Natural Disasters (Multiple Choice)

About 60% of greenhouse gas warming caused by humans comes from ______ released into the atmosphere.

🔘 carbon dioxide ⚪️ chlorofluorocarbons ⚪️ methane ⚪️ ozone

The purpose of channelization is to ______.

🔘 help water flow through the stream system faster ⚪️ reduce the velocity of the river, thus making it less dangerous ⚪️ return a river channel to its natural state ⚪️ divert water into natural floodways

How many Plinean eruptions typically occur each century?

⚪️ 0-1 🔘 2-3 ⚪️ 5-8 ⚪️ 9-10

True or false: The very low elevation country of the Maldives may be saved from global sea level rise as long as coral reef growth can keep up.

➕ True

True or false: There are more hurricanes in the eastern Pacific Ocean than in the North Atlantic/Caribbean Sea/Gulf of Mexico every year.

➕ True

True or false: Species are only eliminated during mass extinction events.

➖ False

True or false: Thanks to better construction methods and advance warnings, the economic and human loss caused by hurricanes has been dropping over the last 100 years in the United States.

➖ False

The largest wave of the 1964 Good Friday tsunami was the _____.

⚪️ first ⚪️ second ⚪️ third 🔘 fifth

Which of the following accurately reflects the interaction between the polar-front jet stream and warm and cold air masses?

⚪️ Warm and cold air masses cause the development of the polar jet, but since the polar jet occurs at high altitude, it does not affect the air masses. 🔘 The strength of the polar jet is dependent on temperature differences of air masses and in turn influences their movement and behavior. ⚪️ The polar jet causes the formation and movement of warm and cold air masses but is not affected by the air masses themselves.

The "channeled scablands" topography of southeastern Washington was formed by ______.

⚪️ a network of alpine glaciers 🔘 an outburst flood from a glacial lake ⚪️ eruption of the Columbia River flood basalts ⚪️ a storm system that is believed to have lasted for three months

People near the sea during the 79 CE eruption of Vesuvius were mostly killed by _______.

⚪️ a tsunami 🔘 pyroclastic flows ⚪️ pyroclastic blocks and bombs ⚪️ lava flows

Which of the following are methods used to seismically retrofit a building? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Add bracing ⬜️ Replace stiff materials ✅ Add buttresses ✅ Infill walls to create shear walls ✅ Isolate the building from the ground ⬜️ Add additional floors to the building

Which of the following are common hazards associated with hurricanes? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Inland flooding from heavy rains ✅ Storm surges ⬜️ Tsunami ✅ Tornadoes ⬜️ Freezing temperatures

If a volcano has a well-formed conical shape, we should classify it as _______.

🔘 active ⚪️ dormant ⚪️ extinct

Abandoned waterfalls with deep plunge pools, such as shown here, most likely formed as a result of ______.

🔘 enormous flood events ⚪️ continental uplift ⚪️ sea-level rise ⚪️ fault movement

Hurricane evacuation warnings ______.

🔘 help to prevent deaths and should be taken seriously ⚪️ always cause more deaths than they save ⚪️ are best ignored by those living along the shore; they are only meant for tourists

Changes that increase Earth's overall albedo can lead to ______ energy reaching the surface and a(n) _______ in average global temperature.

🔘 less; decrease ⚪️ more; increase ⚪️ less; increase ⚪️ more; decrease

Charles Richter based his earthquake magnitude scale on the idea that _______.

🔘 the bigger the earthquake, the greater the shaking of Earth ⚪️ the farther from an earthquake, the greater the shaking of Earth ⚪️ the difference in arrival times of P and S waves increases with distance from the epicenter ⚪️ the deeper the earthquake, the longer the duration of shaking at the surface

What is subduction?

🔘 The sinking of a slab of oceanic lithosphere under less-dense lithosphere ⚪️ The creation of new oceanic lithosphere at mid-oceanic ridges ⚪️ The uplift of continental crust in response to the removal of a load ⚪️ The movement of the continents relative to one another

True or false: We cannot predict which tsunami wave in a series will be the largest.

➕ True

Plinian eruptions are characterized by _______.

⚪️ short, explosive blasts of ash and dust interspersed by eruption of thick, viscous lava ⚪️ eruption of large volumes of low-viscosity basaltic lava ⚪️ short-lived eruptions of pyroclastic debris that pile up around the vent to form a scoria cone 🔘 the generation of a sustained, gas-powered eruption column that carries pyroclastic material high into the atmosphere

Which of the following are major human sources of carbon dioxide? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Burning wood ✅ Burning fossil fuels ⬜️ Use of organic fertilizers ⬜️ Cattle grazing

How is heat from the tropics redistributed in the ocean? (Select all that apply.)

✅ The heat is mixed downward by tides and winds. ✅ The heat is moved poleward by ocean circulation. ⬜️ Water molecules use the heat in decay processes to form free oxygen. ⬜️ Ocean water molecules absorb more latent heat that they can release later when they evaporate.

According to the flood recurrence interval equation, a flood that occurs after 90 years of record keeping, and is the seventh largest ever recorded has a recurrence interval of _______ years.

🔘 13 ⚪️ 90 ⚪️ 45 ⚪️ 630

In what year did the United States experience six EF5 tornadoes?

🔘 2011 ⚪️ 2016 ⚪️ 1999

Volcanologists have estimated that about ______ people have died by volcanic activity in the past 500 years.

🔘 275,000 ⚪️ 500,000 ⚪️ 75,000 ⚪️ 27,000 ⚪️ 1,000,000

What time of day are tornadoes most likely to touch down?

🔘 4 to 9 p.m. ⚪️ 10 p.m to 4 a.m. ⚪️ 5 to 10 a.m. ⚪️ 10 a.m. to 2 p.m.

Animal diversity today is ______ animal diversity during the Cambrian period (about 541 million years ago).

🔘 greater than ⚪️ less than ⚪️ about the same as

Fire produces flames, heat, and ________.

🔘 light ⚪️ oxygen ⚪️ hydrogen ⚪️ carbon

True or false: Mount St. Helens erupted without warning in late March 1980.

➖ False

Haboobs form when _______.

🔘 thunderstorm downbursts cause air to rush to the surface and flow outward, carrying dust and silt ⚪️ the polar jet stream moves south over the central regions of the North American and Asian continents ⚪️ the trade winds suddenly switch direction, carrying accumulated sediment back to its original source ⚪️ a mass of swirling air builds up in the southwest quadrant of a hurricane

The fire policy of Yellowstone National Park from the 1880s to the 1970s was ___________.

🔘 total suppression ⚪️ let it burn ⚪️ suppression of human-made fires only ⚪️ suppression of natural fires only

If litter and shrubs are abundant in a forest, they may act as ladders that move the fire to the ________.

🔘 treetops ⚪️ next habitat ⚪️ ground ⚪️ fire break

Which of the following should you avoid in order to make your home safer from fires? (Choose all that apply.)

✅ Build your house with wood. ✅ Allow trees and shrubs to touch and overhang your house. ⬜️ Use clay shingles on the roof. ⬜️ Install double-pane windows.

Which of the following are directly affected by flood basalt activity? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Ocean-water acidity ✅ Ocean-water oxygen concentrations ✅ Atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases ⬜️ Rate of seafloor spreading ⬜️ Rate of continental weathering

Some of the major animal groups that either went extinct or experienced severe reduction in diversity at the end of the Permian were ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ mammal-like reptiles ✅ ammonoids ✅ crinoids ✅ brachiopods ⬜️ echinoids ⬜️ bivalves

How big does a meteoroid need to be in order to create an impact crater?

🔘 350 tons ⚪️ As big as a small home ⚪️ 2000 pounds

After a series of deadly brush fires in 1994, __________ adopted leave-early-or-stay-and-defend strategies as a way to reduce property loss from major fires.

🔘 Australia ⚪️ South Africa ⚪️ United States ⚪️ Brazil

Which of the following is the likely balance for the causes of warming in the 20th century?

🔘 Humans 2/3, Earth processes 1/3 ⚪️ Humans 1/2, Earth processes 1/2 ⚪️ Humans 1/4, Earth processes 3/4

More than 1,000 km long and composed of interconnected, asymmetrical fault block valleys, the ______ rift is one of the major continental rifts in the world.

🔘 Rio Grande ⚪️ Reelfoot ⚪️ Keweenawan

The U.S. Geological Survey created the ______ to monitor volcanoes for potential eruptions in volcanically active areas such as California and Yellowstone.

🔘 Volcano Hazards Program ⚪️ Volcano Rangers ⚪️ Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) ⚪️ Volcanic Activity Monitors

Most tornadoes touch down in the late ______.

🔘 afternoon ⚪️ evening ⚪️ morning

Lightning strikes that are most likely to ignite a fire are "hot strokes," which are cloud-to-ground discharges of high ______ and longer duration.

🔘 amperage ⚪️ voltage ⚪️ altitude ⚪️ forking

The majority of people who died in the Northridge 1994 earthquake did so due to ______.

🔘 collapsed structures ⚪️ fires ⚪️ flooding ⚪️ disease

Ground surface elevation tends to increase when magma _____ and drops down when magma ______.

🔘 is injected below the surface; withdraws from subsurface reservoirs ⚪️ heats and expands rock; cools and solidifies ⚪️ is gaseous; is silica-rich

An important clue to how a long-runout debris flow can travel so far came from the Elm event in Switzerland. It was observed that the chunks of debris _______.

🔘 maintained their relative positions instead of becoming jumbled by the flow ⚪️ had distinctive glassy rinds that indicated frictional melting during the flow ⚪️ had deep grooves on their upper surfaces and sides but not on their lower surfaces ⚪️ showed a distinct size gradation, with the largest chunks concentrated at the edge of the flow

The severity of the 2003 Cedar fires in San Diego was mostly due to the __________ of the chaparral habitat.

🔘 old age ⚪️ isolation ⚪️ topography ⚪️ recently burned areas

Surface waves are referred to as ______ waves because they take more time to complete one cycle of motion and are the slowest moving.

