat the carpenter's child like my little sister -- if only it waited still there for me! My ball has fallen down to the netherworld -- who will retrieve it for me? My mallet has fallen down to Ganzer -- who will retrieve it for me?" o Enkidu offers to go and get them and so Gilgamesh gives him some advice: "You should not put on your clean garments: they would recognize immediately that you are alien. You should not anoint yourself with fine oil from a bowl: they would surround you at its scent. You should not hurl throw-sticks in the netherworld: those struck down by the throw-sticks would surround you. You should not hold a cornel-wood stick in your hand: the spirits would feel insulted by you. You should not put sandals on your feet. You should not shout in the netherworld. You should not kiss your beloved wife. You should not hit your wife even if you are annoyed with her. You should not kiss your beloved child. You should not hit your son even if you are annoyed with him. The outcry aroused would detain you in the nether world." o G: Did you see the way things are ordered in the Netherworld? If only you could tell me, my friend, if only you could tell me! E: If I am to tell you the way things are ordered in the Netherworld, O sit you down and weep! G: Then let me sit down and weep! E: The one whom you touched with joy in your heart, he says: "I am going to ruin." Like an old garment he is infested with lice; like a crack in the floor he is filled with dust. G: "Woe" cried the lord (G) and he sat down in the dust. G: Did you see the man with one son? E: I saw him. G: How does he fare? E: For the peg built into his wall bitterly he laments. G: Did you see the man with two sons? E: I saw him. G: How does he fare? E: Seated on two bricks he east a bread loaf. G: Did you see him who had three sons? ... E: He drinks water from a saddle water skin. G: Did you see him who had four sons? ... E: His heart rejoices like a man who has four asses to yoke. G: Did you see him who had five sons? ... E: Like a good scribe he is indefatigable, he enters the palace easily. G: Did you see him who had six sons? ... E: He is a cheerful as a ploughman. G: Did you see the man with seven sons? ... E: He sits on a throne as a companion to the gods and he listens to the judgments. G: Did you see the man with no heir? ... E: He eats a bread-loaf like a kiln-fired brick. ... G: Did you see the woman who never gave birth? ... E: Like a ...-pot, she is thrown away violently, she gives no man joy. G: Did you see him who had no respect for the word of his mother and father? ... E: "O my body! O my limbs!" he never ceases to cry. G: Did you see him who fell in battle? ... E: His father and mother are not there to hold his head, and his wife weeps. ... G: Did you see the spirit of him who has no funerary offerings? ... E: He eats the scraps and the crumbs tossed out in the street." G: Did you see my little stillborn children who never knew existence? ... E: They play with a bucket of gold and silver, full of honey and ghee. G: Did you see him who was set on fire? ... E: I did not see him. His spirit is not there. His smoke went up to the sky. o Death of Gilgamesh: Enki answered An and Enlil: "In those days, in those distant days, in those nights, in those distant nights, in those years, in those distant years, after the assembly had made the Flood sweep over to destroy the seed of mankind, among us I was the only one who was for life, and so he remained alive -- Ziudsura, although a human being, remained alive. Then you made me swear by heaven and by earth, ... that no human will be allowed to live forever any more. Now, as we look at Gilgamesh, could not he escape because of his mother?" (Another god speaks:) "Let Gilgamesh as a ghost, below among the dead, be the governor of the nether world. Let him be pre-eminent among the ghosts, so that he will pass judgments and render verdicts, and what he says will be as weighty as the words of the gods Ningishzida and Dumuzi."

Nergal and Ereshkigal

o "It is the fiery story of passion and conflict, seduction and betrayal, struggle and surrender. Its narrative spans the chasm between heaven and hell as it dramatizes the thin line between love and hate" o Story revolves around the isolation and sexual frustration of Ereshkigal o "Where is the one who did not stand in the presence of my messenger? Bring him to me that I may kill him."

A Diviner's Prayer

o "O Shamash, lord of judgment, O Adad, lord of prayers and divination, I hold up to you a sacred lamb, offspring of a ewe, a bright-eyed, dappled lamb, A sacred . . .-lamb, curly of fleece, that flopped out from the ewe's breech. It's fleece, which no shepherd plucked, neither right nor left, I will pluck for you; It's fleece of right and left side I will set out for you. Invite the great gods with resin, let cedar and resin invite all of you. In the extispicy I perform, in the ritual I perform, place the truth! In the matter of so-and-so, son of so-and-so, in the lamb I offer, place the truth! O Shamash, you opened the bolts of heaven's gates, you ascended to this place on a stairway of pure lapis" o "Next, you hold a scepter of lapis at your side for judgment. The case of the great gods you judge, the case of the wild beast you judge, the case of mankind you judge : Judge this day the case of so-and-so, son of so-and-so; on the right of this lamb, on the left of this lamb, place the truth! Come in, O Shamash, lord of judgment; come in, O Adad, lord of prayers and divination; come in, O Sin, king of the tiara, Ishtar, lady of divination, Ishara, who dwells in the inner chamber, Gestinanna, recorder of the gods, herald of Anu; Nergal, lord of the weapon: make present the divinity in charge of the extispicy I perform, and in the extispicy I perform place the truth! In the handiwork of the great gods, in the tablet of the gods, let the "vesicle" be in place. Let Nisaba, the scribe, write the case down." o "Let-the divine shepherd bring forward a sheep to the assembly of the great gods, so the case may go well. Let the judges, the great gods, who sit on thrones of gold, who dine from trays of lapis, take their seats before you. Let them judge the case, injustice and righteousness. Judge this day the case of so-and-so, son of so-and-so. On the right of this lamb, on the left of this Iamb, place the truth! I perform this extispicy for the well-being of so-and-so, son of so-and-so, for well-being."

Conclusions on Ancestor and Family God Rituals

o Ancestors and family gods played parts in both official and unofficial religion o Dead ancestors watched over and protected their families o Dead ancestors consulted for approval and advice o Ancestor worship used to consolidate family and enhance legitimacy/authority of ruler and head of family o Sons were expected to care for their ancestors in life and then maintain their cult in death o Family religions were male-dominated o Rituals were specific and planned, and centered around transformations o All levels of Syro-Palestinian society likely had personal, family gods whom were worshipped in the household

The Hymn to the Aten

o Background: Akhenaten (ruler of Egypt c. 1364 - 1347 BCE) moves capital and changes religion to henotheistic religion o "You rise in perfection on the horizon of the sky, O living Aten, who determines life! Whenever you are risen upon the eastern horizon you fill the land with your perfection. You are beautiful, great, radiant, high over every land; your rays embrace the lands as far as everything you have made. ... How manifold are your deeds, although they are hidden from sight. O Sole God, there is no other like you. You created the earth as you desired, you alone: all people, herds and flocks, all beings on land that walk upon their feet, and all beings in the air that fly on wings." o "The lands of Khor (=Syria-Palestine) and Kush (=Sudan) and the land of Egypt: you set every man in his place; you supply their needs. Each one has provision; and his lifetime is counted out. Their tongues are diverse in speech, and their characters as well. Their skins are different, for you differentiate the foreigners. In the underworld you make a Nile; you bring it forth as you wish to feed the populace, since you make them for yourself, their utter master." o "You are lord of them all, who toils from them, The lord of all lands, who shines for them, Aten of the daytime, great in majesty. All distant lands, you make them live, for you set a Nile in the sky that it may descent for them and make waves upon the mountains like a sea to irrigate the fields in their towns." o "How functional are your designs, Lord of eternity: a Nile in the sky for the foreigners and all creatures that go upon their feet, a Nile coming back from the underworld for Egypt. ... You are in my heart, and there is no other who knows you except for your son Nefer-kheperu-Re Wa-en-Re (=Akhenaten), for you have apprised him of your designs and your power. The earth comes forth into existence by your hand, and you make it." o "When you rise, they live; when you set, they die. You are a lifespan in yourself; one lives by you. All eyes are upon your perfection until you set; all work ceases when you rest in the West. You who rise and make everything grow for the King and (for) everyone who hastens on foot, because you founded the land." o "When you rise, they live; You raised them up for your son, who has come forth from your body, the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, the one Living on Maat, Lord of the Two Lands Nefer-kheperu-Re Wa-en-Re, son of Re, the one Living on Maat, Master of Regalia, Akhenaten, the long, lived, and the Foremost Wife of the Land, who he loves, the Mistress of the Two Lands, Nefer-nefru-Aten Nefertiti, living and young, forever and ever." o Akhenaten (and Nefertiti) are the only ones who can understand the Aten and stand in direct contact with him o The people have to worship the god Aten through king and royal family. o Elimination of mythology o There is no afterlife in the traditional sense: souls of the dead, just as the living believers, gather at the temple at dawn. This was a major shake-up of afterlife beliefs. o Obliteration of the word "gods" from some older monumental texts, closure of temples of (some) other gods (especially Amun), confiscation of property owned by those temples, but no actual edict banning the worship of/denying existence of (all) other gods known

Egyptian Tombs

o Construction of tombs would begin early in an Egyptian's life o Tombs had two parts (at least): The actual tomb/burial chamber, where the deceased rested, and the tomb-chapel where he was thought to "interact" with his family and visitors; had a false door where offerings were left o additional rooms serving as magazines for the food and other provisions, cultic niches for other family members, or similar.

Adapa and the South Wind

o Akkadian myth preserved on cuneiform tablets from el-Amarna as well as from Nineveh el-Amarna = royal capital of Egypt in 14th century i.e., one of few Mesopotamian pieces of literature attested in Egypt and attested there about 600 years before first attested in Mesopotamia o Adapa was an outstanding cultic functionary at Eridu whose understanding Ea had made perfect o Story involves his accidentally breaking the wing of the South Wind and the consequences of this action How did he break the wing of the South Wind? o Adapa sage of Eridu, favorite of the god Ea: "He (Ea) made broad understanding in him (Adapa), to disclose the design of the land. / To him he gave wisdom, but did not give him eternal life / At that time, in those years, he (Adapa) was a sage, son of Eridu ... / A sage—nobody rejects his word— / Clever, extra-wise, he was one of the Anunnaki" o Boat capsizes and he breaks South wind's wing: "South Wind, though you send your brothers against me, however many there are, I shall still break your wing" o The god Anu is upset at this and demands that Adapa come before him in the heavens o Adapa follows Ea's advice: appear sad and not eat the food or drink the water offered him since they will be the bread and water of death (i.e., no mixing with other dimension) o "they will ask you "why are you dressed in mourning clothes?" you say: "two gods disappeared from our land" they will say: "who are they" you will say: "Dumuzi and Gizzida" They will laugh and help you out with An. They will offer food of death; do not eat they will offer waters of death; do not eat" o Adapa goes back to earth

King Cheops and the Magicians

o Also know as the "(Middle Kingdom) Tales of Wonder" o Set in Old Kingdom, but only known from a papyrus dating to just before the New Kingdom that may record a tale of the Middle Kingdom o Tales supposedly told to Khufu (Cheops), the 4th dynasty builder of the Great Pyramid (ca. 2589-2566 BCE) o Collection of 5 interrelated tales showing the power of magicians (lector priests), with the final tale prophesying the end of Khufu's royal line through the birth of the first three kings of the 5th dynasty o Likely first part of story to show power of magicians and thus confirm certainty of the prophecy