🔘 L (long) ⚪️ S (slow) ⚪️ X (extreme) ⚪️ T (tertiary)

What is the name for the phenomenon that brings colder water into the equatorial Pacific Ocean?

🔘 La Niña ⚪️ El Niño ⚪️ The Southern Oscillation ⚪️ The Pacific Decadal Oscillation

What are air masses?

🔘 Large bodies of air that have little horizontal variation in moisture content or temperature ⚪️ Units of air that contain an equal amount of latent heat and sensible heat ⚪️ Bodies of air that originate in the same place and contain the same trace elements ⚪️ Units of air that travel in a similar direction for more than one day at a time

True or false: The oldest Solar System materials are approximately 4.57 billion years old, the same age as Earth.

➖ False

What kind of avalanche is shown here?

🔘 Loose-powder ⚪️ Slab ⚪️ Wet avalanche ⚪️ Debris avalanche

True or false: The majority of the 117,000 deaths from the Tambora eruption were the direct result of pyroclastic flows and lahars generated by the explosive eruption.

➖ False

Population growth was relatively flat until about ______ years ago, when it began to rise.

⚪️ 150 ⚪️ 1,000 ⚪️ 2,750 🔘 8,000 ⚪️ 15,000

The storms called hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean are called ______ in the Indian Ocean and ______ in the Western Pacific.

🔘 cyclones; typhoons ⚪️ typhoons; depressions ⚪️ depressions; cyclones ⚪️ typhoons; cyclones

When engineers cut into the base of a slope to make way for a new road, this is an example of a(n) ______ process that increases the likelihood of slope failure.

🔘 external ⚪️ internal ⚪️ unusual ⚪️ natural

When the atmosphere was full of CO2, Earth's surface was _______.

🔘 extremely hot ⚪️ completely frozen ⚪️ covered in boiling oceans ⚪️ very similar to today's

Many of the most historically recent devastating volcanic eruptions have occurred ______.

🔘 along subduction zones ⚪️ above hot spots ⚪️ near spreading centers

Earthquake magnitude is an objective measurement of the _______, whereas intensity is a subjective measurement of ______.

🔘 energy released; damage to people and buildings ⚪️ fault movement; time of shaking ⚪️ horizontal uplift; psychological damage

The people of Heimaey, Iceland, used ______ to heat their homes after a fissure eruption in 1973.

🔘 hot water pumped through fresh lava flows ⚪️ hot lava directly ⚪️ steam collected from hot lava

Ice Ages appear to be favored when ocean circulation is ______.

🔘 north-south ⚪️ east-west ⚪️ sluggish ⚪️ extremely rapid

What is the name of the process marked with the letter A on this diagram?

⚪️ Convergence ⚪️ Subduction 🔘 Seafloor spreading ⚪️ Isostatic adjustment

The caldera-forming eruption of ______ in 1628 BCE is believed to have led to the collapse of the Minoan civilization.

⚪️ Toba ⚪️ Krakatau ⚪️ Vesuvius 🔘 Santorini

______ winds occur when a stagnant high-pressure air mass flows downslope from a mountain range and descends as a warm, dry wind toward a low-pressure zone.

🔘 Downslope ⚪️ Upslope ⚪️ Plateau ⚪️ Sea

What is the largest moment magnitude ever recorded?

⚪️ 11.0 ⚪️ 10.6 🔘 9.5 ⚪️ 9.0

Examine the right-lateral fault in this figure. What kind of stress do you think is occurring at the point where it bends to the right?

🔘 Tensional ⚪️ Compressional ⚪️ Shearing

Which substance listed below has the highest heat capacity?

🔘 Water ⚪️ Quartz sand ⚪️ Granite ⚪️ Air

Most earthquakes along fracture zones occur on the ______ faults between the offset sections of spreading centers.

🔘 transform ⚪️ normal ⚪️ reverse

The period of colder conditions during the little Ice Age that took place between 1645 and 1715 CE is known as the ______.

🔘 Maunder Minimum ⚪️ Medieval Minimum ⚪️ Dark Ages ⚪️ Mini-freeze

Which of the following can act as both an internal and external factor in slope stability?

🔘 Water ⚪️ Geologic structure ⚪️ Material strength ⚪️ Slope angle

Zoning laws can reduce the impact of floods by ________.

🔘 banning building on the portion of a floodplain that will be covered by a 100-year flood ⚪️ preventing all building on the floodplains of rivers ⚪️ increasing the quality of flood-control structures in areas vulnerable to flooding ⚪️ requiring all homeowners to have flood insurance

This image shows how a building can be protected by ______, which allow(s) a building to roll with seismic waves.

🔘 base isolation ⚪️ bracing ⚪️ shear walls ⚪️ framing

The German physician Paracelsus could have used the incident near Lake Nyos, Cameroon, in 1986 as an example for the principle named after him. This is because ______.

🔘 carbon dioxide gas, normally harmless to humans in low doses, was abundant enough at Nyos to kill 1,700 people ⚪️ Paracelsus claimed carbon dioxide was poisonous to humans, though his contemporaries did not believe him ⚪️ Paracelsus studied the effect of volcanic gases on humans centuries before the Lake Nyos incident

The scientific community ______ Wegener's continental drift hypothesis because he ______.

🔘 rejected; didn't provide a reasonable mechanism for continental movement ⚪️ accepted; provided multiple lines of solid evidence

The most abundant greenhouse gas in Earth's atmosphere is ______.

🔘 water vapor ⚪️ carbon dioxide ⚪️ nitrous oxide ⚪️ methane

Numerous major human settlements, such as Albuquerque, New Mexico; El Paso, Texas; and Ciudad Juarez, Mexico, are located right along the the Rio Grande rift. Humans settled here because ______.

🔘 the Rio Grande river follows the rift ⚪️ numerous silver mines were established along the rift ⚪️ the topography of the rift served as a natural defensive position against indigenous attack

A 66-year flood occurs on the Flushing River in 2014. What is the probability of a 66-year flood occurring on the same river in 2015?

🔘 1.5% ⚪️ 0% ⚪️ 15% ⚪️ 66%

What causes the most hurricane-related deaths?

🔘 Poorly constructed buildings ⚪️ Low pressure in the eye ⚪️ The impact of high winds on the body ⚪️ Mass-wasting events caused by the wind

What happens to global population if the average number of births per woman is 1.6?

⚪️ Population increases. ⚪️ Population remains stable. 🔘 Population declines.

Earth's magnetic field is generated by convection currents in the _______.

⚪️ inner core 🔘 outer core ⚪️ asthenosphere ⚪️ lithosphere

Crater Lake formed through the eruption and subsequent collapse of _______.

⚪️ Mount Shasta 🔘 Mount Mazama ⚪️ Krakatau ⚪️ Yellowstone

True or false: Every single U.S. state has experienced earthquakes.

➕ True

True or false: Pumping liquids underground has been known to trigger earthquakes.

➕ True

True or false: We are currently in the Ice Age.

➕ True

True or false: The vast majority of currently known near-Earth objects identified by NASA and other space agencies to date are comets.

➖ False

Which building is likely to have the longest period?

⚪️ A single-story family home ⚪️ A five-story apartment building ⚪️ A 15-story office building 🔘 A 35-story skyscraper

The energy released as water vapor condenses in thunderstorms can cause the formation of ______ winds if it forces air to flow down a fast-moving mass of clouds.

⚪️ El Niño 🔘 derecho ⚪️ monsoon ⚪️ Santa Ana

The change in shape of a material in response to an applied force is called ______.

⚪️ compression 🔘 strain ⚪️ stress ⚪️ tension

Another term for an earthquake is a ______.

⚪️ shiver 🔘 seism ⚪️ slippage ⚪️ spasm

Some phenomena that may be used to predict volcanic eruptions include ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ seismic waves ✅ ground deformation ✅ gas emissions ⬜️ animal behavior

Which factor is most important in determining the number of deaths that occur due to a natural disaster?

🔘 Human population density ⚪️ Time of the year ⚪️ Rules and regulations ⚪️ Proximity to a coastline

______ live for a few days, have individual characteristics and personalities, and are therefore named after humans.

🔘 Hurricanes ⚪️ Tornadoes ⚪️ Earthquakes ⚪️ Thunderstorms

The ______ rift is ancient, having formed about 550 million years ago.

🔘 Reelfoot ⚪️ Rio Grande ⚪️ Keweenawan

The largest regional floods in the United States occur within the _______ river basin.

🔘 Mississippi ⚪️ Colorado ⚪️ Rio Grande ⚪️ Columbia

Because of their low frequency and slow speed, surface waves carry _____ amounts of energy away from the epicenter.

🔘 large ⚪️ moderate ⚪️ small

In the Northern Hemisphere, a ______ in the jet stream refers to a bend that is concave northward, whereas a ______ is a bend that is convex northward.

⚪️ ridge; trough 🔘 trough; ridge ⚪️ front; trough ⚪️ vortex; front

The 1881 sturzstrom event near Elm, Switzerland, consisted of which three types of motion? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Fall ✅ Jump ✅ Surge ⬜️ Bounce ⬜️ Swell

What kinds of data do U.S. Geological Survey stream-gauging stations collect? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Water depths ✅ Channel width ⬜️ Bedrock type ✅ Water velocity ⬜️ Composition of the suspended load

Shifting of weather patterns in the South Pacific Ocean is known as the _______.

🔘 Southern Oscillation ⚪️ Pacific Decadal Oscillation ⚪️ La Niña/El Niño Cycle ⚪️ Monsoon Cycle

Many people were killed in the Big Thompson canyon flood because ________.

⚪️ they tried to climb the steep walls of the canyon 🔘 they stayed in their cars and drove to outrun the flood ⚪️ they ignored warning sirens and stayed in the river ⚪️ it was raining so hard they couldn't see the flood waters arriving

During ______, countries shift from high to low mortality and fertility rates, and population growth declines.

⚪️ times of famine ⚪️ natural disasters 🔘 demographic transition ⚪️ population inflection ⚪️ early economic development

The fire policy of Yellowstone National Park from 1976 to the 1987 was ___________.