Illuyanka Myth

o Anatolian (Hattite) o Hattic combat myth involving Illuyanka ("eel-snake") and the Storm God (Hurrian: Teshup; Hittite: Tarhunna; Luwian: Tarhunt) o two versions of the myth recorded on a single tablet; at least 8 copies o in both versions a cosmic battle in which the Storm God is first defeated by the Serpent, but later prevails; likely to explain a poor Spring to the defeat and incapacitation of the Storm God by an evil force o in both versions the Storm God receives help from a mortal, who suffers in the end (in second version; in first version uncertain) o first version is an aetiology for the origins of the spring purulli festival o second version may have been performed by cult personnel o version of mythic/heroic battle between good and evil, order and chaos known in numerous cultures o - evil often in form of a serpent/snake/dragon o Storm God not depicted particularly great light o both versions involve violation of social code

Emar: The Zukru Festival for Dagan

o Ancestor and Family God Rituals o A major event which took place every seven years, with smaller versions happening every year o Older(?) tradition: annual festival o So many offerings (sponsored by both the palace and the town) required an entire year of preparation o Leave the city o Public feast o Ritual anointing of stones/stele with oil and (animal) blood o The event lasted seven days and consisted of two main parts: the Offerings and the Procession o Over fifty gods were honored in total, even though the festival is for Dagan himself o "After eating and drinking, they anoint the upright stones (sikkānu-stones) with oil and blood. Before evening they bring the gods into the city. ... o "In the next year, in the first month, on the 14th day, they distribute the set-aside lambs to the gods. The next day, the 15th day, 'full moon'-day, they bring out Dagan, Lord of the Offspring, and all the gods (and) spirits to the gate of the upright stones (sikkānu-stones). When he departs, Dagan's face is covered. They give offerings to the gods in accordance with what is written on the tablet. That same day they bring out Dagan, that is the Father, and Šaggar, and the Šaggar-breads of the entire city of Emar go up. Before evening Dagan passes between the upright stones (sikkānu-stones). They cover his face. At the Battle Gate they perform the rites just as for the consecration day. The breads (and) meat, which were before the gods, go back up into the town."

Installation of the Storm God's High Priestess at Emar

o Ancestor and Family God Rituals o End of Bronze Age (14th-13th century) o "Tablet of rites for the high priestess of Emar's storm god" (5 copies of the ritual) o New high priestess (NIN.DINGIR) chosen by lot on day one, followed by eight more days of ritual o "When the sons of Emar elevate the high priestess to the storm god, the sons of Emar take lots from the temple of Ninurta and grasp them before the storm god. The daughter of any son of Emar may be designated." o High honor for family of girl chosen; but she must take some costly items with her for the storm god and his wife o Participation of deceased high priestesses in the ritual of installation o Day 1: Priestess anointed o Day 2: consecration o Days 3-9: Feasting with daily sacrifices and offering, including participation of deceased high priestesses o sikkānu (sacred stele associated with the cult of the dead); goddess Hebat (consort of Storm god) o sikkānu in and on "houses" → temples o Day 9: Final day; new high priestess dresses like a bride and leaves her fathers house; ends with her lying in her new bed in her new residence o At the end of the text is a list of the high priestess' annual rations for her new position

Funerary Ritual for Niqmadu III of Ugarit

o Ancestor and Family God Rituals o Ritual (in poetry) to allow king to join his ancestors o Summon deceased rulers (maliku) and "healers/saviors" (rapiuma, rapa'auma, rephaim = shades of the dead/'deified" dead ancestors) to take part in banquet; give them offerings to win their aid o The sun-goddess Shapshu takes an important role o Called to mourn deceased king and protect him o "In Syria of the Late Bronze Age, the cult of the Rapiuma represented one of the more specific and characteristic aspects of religious life." (Xella, CANE p. 2066) o 'Title': "Document of the sacrificial liturgy of the Shades" o Invitation/Summons to the Rapa'auma o Call to mourn the king's absence from this throne and table o Invitation to the goddess Shapshu (sun-goddess) to come and that deity's participation o Shapshu invites the deceased king to descend among his ancestors o 7-fold descent of king, each time accompanied by an offering o Offerings to procure well-being of queen-mother, new king and city of Ugarit; thought that the living king received his royal vigor from his deceased ancestors

Egyptian Funeral

o Involved a procession, and potentially boat-journey, to the necropolis, attended by family members and friends, and - possibly - hired mourners. o Ideally (symbolically) Journey to Abydos (major cult center of Osiris) o At tomb: offering rituals and "Opening of the Mouth", anointing, libations, censing, rituals to protect tomb and mummy, depositing of mummy and ritual objects, more protective rituals, closing of tomb — up to 75 separate rites o "Opening of Mouth" done on mummy or statue of deceased to bring them to "life" (make it able to speak, breath, eat and drink) in the Afterlife

The Epic of Gilgamesh

o King of city of Uruk ca. 2700 ??? Sumerian King List (copies from end of 3rd millennium >) "In Eanna ... the divine Lugal-banda, the shepherd, reigned 1,200 years; the divine Dumuzi, the fisherman ... reigned 100 years; the divine Gilgamesh—his father was an invisible being—the lord of Kulaba, reigned 126 years, Ur-Nungal, the son of the divine Gilgamesh, reigned 30 years ..." [2nd dynasty after the Flood] Tummal Chronicle (Sumerian; Old Babylonian Period) "For the second time the Tummal fell into ruin. Gilgamesh built the Dunumunbura, Enlil's dais; Ur-lugal, the son of Gilgamesh, made the Tummal splendid (and) introduced Ninlil there." o Hero of several Sumerian tales and Akkadian Gilgamesh Epic o Considered a god by ca. 2500; son of the king Lugalbanda and the goddess Ninsun o Called "one of the great masterpieces of world literature" o At least ca. 1800>2nd century BCE o Copies known from Hattusha, Megiddo, Ugarit, and Emar (end half of 2nd millennium), as well as from Babylonia and Assyria o Old Babylonian version, not fully preserved (first half of 2nd millennium) o 12 (or 11+1) tablet Standard Version (first half of 1st millennium) o Over 73 copies of the Standard version; ca. 3,000 lines long o Cf. Homer's Odyssey o Gilgamesh — king of the city-state of Uruk o Ninsun — a goddess, his mother o Anu — ruler of the gods o Aruru — creator goddess o Enkidu — a 'wild man'; friend and companion of Gilgamesh; "lord of the pure place" o Shamhat — a prostitute of Uruk o Shamash — the Sun God o Humbaba — a monster; guardian of the Cedar Forest o Ishtar — the principal goddess of Uruk o Bull of Heaven — a massive beats sent to destroy Uruk o Siduri — tavern keeper/alewife; a minor goddess of wisdom o Ur-shanabi — the ferryman of Uta-napishti o Uta-napishti — survivor of the Flood o 1) Gilgamesh unrivalled > Problem; Solution: Creation of Enkidu by mother goddess to be a companion to Gilgamesh o 2) Taming of Enkidu; fight between Enkidu and Gilgamesh leads to them becoming firm friends o 3) In search of fame and glory, and against warning of Enkidu, Gilgamesh and Enkidu go against monster Humbaba (Huwawa), kill him and cut down cedars o 4) Ishtar and Gilgamesh —she wants him, he says no and scorns her; she is insulted and sends the Bull of Heaven to kill him; it badly hurts the people of Uruk, but Gilgamesh and Enkidu kill it o 5) In a dream Enkidu sees the gods ordain death of one of the pair for (1) killing the bull of Heaven and (2) killing Huwawa and cutting down the cedars; he describes his dream to Gilgamesh, falls ill, and dies o 6) Lavish funeral; Gilgamesh mourns his friend's death For his friend Enkidu, Gilgamesh did bitterly weep as he wandered the wild: "I shall die, and shall I not then be as Enkidu? Sorrow has entered my heart! I am afraid of death, so I wander the wild, to find Uta-napishti, son of Ubar-Tutu" o 7) Gilgamesh searches for the immortal Ut-napishti to find out how he gained immortality, despite warning of futility of the quest by Siduri (goddess and tavern-keeper at the edge of the world) o 8) Gilgamesh eventually gets to Ut-napisti after crossing the waters of death with the help of Ur-shanabi (the ferryman of Ut-napishti) o 9) Ut-napishti tells Gilgamesh how he gained immortality (Flood Story) — a one time only event o 10) Ut-napisti suggests Gilgamesh try not sleeping for a week (if can't even beat sleep > can't beat death); Gilgamesh fails; tell Gilgamesh how to get plant of rejuvenation, but Gilgamesh loses it to a snake o 11) His hopes destroyed, Gilgamesh returns to Uruk and shows the ferryman the walls of Uruk that will be his enduring monument o 12) [Tablet XII not part of the epic; Akkadian translation of part of the Sumerian story Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the Netherworld] o fear of death only one theme o critique of unbridled power o story of one man's path to wisdom, of how he is formed by his successes and failures o debate on proper duties of kingship; what is a bad king and what is a good one o rewards of friendship o benefits of civilization over savagery o tells many things along the way, e.g., why snakes shed their skins o "it tells of one man's heroic struggle against death — first for immortal renown through glorious deeds, then for eternal life itself; of his despair when confronted with inevitable failure, and of his eventual realization that the only immortality he may expect is the enduring name afforded by leaving behind some lasting achievement" o Death of Gilgamesh Introduction: Gilgamesh on his deathbed Gilgamesh's dream: he learns that he will die The dream come true His son Urlugal builds Gilgamesh's tomb Gilgamesh enters the netherworld in peace Enki speaking: "From that day (=time of the flood, when Ziusudra granted immortality) I swore by the life of heaven and earth, From that day I swore that mankind will not have eternal life. Now they (=An and Enlil) have set their eyes of Gilgamesh, But I cannot save him because of his mother! Gilgamesh, among the spirits, dead in the underworld Let him be the governor of the underworld, let him be the foremost of its spirits!" He (= Enki) rendered the verdict, he made the decision: "When you speak it will be as important as the word of Ningishzida (=chamberlain of the netherworld) and Dumuzi." What my cutting of the umbilical cord brings will now be brought to you. The darkest day of humankind arrived for you. The loneliest place of humankind arrived for you. The flood-wave that cannot be breasted has arrived for you. The fight that has no equal has arrived for you. The battle from which there is no fleeing has arrived for you. The evil from which there is no escape has arrived for you Gilgamesh, the son of Ninsun, Set out these audience-gifts for Ereshkigal. He set out these presents for Namtar. ... Now lord Gilgamesh His mood was full of joy, his heart was happy. Men, as many as are given names, Their statues have been fashioned since days of old, And stationed in chapels in the temples of the gods, So that their names, being read aloud, cannot be forgotten. Aruru (=mother goddess), the older sister of Enlil, Made his offspring as numerous as saplings. Because of these statues build from day of old, and read aloud in the land, Ereshkigal, mother of Ninazu, your praise is sweet! o "He who saw the Deep, the country's foundation, who knew the proper ways, was wise in all matters, Gilgamesh, who saw the Deep, the country's foundation, who knew the proper ways, was wise in all matters He found out what was secret and uncovered what was hidden, He brought back a tale of times before the Flood. He had journeyed far and wide, weary and at last resigned. He engraved all toils on a memorial monument of stone. He had the wall of Uruk built, the sheepfold Of holiest Eanna, the pure treasury." o Gilgamesh unrivalled: "He was superior to other kings, a warrior lord of great stature, A hero born of Uruk, a goring wild bull ... He is Gilgamesh, perfect in splendor, ... There is nobody among the kings of teeming humanity Who can compare with him ... Gilgamesh (was) named from birth for fame. Two-thirds of him was divine, and one-third mortal Belet-ili designed the shape of his body Made his form perfect ..." o "Gilgamesh wrestled with fifty companions, wearing out the young men every day, He kept the young men of Uruk fearful in . . . The locks of his hair grew thick as a grain field, His teeth gleamed like the rising sun, His hair was dark as purple wool. Eleven cubits was his height, Four cubits his chest, from nipple to nipple, A triple cubit his feet and a rod his stride, A triple cubit the beard of his cheek" o "The cedar was dappled sixty cubits high with incrustation, The resin [oozed] out, dribbling down like raindrops, It [flowed into a torrent] and ditches carried it away. Throughout the forest birdlife was chirping, . . . answering each other in rhythmic din . . . A pigeon was cooing, a turtledove answering, The forest was joyous with the [cry] of the stork, The forest was abundantly joyous from the [lilt] of the francolin (=a type of bird). Mother monkeys kept up their calls, baby monkeys squeaked . . . Like a band of musicians and drummers, They resounded all day long in the presence of Humbaba" o Advice of Siduri, the Tavernkeeper: Gilgamesh, where do you roam? You will not find the eternal life you seek. When the gods created mankind, They appointed death for mankind, Kept eternal life in their own hands. So, Gilgamesh, let your stomach be full, Day and night enjoy yourself in every way, Every day arrange for pleasures. Day and night, dance and play, Wear fresh clothes, Keep your head washed, bathe in water, Appreciate the child who holds your hand, Let your wife enjoy herself in your lap This is the work of mankind. o "Go up on to the wall of Uruk, Ur-shanabi, and walk around, Inspect the foundation platform and scrutinize the brickwork! Testify that its bricks are baked bricks. And that the Seven Counsellors [=Sages] must have laid the foundations. One square mile is city, one square mile is orchards, one square mile is claypits, as well as the open ground of Ishtar's temple. Three square miles and the open ground comprise Uruk."