⚪️ total suppression 🔘 let it burn ⚪️ suppression of human-made fires only ⚪️ suppression of natural fires only

Which of the following human conditions can increase the destruction caused by earthquakes? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Building on top of soft sediment ✅ Building houses out of mud or brick in earthquake-prone areas ✅ Having a building height that matches the period of the seismic waves so as to produce resonance ⬜️ Building houses out of bamboo and flexible wood

What is hazard mitigation?

⚪️ Efforts to prevent natural hazards from occurring ⚪️ The impact of a natural disaster on a population or place 🔘 Efforts to reduce the number of deaths and damage caused by a natural disaster ⚪️ The international response to a great natural disaster

Most of the 40 worst natural disasters ranked by money lost since 1970 have occurred in ______.

⚪️ Europe ⚪️ Africa 🔘 the United States ⚪️ Japan ⚪️ Latin America

The physical and chemical breakdown of rocks into sediment is called _______.

⚪️ deposition 🔘 weathering ⚪️ sedimentation ⚪️ disintegration

A high-viscosity rhyolite magma with low water content will produce a(n) _______.

⚪️ explosive eruption ⚪️ highly fluid lava flow 🔘 slow-moving lava flow ⚪️ pyroclastic flow

Why is it difficult to assess the beginning of human history? (Select all that apply.)

✅ The fossil record is incomplete. ⬜️ Humans have been around for millions of years. ⬜️ Humans are not evolved from any earlier species. ✅ There exist no historic documents.

Which of the following are true about floodplains? (Select all that apply.)

✅ They are built by both deposition and erosion. ⬜️ The natural levees that develop during a flood prevent floodplains from being used more than once. ✅ Floodplains become the floor of streams during floods. ⬜️ Stream velocity is generally faster on the floodplain than in the main channel.

Which of the following accurately describe hurricanes? (Select all that apply.)

✅ They are huge tropical cyclones. ⬜️ They are fueled by high pressure. ✅ They can generate winds of more than 240 km/hr (150 mph). ⬜️ Despite their size, they are generally weak storms.

Which of the following statements about aerosols are true? (Select all that apply.)

✅ They can contribute to global warming. ✅ They can contribute to global cooling. ✅ They affect the volume of clouds. ⬜️ They are not formed through natural processes. ⬜️ They act to destroy ozone in the stratosphere.

Volcanic tsunami can be generated by a number of volcanic activities, including ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ caldera collapse into the sea ✅ undersea eruptions ✅ travel of lahars into the sea ⬜️ large amounts of material entering the sea by pyroclastic fall ⬜️ violent outgassing along volcanic vents near sea level

The potential causes of mass extinctions include ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ climate change ✅ asteroid or comet impacts ✅ volcanic eruptions ⬜️ changes in the orientation of Earth's magnetic field

The velocity of P waves depends on the ______ and _______ of the material through which they pass. (Select all that apply.)

✅ density ✅ compressibility ⬜️ magnetism ⬜️ epicenter

Hurricanes have warm cores because ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ huge quantities of latent heat are released as precipitation is formed in rising air ✅ air sinking in the eye is warming adiabatically ⬜️ hail suspended by strong updrafts melts and releases heat ⬜️ greenhouse gases get concentrated in their centers

Local winds include ____________. (Select all that apply.)

✅ land breezes ✅ sea breezes ⬜️ jet streams ✅ valley winds

______ can be used to determine the rate and direction of tectonic motion wherever they are placed along the ground.

🔘 Global position systems (GPS) ⚪️ Seismographs ⚪️ Ground-penetrating radars (GPR) ⚪️ Barometers

_____ tend to be found on broad surfaces of low topographic relief, and fire plays an important role in their ecology.

🔘 Grasslands ⚪️ Bogs ⚪️ Forests ⚪️ Deserts

What type of coastal-control structure is shown in this image?

🔘 Groins ⚪️ Jetties ⚪️ Breakwaters ⚪️ Seawalls

Pyroclastic falls account for about ______ percent of volcanic deaths.

🔘 2 ⚪️ 12 ⚪️ 23 ⚪️ 15

Experts suggest that the construction of a reservoir was the trigger that caused the ______ earthquake.

🔘 2008 Sichuan ⚪️ 2001 Tacoma-Olympia ⚪️ 1994 Northridge ⚪️ 1959 Lake Hebgen

The end-Permian extinction occurred about ______ years ago.

🔘 250 million ⚪️ 65 million ⚪️ 542 million ⚪️ 1 billion

According to a U.S. Climate Science 2017 Special Report, sea level is likely to rise by approximately _______ by the end of the 21st century. This forecast does not include the possibility of significant melting of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets.

🔘 4 to 8 feet ⚪️ a few inches ⚪️ 25 feet ⚪️ 110 feet

Plate-tectonic induced changes in sea level could increase the total percentage of land area upwards to ______ percent or decrease it to as low as ______ percent.

🔘 40; 17 ⚪️ 70; 10 ⚪️ 50; 5 ⚪️ 62; 12

The collision of Earth with a Mars-sized body that formed our Moon occurred approximately _____ after Earth formed.

🔘 5 million years ⚪️ 30 million years ⚪️ 1.5 billion years ⚪️ 57 million years

The half-life of radioactive carbon is only ______ years, which limits it use to geological events that have taken place in human history.

🔘 5,730 ⚪️ 50,000 ⚪️ 10,730 ⚪️ 526

How many states in the United States have experienced earthquakes?

🔘 50 ⚪️ 43 ⚪️ 17 ⚪️ 11

If all of the ice in the Antarctic continental ice sheet were to melt, sea level would rise by ______.

🔘 60 meters (197 feet) ⚪️ 120 meters (390 feet) ⚪️ 7 meters (23 feet) ⚪️ 15 meters (49 feet)

The end-Cretaceous extinction eliminated about ______ percent of species on Earth.

🔘 65 ⚪️ 90 ⚪️ 80 ⚪️ 35

More than ______ percent of all plant and animal species that have ever lived on Earth are now extinct.

🔘 99.9 ⚪️ 99 ⚪️ 90 ⚪️ 95

Examine this tectonic map of the Pacific Northwest. Along which of the plate boundaries shown is it most likely that a tsunami-generating earthquake could occur?

🔘 A ⚪️ B ⚪️ C

Which of the following processes is the last step in a volcanic eruption sequence?

🔘 A lava dome forms over a long time period. ⚪️ Gassy materials blast out quickly. ⚪️ A tall, long lasting eruption of pyroclastic debris occurs.

Why does an atmosphere rich in CO2 result in extremely high surface temperatures?

🔘 Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas. ⚪️ Carbon dioxide has a very high heat capacity. ⚪️ Carbon dioxide is very dense. ⚪️ Light cannot pass easily through an atmosphere rich in carbon dioxide.

What do you need to know in order to calculate the downhill force of an object? (Choose the 2 that apply.)

✅ Mass of the object ⬜️ Volume of the object ⬜️ Diameter of the object ✅ The degree of the slope ⬜️ Day and time

Reverse faults form in response to which type of stress?

🔘 Compression ⚪️ Shear ⚪️ Tension ⚪️ Compound

What caused the huge number of fatalities during the Johnstown, Pennsylvania, flood of 1889?

🔘 Dam failure ⚪️ Levee failure ⚪️ Rapid snowmelt ⚪️ Blasting along the riverbank

Herculaneum was destroyed by ______, which is a landslide of volcanic debris.

⚪️ pyroclastic flows ⚪️ ash fall 🔘 lahars ⚪️ earthquakes

The August 2011, 5.8M earthquake along the ______ of the United States took people by surprise when it shook the ground and caused building damage in New York and Washington D.C.

🔘 east coast ⚪️ west coast ⚪️ midwest

_________ occur after sunset, when the land cools more rapidly than large bodies of water such as the sea. The cooler air over the land flows seaward.

⚪️ Sea breezes 🔘 Land breezes ⚪️ Valley winds ⚪️ Slope winds

_________ fuels help to create major wildfires by allowing small ground fires to reach the canopy.

🔘 Ladder ⚪️ Petroleum ⚪️ Carbon ⚪️ Heat

Converging winds that rotate up around the center of hurricane without reaching the center form a(n) ______ around the core.

⚪️ anticyclone 🔘 eyewall ⚪️ derecho ⚪️ supercell

Storms that move northward along the eastern shore of North America during winter may produce heavy snowfalls by combining cold Arctic air with warm, moist air coming in from the ocean. These storms are known as ______.

⚪️ anticyclones 🔘 nor'easters ⚪️ derechos ⚪️ ENSO

The influenza pandemic of 1918-1919 has been identified as _____, a subtype that still causes epidemics today.

⚪️ bird flu (H5N1) 🔘 swine flu (H1N1) ⚪️ equine flu (H3N8) ⚪️ human flu (H1N3)

Permanent strain occurs when the stresses applied to a rock exceed its _________.

⚪️ bulk modulus ⚪️ strain limit 🔘 yield stress ⚪️ average density

Where is most of the CO2 from early Earth's atmosphere now stored?

🔘 In limestone ⚪️ In the oceans ⚪️ In the tropical forests ⚪️ Deep in the mantle

Which of the following are examples of great natural disasters? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Haiti earthquake, 2010 ✅ Japan earthquake and tsunami, 2011 ✅ China earthquake, 2008 ⬜️ Joplin tornado, 2011 ✅ Myanmar cyclone, 2008

Which of the following best describe an S wave? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Has a shearing motion ⬜️ Can travel through any material ✅ The second to reach a recording station ✅ Cannot travel through fluids ⬜️ Has a push-pull motion

Why are sequences of layered lava flows, such as the one shown here, so useful in the construction of the timescale of magnetic reversals? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Lavas become magnetized as they cool below the Curie point. ✅ Lavas contain radioactive elements that can be used to date them. ⬜️ Lavas melt the soils they flow over. ⬜️ Lavas contain bubbles of ancient atmosphere.

The energy released during an impact event leaves a crater about ______ times larger than the diameter of the space object.