Myth of Etana

o Mesopotamian o ancient name: "They designed a city" = first words of the story o involves an eagle, a serpent, and Etana, king of Kish o according to the Sumerian King List Etana was of the first dynasty after the flood and called "the shepherd, who ascended to heaven and consolidated all the foreign countries"; he was succeeded by his son o the myth starts in time before kingship and Etana is made king by Enlil (cf. Sumerian King List) o Old Babylonian, Middle Assyrian and Neo-Assyrian copies of myth written in Akkadian o myth deals with need for an heir o Tablet 1: Gods build city of Kish and choose Etana to be its king (first appearance of kingship) o Tablet 2: An eagle and a serpent swear friendship, but the eagle eats the snake's offspring Eagle punished by the god Shamash Etana asks Shamash to help him get the "plant of birth" so that he can have a son o Tablet 3: Following the advice of Shamash, Etana helps the eagle in order to gets its help to find the "plant of birth" plant not found on earth; first attempt to fly up to the heavens to get help of Ishtar fails second attempt made after one or two dreams interpreted to indicate success End of text lost

Conclusions on Ugarit / Hittite Netherworld

o No unified picture of netherworld and afterlife preserved in Hittite tradition o Most information deals with the elite class, especially the royal family (like much of ancient Near East) o On one hand deceased continued normal existence as a farmer and peasant, but also idea borrowed from Mesopotamia of a netherworld city centered on a palace where the goddess of death/netherworld dwelled o Importance of proper funerary rituals for deceased ruler o Comparisons to Greek practices and beliefs Evil and harm locked away in large earthenware jars or kettles in the netherworld that only magic/witchcraft could release. Possibly origin of the Greek story of Pandora's box (really better a large vessel or jar)? Cremation rituals

Mummification

o Preserve body as house for soul o Deceased is likened to Osiris who was cut to pieces and then reassembled by his sisters Isis and Nephthys; thus mummy-form o Natural mummification in the hot, dry climate > specific procedures o Mummification was a secret event performed by specialists who guarded their trade secrets. o Sources are rare and late; best information is from Herodotus, a Greek historian of the 5th century BCE, plus modern day technology. The only two actual Egyptian accounts of the ritual procedures involved stem from the Roman Period, and one is the ritual of embalming the sacred Apis Bull, thus we only know the rough outline of what happened. o Procedures which movements are to be made which materials used (e.g. mummy wrappings of various sizes soaked in different fluids could reach overall length of up to 3 miles!) how to apply them which formulae to recite. The overseeing priest was called "Master of Secrets"; wore Anubis mask Every step was accompanied by the recitation of formulae; aimed at charging the amulets placed between wrappings with magical powers The process was likened to the course of the sun and finished at sunset Two main stages: Evisceration and dehydration o Embalming Procedures Embalmers worked outside the settlements, near the Nile or one of the canals since water needed Work began on head with removal of brain with bronze hook; cavity filled with resinous liquid (coniferous resins from Palestine; bitumen sometimes added), bee's wax and aromatic plant oil; this was heated and solidified in skull; sometimes just filled with linen Abdomen cut open; removal of viscera; organs treated separately, placed in Canopic jars identified with the Sons of Horus: • Amsety (human) - liver • Hapi (baboon) - lungs • Duamutef (jackal) - stomach • Qebehsenuef (falcon) - intestines Heart and kidneys left inside body Finally: Treatment with Natron to extract the water from the body Body filled with natron solids; natron piled up around body; body left for 35-40 days. Chest and abdominal cavities filled with linen packing or sawdust, occasionally Nile mud or aromatically perfumed cloth Medicine seems to have been largely uninformed by the knowledge gathered about the human body in the process of mummification. Medical practitioners and embalmers were entirely separate. Most important amulet (heart scarab) placed on chest; engraved with Book of the Dead spell 30B, reminding heart to perform well at judgment of the dead Finally, mummy mask placed on head, the "imperishable head" o The Coffin Provided yet more protection from decay and/or vandalism Might be put into another "enclosure" (sarcophagus) Mummiform coffins from Middle Kingdom on New Kingdom kings: series of "Russian doll" coffins; practive became more and more popular

The Descent of Inanna / Ishtar to the Underwold

o Sumerian (Inanna) and Akkadian (Ishtar) tales; Sumerian longer and more detailed; neither complete o Why did she go to the Netherworld, the realm of her sister Ereshkigal, and how did she get there? o How did she get out? o What happened to her husband? o What is/are the meanings of the stories? o Are there other similar stories?