🔘 20 ⚪️ 5 ⚪️ 10 ⚪️ 12

How did sexual reproduction affect the rate of evolutionary change in organisms, starting around 1 billion years ago?

🔘 It increased the rate of change dramatically. ⚪️ It increased the rate of change slightly. ⚪️ It decreased the rate of change. ⚪️ It did not affect the rate of change.

What is the best way to predict flooding in an area?

🔘 Study the history of flooding in that area. ⚪️ Record changes in the base level of the stream system. ⚪️ Use long-range weather forecasts. ⚪️ Measure the depth to groundwater in the floodplain.

What type of mass movement is shown here?

🔘 Subsidence ⚪️ Creep ⚪️ Rock fall ⚪️ Slump

In general, the level of background extinctions has ______ from the Cambrian period through today.

🔘 declined ⚪️ increased ⚪️ remained about the same

When you see heavy rains coming from cumulus clouds, you are witnessing the ______ stage of a thunderstorm.

🔘 mature ⚪️ dissipating ⚪️ early

Based on your interpretation of the shake map, what is a likely reason the city of Newhall experienced more shaking than Burbank?

🔘 There is more soft sediment underlying Newhall. ⚪️ Bedrock is closer to the surface in Newhall. ⚪️ There are more people in Burbank. ⚪️ There are more buildings in Newhall.

A winter storm that blows cold wind at least 56 km/hr and has falling or blowing snow that reduces visibility to less than 400 m for at least three hours is classified as a(n) ______.

🔘 blizzard ⚪️ La Niña ⚪️ cyclone ⚪️ typhoon

This mass movement event, which occurred near Point Fermin in California, is an example of a _______. In 1929, a half-mile long segment of the coast slid slowly seaward along inclined bedding planes. The slipping material remained largely intact.

🔘 block slide ⚪️ slump ⚪️ debris slide ⚪️ creep surge

The Swedish circle analysis is used to _______.

🔘 calculate driving versus resisting forces for a mass of material on a curved slip surface ⚪️ determine the rate at which a sinkhole will widen as it opens ⚪️ interpret the deposits of a slide or flow to understand what triggered it ⚪️ assess the likelihood of a mass of rock breaking off from a cliff, generating a major rockfall event

The trading of CO2 emissions credits between companies as a way to control CO2 in the atmosphere is called ______.

🔘 cap-and-trade ⚪️ carbon markets ⚪️ carbon elimination ⚪️ limited carbon exchange

We can use simple netting and wattles to help ______ in order to mitigate damage from mass movements.

🔘 control erosion ⚪️ drain water ⚪️ reshape topography ⚪️ strengthen a slope

The fact that much of the central and southeastern United States is underlain by limestone tells us that this region was once _________.

🔘 covered by warm, shallow oceans ⚪️ an active subduction zones ⚪️ a large inland lake ⚪️ part of a major mountain chain

The best way to avoid falling objects dislodged during an earthquake is to ______.

🔘 duck under a table ⚪️ wear a helmet ⚪️ hold tight against a wall until the earthquake ends

Of the 14 deadliest natural disasters of 2016, the most common were ______.

🔘 floods ⚪️ earthquakes ⚪️ hurricanes ⚪️ heat waves

The main driver that caused the great Chicago fire of 1871 was _________.

🔘 gale-force winds ⚪️ extreme drought ⚪️ a mild winter ⚪️ poor irrigation

The Oso, Washington, landslide in March 2014 was triggered by ______.

🔘 heavy rainfall ⚪️ an earthquake ⚪️ road construction

Sunspot activity varies on an 11-year cycle. Periods of intense sunspot activity are associated with ______ temperatures on Earth, whereas periods of low sunspot activity are associated with _____ temperatures.

🔘 higher; lower ⚪️ lower; higher

The frequency of costly weather events is ______.

🔘 increasing ⚪️ decreasing ⚪️ not changing

Minerals that grow as crystals in cooling lava can become magnetized if they contain _______.

🔘 iron ⚪️ magnesium ⚪️ carbon ⚪️ manganese

A niche is ______.

🔘 a specific position in the environment for which an organism has adapted to live in ⚪️ part of the hierarchy of life, between family and genus ⚪️ a plant or animal assemblage that appears unaffected by mass extinctions

When waves arrive at a beach at an angle, it results in a mass of water moving parallel to the beach. This __________ is responsible for the movement of sand along a beach.

🔘 longshore current ⚪️ wave refraction ⚪️ tidal bore ⚪️ passive drift

Which of the following are common features of Hawaiian-type eruptions? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ Pyroclastic flows ✅ Lava fountains along fissures ✅ Buildup of a low cone with fountain eruptions ✅ Lava flows ⬜️ Lava dome formation

The cataclysmic eruption of Krakatau on 27 August 1883 generated a tsunami through ________.

🔘 the collapse of the volcano into the sea ⚪️ explosions when seawater encountered magma ⚪️ adding a large volume of rock to the island, thus changing sea level ⚪️ a massive earthquake that shook the seafloor

Despite all of the damage the Northridge earthquake caused, experts suggest that the death toll earthquake could have been much higher. This is because ______.

🔘 the earthquake struck early in the morning before work ⚪️ the hypocenter of the earthquake was unusually deep ⚪️ many buildings survived shaking thanks to strict building codes that were only recently enacted

GxMass1xMass2distancexdistance is ______.

🔘 the law of gravity ⚪️ acceleration ⚪️ velocity ⚪️ inertia

Heat supply in the world's ______ has a major effect on global climate.

🔘 oceans ⚪️ continents ⚪️ ice sheets ⚪️ forests

Most earthquakes that occur along fracture zones between segments of midocean ridge occur ______.

🔘 on the segments between offset sections of ridge crest ⚪️ on the segments outside the zone between the offset sections of ridge crest ⚪️ along the entire length of the fracture zones

Waves will slow down when they reach water that is less than _________ deep.

🔘 one-half their wavelength ⚪️ twice their wavelength ⚪️ one-quarter their wave height ⚪️ one-third their wave height

The best building codes related to limiting hurricane damage proved to be those that required a design that ______.

🔘 passed the wind energy from the roof, to the walls, and to the ground ⚪️ allowed the wind to easily enter the house to prevent the buildup of a pressure gradient ⚪️ passed the wind energy from the walls to the roof ⚪️ relied on roof tiles that would easily blow away, thereby limiting the buildup of stress on the roof

Living plants maintain a consistent amount of radioactive carbon in their cells through replenishment of carbon by the process of ______.

🔘 photosynthesis ⚪️ nitrogen fixation ⚪️ respiration ⚪️ transpiration

Fire is essentially the _________ reaction in reverse.

🔘 photosynthesis ⚪️ respiration ⚪️ oxidation ⚪️ hydrolysis

The Los Alamos fire of May 2000 began with a __________ at Bandelier National Monument.

🔘 prescribed fire ⚪️ lightning strike ⚪️ campfire ⚪️ car fire

The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami was so powerful because the rupture that caused the earthquake _______.

🔘 raised the seafloor by tens of feet, displacing vast amounts of seawater ⚪️ occurred along many kilometers of the Indonesian transform plate boundary ⚪️ occurred early in the morning when the tide was at its highest point of the day ⚪️ resulted in massive landslides, which dumped masses of earth material into the ocean

Ice records from Greenland show us that temperature changes in the past few thousand years have been ______.

🔘 rapid ⚪️ gradual ⚪️ long-lived ⚪️ very slow

The most vulnerable part of a house to fires is(are) the _________.

🔘 roof ⚪️ yard ⚪️ decks ⚪️ windows

Of the styles of wildfire, a ______ has glowing combustion as an important role.

🔘 slow-moving ground fire ⚪️ crown fire ⚪️ wall of fire along a combustion front

Because of Mexico's "let it burn" style policy, wildfires there tend to be ___________ when compared to those in southern California.

🔘 smaller in size but more numerous ⚪️ larger in size and more numerous ⚪️ smaller in size but less numerous ⚪️ larger in size and less numerous

Flood insurance has been available to farmers and townspeople since the 1950s through ______.

🔘 the National Flood Insurance Program ⚪️ federal disaster aid ⚪️ private insurance companies ⚪️ the State Flood Prevention Program

The average slip rate indicates ______.

🔘 the average rate of tectonic motion over a given time period ⚪️ how much movement occurs along a fault in a given year ⚪️ the amount of frictional resistance between two tectonic plates ⚪️ how long it will be until the next major earthquake occurs along the fault

Hurricane eyewalls contain the highest wind speeds because ______.

🔘 the biggest drop in air pressure occurs there ⚪️ heavy rain forces air to move out of the way as it falls ⚪️ air pressure is higher there ⚪️ the Coriolis effect is strongest near the center of the storm

Ice records from Greenland show that over the past 35,000 years, ________.

🔘 there have been warm and cold intervals in the most recent Ice Age ⚪️ there have been at least 15 Ice Ages, separated by warm periods ⚪️ global temperature has been steadily rising ⚪️ there have been no periods as warm today

The diagram depicts a molecule known as a(n) _______.

🔘 silicon-oxygen tetrahedron ⚪️ oxide mineral ⚪️ volcanic tephra ⚪️ diamond silicate structure

Which of the following natural disasters kills the most people per year in the United States?

🔘 Severe weather ⚪️ Earthquakes ⚪️ Volcanoes ⚪️ Mass movements

It has been suggested that sending millions of tons of sulfate into the stratosphere could block sunlight and cool the planet. This process would replicate the effect of _______.

🔘 volcanic eruptions ⚪️ cloud brightening ⚪️ sunspots ⚪️ ozone depletion

The most notable observation made in the area where the Tunguska event occurred was that ______.

🔘 there was no impact crater or even broken ground ⚪️ the impacting meteorite was discovered nearly intact ⚪️ the impact crater was unusually wide and deep ⚪️ extremely high levels of radiation were detected

The dry adiabatic lapse rate is ______°C per km of rise.

🔘 10 ⚪️ 1 ⚪️ 23 ⚪️ 3

What happens to volatiles in a magma as it rises toward the surface?

⚪️ The volatiles dissolve into the magma. ⚪️ The volatiles become more concentrated in the magma. ⚪️ The volatiles react with silica in the magma to form chains of silicon-oxygen tetrahedra. 🔘 The volatiles come out of solution and form bubbles.

Large bodies of air that have little horizontal variation in moisture content or temperature are called air ______.

⚪️ fronts 🔘 masses ⚪️ systems ⚪️ bodies

Select all the following conditions that would result in a thunderstorm being classified as being severe.

✅ Hail is 25 mm (1 in) diameter or larger. ✅ Winds exceed 50 knots (93 km/hr or 58 mph). ✅ A tornado is reported. ⬜️ Latent heat is released by condensing water vapor. ⬜️ Rain exceeds 3.3 cm/hour (1.3 in/hour).

Comets may offer a clue to the origins of life on Earth since their icy surfaces contain the essential building blocks of life, such as ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ carbon ✅ oxygen ✅ nitrogen ⬜️ sodium ⬜️ iridium

Pyroclastic flows derive their energy from three things: ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ the volcanic eruption ✅ gas expansion within the flow ✅ gravity ⬜️ convection cells within the flow

True or false: Meteoroids smaller than 0.001 mm pass through the atmosphere relatively easily.

➕ True

Since the beginning of the Phanerozoic era (about 540 million years ago), the background extinction rate has remained relatively steady at about ______ percent generic extinction.

🔘 10 ⚪️ 20 ⚪️ 30 ⚪️ 40

The rate of human-related extinctions of other animals began to increase ______ years ago, indicating that we have been affecting the environment long before the arrival of the Industrial Revolution.

🔘 12,000 ⚪️ 2,000 ⚪️ 7,500 ⚪️ 6,300

The downhill force acting upon an object can be calculated using the mass of the object and the angle of the slope it lies upon. The downhill force is equal to the mass of the object multiplied by the sine of the slope angle. Examine the example shown here for a boulder with a mass of 1 lb. What would be the downhill force of a boulder with a mass of 5 lb on a slope with an angle of 30o?

🔘 2.5 lb ⚪️ 0.5 lb ⚪️ 10 lb ⚪️ 1.75 lb

A major evolutionary event began to take place about ______ years ago, when many new groups of organisms started creating hard parts, dramatically improving the fossil record.

🔘 541 million ⚪️ 1 billion ⚪️ 3.5 billion ⚪️ 250 million

To hold back fire from homes, trees should have all branches trimmed within ____ feet of the ground to stop grass fires from reaching the canopy.

🔘 6 ⚪️ 1 ⚪️ 2 ⚪️ 3

Which of the following is the best description of the relationship between a cause and a trigger for slope failure?

🔘 A trigger is the immediate cause for the failure of an already weak slope. ⚪️ A trigger is the long-term cause for the weakness of a slope. ⚪️ Causes are natural and triggers are human-induced reasons that slope fail.

What is characteristic about background extinction rates just prior to the end-Cretaceous mass extinction?

🔘 Background extinction rates were slightly elevated, likely the result of deteriorating environmental conditions. ⚪️ Background extinctions were at their lowest levels for the past few hundred million years. ⚪️ Background extinction rates were elevated for marine organisms but relatively low for terrestrial organisms, especially dinosaurs.

The accompanying figure shows a cross section through multiple layers of sedimentary rock. The law of superposition tells us that the oldest layer in the cross section must be ______.

🔘 E ⚪️ A ⚪️ B ⚪️ C ⚪️ D

Why is the USGS Did You Feel It? program so important?

🔘 It allows for the quick collection and dissemination of useful data concerning shaking during earthquakes. ⚪️ It collects information regarding earthquake magnitude that can be used to predict future quakes. ⚪️ It gives people a warning with enough time to get to a safe place when an earthquake occurs.

The Sun transmits its energy to Earth in the form of ______.

🔘 electromagnetic radiation ⚪️ heat rays ⚪️ solar winds ⚪️ magnetic field lines

In the 20th century, there was a dramatic decrease in the annual average acres burned of U.S. wildlands because of total fire _______ policy.

🔘 suppression ⚪️ research ⚪️ education

Fire burns ______ upslope than downslope because convective heat ______ and dries out the vegetation.

🔘 faster; rises ⚪️ slower; sinks

Warm phases in the Pacific Decadal Oscillation are associated with _____, whereas cool phases are associated with _____.

🔘 more storms and rainfall; fewer storms ⚪️ periods of drought; heavy rain ⚪️ increased rainfall; increased snowfall ⚪️ hurricanes; thunder storms

Lava flows are rarely responsible for many volcano-related deaths because they ______.

🔘 move too slowly ⚪️ only occur in isolated areas ⚪️ rarely occur during eruptions ⚪️ usually form after other volcano hazards have already decimated an area

When a slump occurs, the toe will typically ________.

🔘 move upward and outward ⚪️ rotate backward and drop down ⚪️ rotate forward and drop down ⚪️ move downward and backward

Caves form in limestone when ______.

🔘 naturally acidic groundwater dissolves the carbonate rock ⚪️ mining operations are abandoned ⚪️ subsidence of the land surface opens up cavities ⚪️ layers of clay and sand are washed away by underground rivers

Parking structures are often vulnerable to earthquake damage, as shown in this image. This is because they often lack sufficient _______.

🔘 shear walls ⚪️ bracing ⚪️ weight ⚪️ stabilizers

A rogue wave is ______.

🔘 short-lived but dangerous because of its height ⚪️ created by different asynchronous waves ⚪️ very tall but not very dangerous ⚪️ is just a myth

The melting of frozen pore water and the drying out of clay minerals are two mechanisms that cause soil to ______.

🔘 shrink ⚪️ swell ⚪️ disintegrate ⚪️ erode

After residents of villages near Lake Nyos encountered a gaseous cloud in 1986, they ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ lost consciousness ✅ died of asphyxiation ⬜️ developed unusual respiratory problems ⬜️ became covered in a strange yellow rash

As a result of the 1783 Laki fissure event in Iceland, ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ volcanic gases killed more than half of the country's livestock (horses, sheep, and cattle) ✅ a famine killed about 10,000 people ✅ the growth of important agricultural plants was slowed ⬜️ several important fishing ports were damaged, leading to a major economic downturn

True or false: The central United States is the only region of the country that is not threatened by earthquakes.

➖ False

The two largest New Madrid earthquakes occurred in the years ______ and ______.

🔘 1811; 1812 ⚪️ 1906; 1914 ⚪️ 1700; 1763 ⚪️ 1954; 1959

The Indian Ocean tsunami, which killed about 245,000 people in 14 countries, occurred on _______.

🔘 26 December 2004 ⚪️ 11 March 2011 ⚪️ 27 August 1883 ⚪️ 22 May 1960

The temperature at which the relative humidity reaches 100%, causing excess water vapor to condense, is the ______ temperature.

🔘 dew point ⚪️ absolute humidity ⚪️ adiabatic ⚪️ barometric

This figure demonstrates the sense of motion of which type of seismic wave?

⚪️ P wave ⚪️ S wave ⚪️ Love wave 🔘 Rayleigh wave

In which three settings do calderas form? (Select all that apply.)

✅ The summits of shield volcanoes ⬜️ At spreading centers ✅ The summits of stratovolcanoes ✅ Within continental interiors ⬜️ The summits of scoria cones

Why do wind-blown waves break when they reach the shore?

🔘 Friction from the seafloor slows down the waves, causing them to oversteepen until they topple. ⚪️ Wind speeds reduce dramatically at the shore, which causes the waves to slow down and steepen. ⚪️ The waves don't have the energy to climb up the beach and fall apart. ⚪️ The sand absorbs wave energy, which causes the wave to break apart.

What was the result of glacial meltwater pouring into the Eyjafjallajokull magma chamber as it was erupting in 2010?

🔘 It caused a Vulcanian eruption that blew pyroclastic material 9 km into the atmosphere. ⚪️ The eruption stopped abruptly. ⚪️ The magma changed from andesitic to basaltic in composition. ⚪️ A plug of lava slowly emerged from the volcano to create a unique formation.

One example of a successful advance warning of a volcanic eruption is ______.

🔘 Mount Pinatubo in 1991 ⚪️ Mammoth Lakes in 1982 ⚪️ Mount St. Helens in 1980 ⚪️ Heimaey in 1979

The earliest known life-forms on Earth belong to the ______ group, which were reproducing and evolving 3.85 billion years ago.

🔘 archaea ⚪️ bacteria ⚪️ eukarya

What is causing the earthquakes in the region of India, China, and Pakistan?

🔘 The India plate's push into Asia ⚪️ Asia's subduction under the advancing India plate ⚪️ Volcanoes related to an ancient subduction zone ⚪️ The weight of the water behind the new dams in the region

The block below the fault plane in this image is referred to as the ___________.

🔘 footwall ⚪️ floor block ⚪️ basement ⚪️ normal fault

What is the danger posed by building parking garages on the first floor of buildings?

🔘 They are often built with fewer internal walls, lateral supports, and less bracing, which weakens the support for the floors above. ⚪️ Cars are often all rolled in one direction and knock out the walls as they impact them. ⚪️ Shaking caused by the earthquake triggers explosions in the gas tanks of the cars. ⚪️ It slows the evacuation of buildings as earthquakes occur because people are reluctant to leave their cars behind.

What defines the action stage of a flood?

🔘 Water begins overtopping the banks. ⚪️ Roads, parks, and yards are covered in water. ⚪️ Buildings are inundated and evacuations may be necessary. ⚪️ Buildings are completely submerged and large-scale evacuations are required.

The massive amounts of water hurricanes push onshore form what is known as storm ______.

🔘 surge ⚪️ roll ⚪️ wave ⚪️ fetch

Concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere have been rising since ________.

🔘 the Industrial Revolution ⚪️ the end of the last Ice Age ⚪️ humans evolved ⚪️ the Middle Ages

A natural _____ is the threat of a naturally occurring event that could have a negative effect on human life or property.