The Book of the Dead

o The abode of the dead can hardly be described as Paradise, however. The spell from the Book of Going Forth by Day (or Book of the Dead, BD) contains a dialogue between Osiris, the god of the dead with whom the deceased himself is identified, and Atum, the creator god: o Osiris: "O my lord Atum, why is it that I have to travel to the district of silence, where there is no water and no air, which is so deep, so dark and so impenetrable? Atum: You will live there in peace of mind. Osiris: But one cannot even have sex there! Atum: I have given blessedness instead of water, air and sexual pleasure, and peace of mind instead of bread and beer, so says Atum." o Increased emphasis on work in the hereafter o Maps of the Netherworld (Amduat) and advice on how to survive journey o Spell 32 for repelling a crocodile which comes to take away a spirit's magic in the realm of the dead; spell 34 for not being bitten by a snake in the realm of the dead o spell to take on different forms to pass by hazards of the netherworld o Solar boat being pulled across sandy area during nightly journey through netherworld o "... he (Apep) will turn his eye against Re and an interruption will happen in the (solar) boat, a great astonishment (will happen) among the crew, as he (Apep) will swallow one cubit and three palms of the great waters. Seth will throw a spear of iron/copper against him, and he will make him vomit everything he swallowed. Then Seth will place himself as his enclosing wall saying with magic: 'Retreat before my sharpened iron/copper spear, which is in my hand! I stand as your enclosure wall , while the voyage of the (solar) boat is established. ((You), farsighted one (Apep), close your eye and veil your head, that I may sail! Retreat before me ...'" o "Hail to you, great God, Lord of the Two Truths! ... I know you. I know the names of the forty-two gods, Who are with you in the Hall of the Two Truths, Who live by warding off evildoers. ... I have not done crimes against people. I have not mistreated cattle. I have not sinned in the place of Truth. I have not known what should not be known. I have not done any harm." o "I have not deprived an orphan. I have not done what the gods abominate. I have not killed. I have not commanded to kill. I have not tampered with the weighing scale. I have not taken milk from the mouths of children. ... I am pure, I am pure, I am pure, I am pure! ... No evil shall befall me in this land, In this Hall of the Two Truths; For I know the names of the gods in it, The followers of the great God!" o Hail to you, gods! I know you, I know your names. I shall not fall in fear of you. You shall not accuse me of crime to this god whom you follow! No misfortunate shall befall me on your account! Person passes through several gates because he knows the name of items/individuals at those gates. "Come," says Thoth, "Why have you come?" "I have come here to report." [Deceased] "What is your condition?" [Thoth] "I am free of all wrongdoing." [Deceased] This is the way to act toward the Hall of the Two Truths. A man says this speech when he is pure, clean, dressed in fresh clothes ... He for whom this scroll is recited will prosper ... He will be ushered in with the kings of of Upper and Lower Egypt. He will be a follower of Osiris. Effective a million times. o Focal point is now the Judgment of the Dead before Osiris where the person's ba unites with his ka if all has gone well o "O My heart which I had from my mother, O my heart which I had upon earth, do not rise up against me as a witness in the presence of the Lord of Things; do not speak against me concerning what I have done, do not bring up anything against me in the presence of the Great God, Lord of the West" o ka - vital force / life force / animating force; enables person to continue/receive offerings in next life; when a person dies, the ka leaves the body and goes to the afterlife o ba - personality; individuality; soul; moral essence of motivation; portrayed with wings o akh - transfigured spirit in next world (union of ka and ba) o Name and Shadow - two other non-corporeal parts of an individual o Following the "opening of the mouth" ritual (and other rituals) ba traveled from body in tomb to unite with ka and become a transfigured spirit = akh; only then did the person continue to live forever in the Afterlife

Enmeduranki Myth

o The god Shamash in Ebabbar [appointed] Enmeduranki, [king of Sippar], the beloved of the gods Anu, Enlil [and Ea]. The gods Shamash and Adad [brought him in]to their assembly; Shamash and Adad [honored him]; Shamash and Adad [set him] on a large throne of gold. They showed him how to observe oil on water, a mystery of Anu, [Enlil and Ea]; they gave him the tablet of the gods, the liver, a secret of heaven and [netherworld]. They put in his hand the cedar-(rod), beloved of the great gods. o Then he, in accordance with their [word] brought the men of Nippur, Sippar and Babylon into his presence and honored them. He set them on thrones before [him]. He showed them how to observe oil on water, a mystery of Anu, Enlil and Ea; he gave them the tablet of the gods, the liver, a secret of heaven and netherworld. He put in their hands the cedar-(rod), beloved of the great gods. o The tablet of the gods, the liver, a mystery of heaven and netherworld; how to observe oil on water, a secret of the gods Anu, Enlil and Ea, together with (its) commentary; "When Anu and Enlil"*; and how to make mathematical calculations. The learned savant, who guards the secrets of the great gods, will bind his son whom he loves with an oath before the gods Shamash and Adad by tablet and stylus, and will instruct him. When a diviner, an expert in oil, of enduring lineage, offspring of Enmeduranki, king of Sippar, who set up the pure bowl and held the cedar-(rod), ... begotten by a nishakku-priest of pure descent: if he is without blemish in body and limbs, he may approach the presence of the gods Shamash and Adad where liver inspection and predictions (take place). o * "When Anu and Enlil" = name of the collection of astrological omens