⚪️ disaster ⚪️ risk 🔘 hazard ⚪️ mitigation

In which of these scenarios will the plate subduct? (Select all that apply.)

✅ An older, colder oceanic plate that collides with a younger, warmer oceanic plate ✅ A warmer, younger oceanic plate that collides with an older continental plate ⬜️ A larger continental plate that collides with a smaller continental plate

True or false: The vast majority of large earthquakes occurring in the central United States are associated with human activity, such as dam construction or fracking.

➖ False

Which of the following are true about the Accumulated Cyclone Energy (ACE) index? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ A cyclone's energy is calculated after it weakens to a depression by studying the damage it did. ✅ The ACE is a measure of the total energy output of a hurricane. ✅ The total energy released by each hurricane in a season is complied. ✅ Hurricane Ivan in 2004 released more energy than is generated in some entire hurricane seasons. ⬜️ No year since the year 2001 has had a hurricane season with an ACE index in the top 10.

Which of the following factors are believed to be the cause of declining world fertility (birth rates) in recent years? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ Increased child mortality rates ✅ Urbanization ✅ Increased opportunities for women ⬜️ Famine and drought in the Southern Hemisphere

The expansion of deeply buried rocks after they are exposed by erosion causes the formation of ______, which reduce the strength of the rock.

🔘 fractures ⚪️ silicate minerals ⚪️ bedding planes ⚪️ steep slopes

The number of times a building sways back and forth during a given amount of time is called its ______.

🔘 frequency ⚪️ period ⚪️ resonance ⚪️ return period

The strongest positive radiative forcing from human activities comes from ________.

🔘 increased carbon dioxide ⚪️ increased ozone in the stratosphere ⚪️ increased cloud albedo ⚪️ production of chlorofluorocarbons

The ______ rides upon the ______ and is composed of both the ______ and the uppermost ______.

🔘 lithosphere; asthenosphere; crust; mantle ⚪️ asthenosphere; lithsophere; crust; mantle ⚪️ crust; mantle; lithosphere; asthenosphere

The average hurricane generates energy at a rate that is ______ times greater than our worldwide capacity to generate electricity.

⚪️ 2 ⚪️ 5 🔘 200 ⚪️ 50

Hurricanes are called major hurricanes if they are at least a category ______ on the Saffir-Simpson scale.

⚪️ 2 🔘 3 ⚪️ 4 ⚪️ 5

Which of these is an example of water acting as an external factor in decreased slope stability?

🔘 Rain runoff ⚪️ High pore pressure ⚪️ Rising water table ⚪️ Absorption of water by clay minerals

What kind of avalanche is shown here?

🔘 Slab ⚪️ Loose-powder ⚪️ Wet ⚪️ Debris

The concept of uniformitarianism can be summarized by the statement _________.

⚪️ "nothing ever changes" 🔘 "the present is the key to the past" ⚪️ "great disasters create great landscapes" ⚪️ "the past is unrecognizable to those who live in the present"

The type of strain shown here is ______.

⚪️ elastic 🔘 ductile ⚪️ brittle ⚪️ shear

The instrument used to record seismic waves is called a(n) _____.

🔘 seismograph ⚪️ shake meter ⚪️ inertia recorder ⚪️ earthquake map

The hurricanes that form from ______ that develop in the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) are known as Caribbean Sea or Gulf of Mexico-type hurricanes.

🔘 thunderstorms ⚪️ easterly waves ⚪️ El Niños ⚪️ Bermuda Highs

Geologists estimate that magnitude 7+ earthquakes occur along the San Andreas fault on average every ______ years.

🔘 132 ⚪️ 70 ⚪️ 8 ⚪️ 330

According to the flood frequency curve for the Pedernales River, a 100-year flood has a discharge of approximately ______ cubic feet per second.

🔘 320,000 ⚪️ 80,000 ⚪️ 10,000 ⚪️ 220,000

Since it was created 2,500 years ago, the longest Mount St. Helens has gone without erupting is ______ years.

🔘 500 ⚪️ 50 ⚪️ 100 ⚪️ 250

Basaltic magmas are most commonly associated with ______.

⚪️ moderately explosive eruptions 🔘 nonviolent lava flow eruptions ⚪️ violently explosive eruptions

The leading cause of avalanche deaths is ______.

⚪️ hypothermia 🔘 suffocation ⚪️ trauma ⚪️ starvation

Most of the damage caused by desert floods is due to ______.

🔘 bank erosion ⚪️ inundation ⚪️ sediment deposition ⚪️ salt contamination of drinking water

The four outer planets of the Solar System are mostly composed of ______.

🔘 hydrogen, helium, and other frozen materials ⚪️ silicon, oxygen, and iron in the form of rocks ⚪️ liquid metallic elements such as iron ⚪️ frozen water and dust

The creation of new oceanic lithosphere at an oceanic ridge and its movement away from the ridge is known as ____________.

⚪️ subduction ⚪️ transform faulting 🔘 seafloor spreading ⚪️ continental drift

Single-cell thunderstorms do not spin off tornadoes because ______.

⚪️ the energy they contain is too powerful and creates too large of an axis of rotation for tornadoes to form 🔘 they do not grow large enough because cool drafts of air block the upward flow of air ⚪️ they are extremely tilted and that limits wind shear ⚪️ they tend to occur in geographic settings that limit tornado formation

The 1983 Borah Peak earthquake in Idaho had an unusual effect on Thousand Springs Valley when the earthquake ______.

🔘 squeezed water from the subterranean aquifers, creating fountains of water 3 to 6 m high ⚪️ blocked the channel of Thousand Springs Creek and created Earthquake Lake ⚪️ caused a large change in ground elevation, forcing streams in the valley to flow backward

The lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesosphere, outer core, and inner core are layers of Earth that are distinguished from one another by their _______.

🔘 strengths ⚪️ densities ⚪️ temperatures ⚪️ thicknesses

Underground pumping of liquids can trigger earthquakes, first by adding ______ and then by reducing ______ along faults.

🔘 stress; friction ⚪️ friction; stress ⚪️ heat; pore volume ⚪️ stress; strain

Actions that alter the natural river system, such as building dams or straightening channels, are considered to be ______ to flood hazards.

🔘 structural responses ⚪️ natural responses ⚪️ environmental barriers ⚪️ positive feedbacks

Hurricanes do not form at or within 5°N or S of the equator because ______.

🔘 the Coriolis effect is too weak ⚪️ the Coriolis effect is up and down instead of left or right ⚪️ upwelling brings cold water to the surface of the ocean ⚪️ there is not enough open ocean within those latitudes

The Moon exhibits many more impact craters than Earth because ______.

🔘 the Moon is geologically dead, so impact scars are not destroyed ⚪️ the Moon acts as a "shield" to Earth, absorbing many impacts ⚪️ the Moon is much older than Earth

The primary source of energy for Earth's surface is _________.

🔘 the Sun ⚪️ its internal heat ⚪️ from impacts ⚪️ gravity ⚪️ the magnetic field

In general, processes of destruction are driven by _______.

🔘 the Sun's energy ⚪️ the Earth's internal heat ⚪️ the magnetic field ⚪️ impacts

The dew point temperature is the temperature at which ______.

🔘 the air is 100% saturated with water vapor and condensation will occur with further cooling ⚪️ evaporation exceeds condensation on aerosols in the atmosphere ⚪️ no further input of heat is needed to maintain the evaporation of liquid water ⚪️ the relative humidity is exactly 50% of the humidity need to form precipitation

Which of the following are suggested solutions to the sinking of Venice? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Bring in sediment to raise the ground level. ✅ Construct moveable floodgates. ✅ Inflate sands underlying the city by injecting seawater or carbon dioxide. ⬜️ Cease all extraction of groundwater from beneath the city. ⬜️ Move the city approximately 50 km inland.

Which of the following make houses a source of fuel for fires? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Built of combustible materials ✅ Supplied with natural gas ✅ Live electrical wires ⬜️ Flammable concrete foundations ⬜️ Proximity to roads

Which of the following are human sources of methane? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Burning fossil fuels ⬜️ Termite activity ✅ Maintaining livestock ✅ Rice cultivation ✅ Landfill decomposition ⬜️ Methane hydrates

Which of these best describe the nature of magma that forms a lava dome? (Select all that apply.)

✅ High viscosity ⬜️ High volatiles ⬜️ Low viscosity ✅ Low volatiles

The Deccan traps are ______.

🔘 the remains of a massive flood basalt event that occurred during the late Cretaceous ⚪️ a series of tar pits that preserve the remains of many species of large animals ⚪️ an ancient zone of seafloor spreading related to sea level rise during the Cretaceous ⚪️ the eroded remains of an impact crater that dates to the end of the Cretaceous

Large stony meteorites, such as the one that possibly caused the Tunguska event, sometimes do not leave craters because ______.

🔘 the resistance of Earth's atmosphere causes them to break apart ⚪️ they completely burn up in Earth's atmosphere ⚪️ they are too soft to leave a significant crater body upon impact

Which of the following are true about the hurricane season in the Atlantic and U.S. Gulf coast? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Hurricanes and/or their weaker forms (e.g., tropical storms) form every year. ⬜️ Most of the hurricanes that form will be category 4 or 5. ✅ Hurricanes will form when sea-surface temperatures are at their warmest. ⬜️ Hurricanes cause the most deaths in the United States in April.

Which of these statements explain the peaceful nature of eruptions at spreading centers? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Low silica content of the magma ✅ Low volatile content of the magma ⬜️ High viscosity of the magma ✅ Highly fluid magma ⬜️ Low volume of magma ✅ High temperature of the magma

What causes large-scale motions in the atmosphere and oceans? (Select all that apply.)

✅ The rotation (spin) of Earth ✅ Gravitation forces working on unequal masses in the atmosphere and ocean ✅ The unequal distribution of heat ⬜️ The revolution of the Solar System around the center of the Milky Way ⬜️ Water and water vapor's response to Earth's magnetic field

The 22 May 1960 earthquake in Chile ______. (Choose all that apply.)