Kirta Cycle / Epic

o Ugarit o problems of a king (Kirta, son the god El) who has no offspring; his quest for a wife and offspring, his illness (due to having failed to fulfill a promise to the goddess Asherah) and recovery; and the revolt of his son o Problems: childlessness > illness > a son's challenge o mid 14th century; three tablets long o "Perished was the house of the king ... Kirta our patriarch was destroyed, Kirta's dynasty was finished ... he had wed a wife, but she had passed away She had had a mother's clan: one third died in childbirth one fourth by disease one fifth was gathered by Resheph [god of plague] one sixth was lost at sea, one seventh fell in a water channel. Kirta saw his offspring, he saw his offspring destroyed, his royal house completely finished." o [Yassib (son of Kirta)]: "Listen, Kirta the Noble, listen closely and pay attention: When raiders raid, you talk, when there are invaders, you are idle. You have let your power become feeble; you do not judge the cases of widows, you do not preside over the hearings of the oppressed; You do not drive out those who burden the yoke of the poor; you do not feed the orphan before you, nor the widow at your back. For you have taken to a sickbed, you languish on a bed of disease. Step down from the kingship—let me be king, from your dominion—let me be enthroned." But Kirta the Noble replied: "My son, may Horon [a god] smash, may Horon smash your head, Astarte, Baal's other self, your skull. May you fall at the peak of your years, in your prime may you be humbled"

The Fourteen Days of the Hittite King's Cremation Ritual

o Ugarit / Hittite Netherworld Text o "When a great sin/loss occurs in Hattusha and a king or a queen becomes a god" o King embodiment of prosperity and security of kingdom, thus his death is a time of great uncertainty both politically and ideologically o 14 day ritual from ca. 1400 BCE, known from about 60 (fragmentary tablets) from the Hittite royal capital of Hattusha (modern Boghazkoi) o Detailed "script" with directions and a summary; great importance in doing the ritual correctly o But many uncertainties remain in our understanding of the ritual o Rite of Passage o 1st day - cremation at night? (or end of 2nd day?) o 2nd day - entombment of remains in the 'Stone House', making of an effigy of the deceased, and offerings o 3rd day to 6th day - offerings to powers of the netherworld o 5th day some action involving the Old Woman (incantation priestess) weighing gold, silver and precious stones on a balance o 7th day to 13/14th day - rituals involving various spheres of life (e.g., agriculture, viticulture, animal husbandry) in which the effigy is moved around and takes part in communal meals o "The eighth day: The pig diverts water and they cut out a piece of meadow"

Iliad: Cremation of Hector

o Ugarit / Hittite Netherworld Text o Forthwith they yoked their oxen and mules and gathered together before the city. Nine days long did they bring in great heaps wood, and on the morning of the tenth day with many tears they took brave Hector forth, laid his dead body upon the summit of the pile, and set the fire thereto. Then when the child of morning rosy-fingered dawn appeared on the eleventh day, the people again assembled, round the pyre of mighty Hector. When they were got together, they first quenched the fire with wine wherever it was burning, and then his brothers and comrades with many a bitter tear gathered his white bones, wrapped them in soft robes of purple, and laid them in a golden urn, which they placed in a grave and covered over with large stones set close together. Then they built a barrow hurriedly over it keeping guard on every side lest the Achaeans should attack them before they had finished. When they had heaped up the barrow they went back again into the city, and being well assembled they held high feast in the house of Priam their king. Thus, then, did they celebrate the funeral of Hector tamer of horses.

Iliad: Death of Patroclus

o Ugarit / Hittite Netherworld Text o Presently they who were about the son of Atreus drew near in a body, and roused him with the noise and tramp of their coming. He sat upright and said, "Son of Atreus, and all other princes of the Achaeans, first pour red wine everywhere upon the fire and quench it; let us then gather the bones of Patroclus son of Menoetius, singling them out with care; they are easily found, for they lie in the middle of the pyre, while all else, both men and horses, has been thrown in a heap and burned at the outer edge. We will lay the bones in a golden urn, in two layers of fat, against the time when I shall myself go down into the house of Hades. As for the barrow, labor not to raise a great one now, but such as is reasonable. Afterwards, let those Achaeans who may be left at the ships when I am gone, build it both broad and high." o Thus he spoke and they obeyed the word of the son of Peleus. First they poured red wine upon the thick layer of ashes and quenched the fire. With many tears they singled out the whitened bones of their loved comrade and laid them within a golden urn in two layers of fat: they then covered the urn with a linen cloth and took it inside the tent. They marked off the circle where the barrow should be, made a foundation for it about the pyre, and forthwith heaped up the earth. When they had thus raised a mound they were going away, but Achilles stayed the people and made them sit in assembly. He brought prizes from the ships-cauldrons, tripods, horses and mules, noble oxen, women with fair girdles, and black iron.

Ebla Ritual

o Wedding ritual for queen on three clay tablets (damaged) o Quite a long time was dedicated to this ritual, and specifics were important: even the bride's dress was controlled by the ritual o Locations: Palace; temples; mausoleum (House of the Dead) o Includes journey of king and queen to various shrines, with final destination being center for cult of deceased kings of Ebla, where for 7 days offerings are given to the deceased kings o Moving through the landscape was a form of power o The king and queen were accompanied by a number of elites and retainers o Offerings are given to ensure ancestors' blessing o Royal couple may spend night in mausoleum of deceased kings o During moments of tradition, ancestors are usually venerated o For blessing, legitimation and participation o Introduce new queen to ancestors of her new family?

Mesopotamian "Dialogue of Pessimism"

o Wisdom Literature o "Servant listen to me." "Yes, master, yes." "I will do something dishonest." "So, do it master, do it. Unless you do something dishonest, what will you have to wear? Who will give you anything so you can fill your stomach." "No, servant, I will certainly not do something dishonest." "Do not do it, master, do not do it. The man who does something dishonest is executed or skinned alive or blinded or apprehended or jailed." o "Servant listen to me." "Yes, master, yes." "I will make loans." "So make them master, make them. The man who makes loans, his grain is (still) his grain, while his interest is profit." "No, servant, I will certainly not make loans." "Do not make them, master, do not make them. Loaning is sweet as falling in love, getting back as painful as giving birth. They will consume your grain, be always abusing you, and finally they will swindle you out of the interest on your grain."