✅ was the largest ever recorded ✅ generated deadly tsunami ⬜️ only caused damage in South America ⬜️ was generated by horizontal slip

In the fire reaction, oxygen (O) combines with organic material (C6H12O6), and these materials are converted to ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ water ✅ heat ✅ carbon dioxide ⬜️ methane ⬜️ hydrogen

True or false: Elevators are safe to use in natural disasters.

➖ False

Which of these are the three ways in which rock may melt? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ Increasing the viscosity ✅ Increasing the temperature ✅ Addition of water ⬜️ Increasing the silica content ✅ Lowering the pressure

Which of the following explain why basaltic eruptions are commonly peaceful? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ Low temperature ⬜️ Low pressure ✅ Low water content ✅ Low viscosity ✅ Low silica content

Which of the following factors contribute to the weakness of quick clays? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ Low water content ✅ Very fine grained ⬜️ Low porosity ✅ Low salt content ✅ Weak structure ✅ Water content above 50% ⬜️ More than 25% cement

Which of the following are requirements for an earthquake to generate a tsunami? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ Must occur far from shore ✅ Must have a magnitude of at least 7.5Mw ✅ Must move the seafloor vertically up or down ⬜️ Must occur on a strike-slip fault

What has been done to prevent another lethal buildup of carbon dioxide in Lake Nyos?

🔘 Degassing pipes have been installed to allow carbon dioxide to exit the lake when pressure builds up. ⚪️ Lake Nyos was completely drained to allow for natural carbon dioxide outgassing. ⚪️ A mechanical device artificially cycles Lake Nyos water to prevent the lake from become stratified.

The 1991 San Francisco Bay area fire was initially controlled but was reignited by the _________ winds that averaged 17 mph with gusts up to 25 mph.

🔘 Diablo ⚪️ Santa Ana ⚪️ jet stream ⚪️ western

Which plate boundary has the lowest earthquake frequency?

🔘 Divergent boundaries ⚪️ Convergent boundaries ⚪️ Transform faults

Why is the Richter magnitude scale less reliable for large earthquakes that occur far away?

🔘 It uses short-period seismic waves. ⚪️ It only uses surface waves. ⚪️ Seismometers can't pick up seismic waves from great distances. ⚪️ S-P times are harder to calculate for very large earthquakes.

How did the Arabian tectonic plate form?

🔘 It was cut off of the African continent by new spreading centers in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. ⚪️ It broke off of India and was pushed to the northwest by a spreading center. ⚪️ It formed from a hot spot that stayed in one place long enough to create a tectonic plate. ⚪️ It broke off of the southern portion of the Eurasian plate in a rebound effect as India collided with Asia.

How do seasons affect the polar jet stream?

🔘 Its path moves northward in summer and southward in winter. ⚪️ Since the polar jet flows at high altitude, it is not affected by the seasons. ⚪️ Its path moves southward in summer and northward in winter. ⚪️ It flows east to west in spring and summer and west to east in fall and winter.

Which of these magmas would typically be the most viscous?

🔘 Rhyolite ⚪️ Andesite ⚪️ Basalt

What is the first stage of treatment for hypothermia?

🔘 Warm the core of the body. ⚪️ Warm the extremities such as arms and legs. ⚪️ Ingestion of a 6 to 7% alcohol solution (e.g., beer) ⚪️ Exposure to ultraviolet light

The "Dust Bowl" of the 1930s was caused by _______.

🔘 an extended period of drought ⚪️ poor farming practices that ruined the soil ⚪️ collapse of the financial market ⚪️ extremely cold winters at the start of the decade

In the United States, 4.4 ______ dollars in annualized earthquake losses (the future potential cost of earthquake damage) are projected.

🔘 billion ⚪️ million ⚪️ trillion

This image shows a(n) ______ forming in shallow water.

🔘 breaker ⚪️ ocean swell ⚪️ swash zone ⚪️ longshore current

A ______ is a structure built offshore, parallel to the coast, to provide calm waters for boats and to protect the shore from wave erosion.

🔘 breakwater ⚪️ jetty ⚪️ seawall ⚪️ groin

Removing some of its mass, attaching a rocket engine to it, or using giant mirrors are all potential ways to ______.

🔘 deflect or destroy a near-Earth object (NEO) threatening Earth ⚪️ experimentally observe impact crater formation ⚪️ locate and monitor near-Earth objects (NEOs)

The salinity (i.e., amount of dissolved salts per volume) and the temperature of the water are the two major controls on the ______ of seawater.

🔘 density ⚪️ weight ⚪️ movement ⚪️ clarity

Deep-water circulation in the oceans is driven by ______.

🔘 density contrasts in seawater ⚪️ prevailing wind directions ⚪️ the Coriolis effect ⚪️ seafloor topography

Called ______ by Charles Darwin, changes in the genetic pool of a population—such as when a subset of the population becomes geographically isolated—leads to the origins of a new species.

🔘 descent with modification ⚪️ simple evolution ⚪️ genome variability ⚪️ gambler's ruin

Within a normal fault, one rock mass moves ______ another.

🔘 down and away from ⚪️ up and over ⚪️ parallel to

As can be seen in this image, when a subduction zone becomes locked, the seaward edge bows _____ and the landward side bows ______.

🔘 downward; upward ⚪️ downward; downward ⚪️ upward; downward ⚪️ upward; upward

Thick layers of _______ can be a fire hazard because it smolders below the surface, allowing for possible reignition after a fire is put out.

🔘 duff ⚪️ sand ⚪️ grass ⚪️ shrubs

In terms of number of species eliminated (more than 80 percent), the ______ extinction was the worst in Earth's history.

🔘 end-Permian ⚪️ end-Cretaceous ⚪️ late Quaternary ⚪️ late Ordovician

Pyrolysis is when wood breaks apart and yields _________ in the absence of oxygen.

🔘 flammable gas ⚪️ carbon ⚪️ heat ⚪️ carbon dioxide

Large debris avalanche deposits found on the seafloor around the Hawaiian islands have been attributed to ________.

🔘 flank collapse of the Hawaiian volcanoes ⚪️ debris piled up during major tsunami events ⚪️ collapse of Hawaiian beaches into the ocean ⚪️ wave erosion of the Hawaiian coastline

Thanks to technologic advances and our increased knowledge of weather and floods, we do a better job of ______ of large floods.

🔘 forecasting the time and height ⚪️ reducing the economic impact ⚪️ eliminating the occurrence

One of the issues created by the aggressive fire suppression policy of the early 1900s was a buildup of ________ that created intense wildfires that were uncontrollable in the late 1900s.

🔘 fuel ⚪️ grasslands ⚪️ open spaces

The occurrence of fires is mainly limited by the amount of ______ available.

🔘 fuel ⚪️ oxygen ⚪️ heat ⚪️ carbon dioxide

Sand can be melted to make ______.

🔘 glass ⚪️ coal ⚪️ steel ⚪️ plastic

A tektite is a ______.

🔘 glassy spherule formed by in-air cooling of impact-melted rock ⚪️ cone-in-cone mineral structure formed under intense pressure ⚪️ type of mineral that can form as a result of an impact event ⚪️ type of impact crater formed when a meteoroid strikes the surface at a low angle

The Nyiragongo lava flow was especially deadly because it ______.

🔘 had an unusually low viscosity, allowing it to move quickly ⚪️ had an extremely large volume of carbon dioxide gas, making it highly explosive ⚪️ set fire to the surrounding forest, burning more than 2 million acres of land in the process

The ______ of animals, such as shark teeth or clam shells, tend to dominate the fossil record.

🔘 hard parts ⚪️ skeletons ⚪️ organic parts

When magma moves at shallow depths, it often produces nearly continuous clusters of earthquakes called ______.

🔘 harmonic tremors ⚪️ earthquake swarms ⚪️ magma temblors

Seismic gaps are formed along segments of an active fault that _______.

🔘 have not experienced an earthquake in a long time ⚪️ experience frequent earthquakes ⚪️ have never experienced earthquakes

Earth's climate depends on the balance between incoming and outgoing ______.

🔘 heat ⚪️ ice ⚪️ species ⚪️ tides

When radioactive isotopes decay, energy is released in the form of ______.

🔘 heat ⚪️ radioactivity ⚪️ gravity ⚪️ acceleration

Primary lahars were generated during the Nevado del Ruiz eruption in 1985 when ______.

🔘 hot pyroclastic debris began melting the volcano's ice cap ⚪️ a massive thunderstorm produced heavy rainfall during the eruption ⚪️ water-rich magma mixed with volcanic ash during the initial phase of the eruption

Sector collapses are the result of the failure of weak or rotten rock, which happens when ______.

🔘 hot water and gases thermally decompose the rock ⚪️ the magma chamber is repeatedly recharged, causing rapid changes in pressure ⚪️ it is repeatedly melted and recrystallized when it comes in contact with magma

Better understanding of fault movements largely comes from ______.

🔘 improvements to field equipment and instrumentation ⚪️ exploring ancient fault movements ⚪️ computer modeling and experimental seismology

Under normal conditions, warmer surface waters from the central Pacific Ocean are found _______.

🔘 in the western Pacific ⚪️ in the northern Pacific ⚪️ in the eastern Pacific ⚪️ in the southern Pacific

A stream can't change how much sediment is present or the amount of water it will receive. In this way, discharge and load are ______ variables.

🔘 independent ⚪️ dependent ⚪️ universal ⚪️ fixed

It ______ that a large asteroid will hit Earth during your lifetime.

🔘 is not likely ⚪️ is somewhat likely ⚪️ is impossible ⚪️ is very likely

The pyroclastic surge that erupted from El Chichón Volcano in April 1982 ______.

🔘 killed everyone in a 8 km radius ⚪️ ran directly between 2 large cities without killing anyone ⚪️ was launched over a city after running up a large hill ⚪️ was the largest ever recorded

Acoustic flow monitors (AFMs) are a method used to detect and warn people about impending _____.

🔘 lahars ⚪️ lava flows ⚪️ volcanic eruptions ⚪️ pyroclastic flows

This geology map of the Oso, Washington, area shows that ______.