Babylonian Theodicy

o Wisdom Literature o "With prayer and supplication I besought my goddess, I bore a yoke of profitless servitude: (My) god decreed (for me) poverty instead of wealth. A cripple rises above me, a fool is ahead of me, Rogues are in the ascendant, I am demoted." o "They extol the words of an impious man who is accomplished in murder, They denigrate the powerless who has committed no crime. They esteem truthful the wicked to whom the truth is abhorrent, They reject the truthful man who heeds the will of (his) god." o "The mind of the gods is as remote as innermost heaven; It is most difficult to understand, and people do not know it."

Egyptian "Instructions of Ptahotep"

o Wisdom Literature o If you are a guest at a table of one greater than you, take what he gives as it is set before you. ... Don't speak unless he addresses you; one does not know what may cause offence. o Do not be haughty because of your knowledge but take counsel with the unlearned man as well as the learned, for no one has ever attained perfection of competence and there is no craftsman who has acquired (full) mastery. o Do not say something and then go back on it. o Suppress your impulses and control your mouth, and then your advice will be (welcomed) by the officials. o Acknowledge your assistants when you have wealth, and do not be of mean disposition toward your friends. o If you are in the audience chamber, stand and sit in accordance with your position which was given to you on the first day. o If you are a leader, take responsibility in the matters entrusted to you, and you will accomplish things of note. ... If you are a man of authority, be patient when you are listening to the words of a petitioner; do not dismiss him until he has completely unburdened himself of what he had planned to say to you. o Do not repeat slander, and do not listen to it. For it is but the prattling of a churlish man. Repeat only what is seen, not what is heard.

Mesopotamian Sacred Marriage

o fertility? o coronation ceremony? o legitimation of kingship and the deification of the king? o obtaining blessings for the king? o producing an heir for the throne? o installation of an en on nin-dingir priestess? o carrying out the religious duties of the en-priest of Inanna? o secular love songs (rite of passage songs)? o royal court poetry? o to properly regulate relations between people, and between people and the gods; and for king to show his ties to the gods? o the constitution and legitimization of the king's rule, and to show a benevolent personal liaison between the gods and the king, and through him the people?

Iddin-Dagan Text

o hieros gamos Greek term for sacred marriage o some Early Dynastic and Old Akkadian rulers (i.e., before 2100 BCE) call themselves the spouse of the goddess Inanna o from end of 3rd millennium and first few centuries of 2nd millennium are some Sumerian hymns which mention or describe an amorous union of the king with the goddess Inanna o the union described as being a very festive occasion, and a text of Iddin-Dagan says it took place on the New Year o as a result the king obtains a good destiny and support in battle and kingship o e.g., Hymn to the goddess Inanna (Akkadian Ishtar) by Iddin-Sin, king of Isin 1953-1935 BCE)

Myth and Ritual

o idea that all early societies ruled by "divine kings" who were killed and replaced annually (with approach of winter which implied weakening of king since they saw an intimate connection between the king and the forces of nature) o over time society changed but the memory of this early stage gave rise to myths about gods who died and were reborn o idea developed further by later scholars o 'myth is nothing but the verbalization of ritual' o no myth without ritual, though the ritual may have been lost over time o all myths arise out of the misunderstanding of rituals

The Contendings of Horus and Seth

o pages 1 through 16 of Papyrus Chester Beatty I, a document of twentieth dynasty date from time of Ramesses V (1149-1145 BC) and belonging to a scribe o Simpson: "the longest of the New Kingdom stories, it is perhaps the one with the least literary merit, for there is little in the way of suspense to maintain the reader's interest throughout the narrative" o purports to be a court transcript o Horus and Seth, the two contenders for the office of Osiris (who is now in the underworld), have brought their dispute before the Ennead, presided over by Re-Horakhty (who appears prejudiced in favor of Seth) o actions in court > court in recess and Horus and Seth reduced to acts of physical violence > actions in court > conclusion o robust, even crude characterization of the gods; satire? humorous? o Ennead = the Nine (= Atum; Shu and Tefnut; Geb and o Nut; Osiris, Isis, Seth, and Nephthys) o The Universal Lord = Atum = Re = (P)re-Harakhti o Onuris and Wennofer = names for Osiris o Banebdjede, ram god o Neith, a creator goddess = the great mother o Thoth, god of wisdom, a lunar deity o The Sacred Eye symbolizes the kingship of Egypt o Episodes in court o Court in recess; episodes outside court o Episodes in court; final decision

Conclusions on Wisdom Literature

o some practical differences between magic, religion and science i.e., at times different professional titles (exorcist, priest, physician) o but no clear separation between them; it's a continuum i.e., related methods some individuals know multiple (all?) branches o no evidence that different kinds of knowledge or expertise within the intellectual tradition have different truth-values or ideological values i.e., science vs. superstition is not a recognized opposition; religion vs. magic is not a recognized opposition various branches of knowledge focus on understanding of the world as the arena of the activities and intentions of the gods, and people's (especially the king's) susceptibility and adaptability to those actions and intentions o divination played an important role in Mesopotamia and among the Hittites, but apparently much less so in Egypt o Egyptian and Mesopotamian wisdom literature of similar tradition to that in Bible (e.g., Proverbs, Job)

Mesopotamian Scholars

o tupsharru — scribe o ashipu — incantation expert; 'magician', 'exorcist' o kalu — liturgical expert; lamenation-priest o asu — healing expert; physician o baru — divination expert; diviner o tupshar Enuma Anu Enlil — astronomical/astrological expert; astrologer o apkallu = 'sage'