🔘 landslides are common in this area ⚪️ the Oso landslide of 2014 was completely unpredictable ⚪️ the Oso event was a rockfall, not a landslide

A scientific team drills deep down into a magma chamber and recovers samples of the magma. Their analysis finds that it contains very few volatiles and is very viscous. They predict that an eruption of the magma would form a ______.

🔘 lava dome ⚪️ fissure eruption ⚪️ shield volcano ⚪️ cinder cone

Less than 1% of volcano-related deaths are caused by ______ because they move very slowly.

🔘 lava flows ⚪️ pyroclastic flows ⚪️ pyroclastic surges ⚪️ lahars

In nature, flaming combustion is found on the _______ of the fire.

🔘 leading and trailing edges ⚪️ middle portion ⚪️ trailing edge ⚪️ leading and middle portions

The objects in the Kuiper belt are ______.

🔘 left over from the formation of the outer planets ⚪️ the remains of a large rocky planet that exploded ⚪️ extrasolar debris captured by the Sun's gravity ⚪️ asteroids that have migrated away from the asteroid belt

The earliest flood protection measures taken in New Orleans were _____ built after a flood in 1717.

🔘 levees ⚪️ canals ⚪️ flood barriers ⚪️ dams

A piece of asteroid or comet that orbits the Sun is called a ______. If it enters Earth's atmosphere, it is called a ______. If it hits Earth's surface, it is called a ______.

🔘 meteoroid; meteor; meteorite ⚪️ meteor; meteorite; meteoroid ⚪️ meteoroid; meteorite; meteor ⚪️ meteorite; meteor; meteoroid

This image shows an erupting ______.

🔘 scoria cone ⚪️ stratovolcano ⚪️ shield volcano ⚪️ caldera

Decreases in ______ at the end of the Permian led to increases in ocean basin volume. As result, sea level dropped significantly, pushing species to extinction.

🔘 seafloor spreading rates ⚪️ continental flood basalt activity ⚪️ tectonic uplift ⚪️ landmass area

Warnings about a possible tsunami that follow a major earthquake can be generated by scientists far from the epicenter by analyzing _____.

🔘 seismic waves ⚪️ historical records ⚪️ reports from those affected by the earthquake ⚪️ messages from ships at sea

As shown in this image, forest firefighters may reduce fuel while battling a wildfire by _______.

🔘 setting a backfire ⚪️ creating a firebreak ⚪️ spraying with water ⚪️ applying a fire retardant

Around 1 billion years ago, evolutionary development began to occur at an increased rate with the appearance of ______ among organisms.

🔘 sexual reproduction ⚪️ photosynthesis ⚪️ predation ⚪️ aerobic respiration

Averaging around 1 mm in diameter, or about the size of a sand grain, ______ usually melt in the atmosphere and create a bright flash of light in the process.

🔘 shooting stars ⚪️ cosmic dust ⚪️ meteorites ⚪️ comets

One hypothesis for the mass extinction that occurred 65 million years ago is _______.

🔘 significant global warming caused by emission of CO2 during the eruption of flood basalts ⚪️ a mini-Ice Age caused by shutting down of the Atlantic Ocean circulation pattern ⚪️ poisoning of the atmosphere caused by widespread melting of methane hydrates ⚪️ catastrophic sea-level rise, which submerged up to 50% of the current land surface

The city of Seattle is very susceptible to earthquake-related damage because it ______.

🔘 sits atop a deep basin filled with soft sediments ⚪️ sits directly above the San Andreas fault ⚪️ is a site of extensive fracking

Flood basalt eruptions can affect global climate because _______.

🔘 they emit large volumes of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide ⚪️ they thrust vast amounts of ash into the atmosphere, which can block sunlight for many years ⚪️ they heat the surface of the Earth over a vast area, which can affect weather patterns

Fragments of magma formed by an explosive eruption are called ______.

⚪️ pahoehoe clasts 🔘 pyroclastic debris ⚪️ lahar ⚪️ fragmental material

Choose all the components of smoke.

✅ Carbon monoxide ✅ Carbon dioxide ✅ Particulates ✅ Water vapor ⬜️ Methane ⬜️ Sulfur dioxide

True or false: The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center uses travel time maps to provide advance warning of tsunami that may arrive hours after the generated earthquake occurs.

➕ True

True or false: Due to tough building codes, earthquake damage in the San Francisco Bay area is determined only by the strength of the earthquake.

➖ False

It is likely that oceans and small continents existed on Earth by ____ billion years ago and that life was present by ____ billion years ago.

⚪️ 3.5; 2.5 ⚪️ 4.6; 4.2 ⚪️ 1.5; 3.5 🔘 4.4; 3.5

At which volcanic explosivity index (VEI) do events occur most frequently?

⚪️ 4 🔘 2 ⚪️ 3 ⚪️ 5 ⚪️ 6

The _______ scale is the most accurate measure of the size of large earthquakes.

🔘 moment magnitude (Mw) ⚪️ Richter magnitude (ML) ⚪️ body-wave scale (mb) ⚪️ surface-wave scale (Ms)

The ______ landscape of southeastern Washington formed when an ice dam failed on the glacial lake known as Lake MIssoula.

🔘 scablands ⚪️ karst ⚪️ mountainous ⚪️ flat

Which of the following best exemplifies the law of faunal succession?

🔘 Despite both being from the same group of organisms, modern-day corals are very different from their fossil counterparts from the Paleozoic. ⚪️ A geologist discovers the same fossil assemblage in rocks from two different localities and determines that they are the same age. ⚪️ Animal diversity has generally increased over time since the beginning of the Cambrian.

Which of the following statements best describes elastic-rebound theory?

🔘 Energy builds up as elastic strain in rocks. When the applied stresses become overpowering, the rocks at the fault rupture. ⚪️ Rocks are stretched elastically until the strain becomes too much to bear, causing them to rupture along the fault. ⚪️ After an earthquake occurs, rocks "snap" back and forth like rubber bands, causing a series of aftershocks.

Which of the following statements represents graded-stream theory?

🔘 Every change in a stream system triggers compensating changes that work toward equilibrium. ⚪️ The streams of the present are the key to understanding ancient streams and their deposits. ⚪️ The overall gradation of a stream represents the degree of connection between the atmosphere and hydrosphere within its basin. ⚪️ Positive feedbacks in streams work to return them to steady-state conditions whenever they are disturbed.

What is the most likely cause of the change in Earth's atmosphere from CO2-rich to CO2-poor?

🔘 Evolution of life ⚪️ Plate tectonics ⚪️ Volcanic activity ⚪️ Solar winds

Why does the breaking of windows normally precede the removal of a roof by a hurricane?

🔘 It allows the wind to tear up the house on the inside and lift the roof off. ⚪️ It causes a pressure drop in the house, which results in an implosion. ⚪️ Glass entrained in the wind cuts the straps that hold down the roof. ⚪️ Rain driven inside the house weakens the structural integrity of the roof.

The ______ plate produces an earthquake at a depth of 30 to 70 km beneath Puget Sound about every 30 years.

🔘 Juan de Fuca ⚪️ Farallon ⚪️ North American ⚪️ Gorda

Why did the flood recurrence interval change for the Red River?

🔘 Large floods occurred in 1997 and 2009, and the flood-frequency curve was redrawn. ⚪️ Newly-discovered historic data was included in the calculations. ⚪️ Most of its flow was captured by another large river.

______ is a rock formed in warm, shallow seas from the shells and skeletons of organisms. It is composed of the mineral calcite (calcium carbonate).

🔘 Limestone ⚪️ Granite ⚪️ Basalt ⚪️ Carbonatite

What did the city of Los Angeles do to reduce flood risk?

🔘 Lined its river channels with concrete ⚪️ Diverted all river channels around the city ⚪️ Built underground aqueducts to carry water to the ocean ⚪️ Banned all new construction on the floodplain

Which of the following states has the lowest predicted earthquake hazard(s)?

🔘 Minnesota ⚪️ Illinois ⚪️ Missouri ⚪️ Nebraska

In 1872, the ______ fault zone broke loose, creating a large earthquake that was felt and recorded by John Muir at his cabin in Yosemite Valley.

🔘 Owens Valley ⚪️ San Andreas ⚪️ Denali

The ______ is an ocean-climate cycle that lasts 20 to 30 years and affects midlatitude Pacific waters.

🔘 Pacific Decadal Oscillation ⚪️ El Niño phenomenon ⚪️ Southern Oscillation ⚪️ La Niña phenomenon

When the Bermuda High is at its smallest, what path shown in the figure is a hurricane most likely to follow? (Assume all other factors are equal).

🔘 Path a ⚪️ Path b ⚪️ Path c

What characteristic of faults allows water to carry dissolved metals that are precipitated as ores within the fault zone?

🔘 Permeable ⚪️ Porous ⚪️ Horizontal orientation ⚪️ Vertical orientation

___________ drastically reduce the amount of fuel on the ground and therefore reduce the intensity of wildfire.

🔘 Prescribed fires ⚪️ Fire breaks ⚪️ Native plants ⚪️ Hurricanes

This image best illustrates the way in which ______ waves travel through material.

🔘 S ⚪️ P ⚪️ surface ⚪️ Rayleigh

Which of the following is not a characteristic of the inner planets?

🔘 Spaced far apart ⚪️ Spaced closely together ⚪️ Composed of rocky material ⚪️ Small

How does a pyroclastic surge differ from a pyroclastic flow?

🔘 Surges have more steam and less pyroclastic material, making them less constrained by topography. ⚪️ Surges are generated by direct blasts, whereas pyroclastic flows are generated by dome collapse. ⚪️ Surges can travel across bodies of water, whereas flows cannot.

Hurricanes in the Atlantic basin seem to have decades-long patterns of activity. Which long-term pattern below seems to be linked to this?

🔘 The Atlantic Mulidecadal Oscillation ⚪️ El Niño ⚪️ La Niña ⚪️ The 11-year sunspot cycle

Why are scientists predicting a large earthquake for the Pacific Northwest of the United States?

🔘 The Cascadia subduction zone occurs there and appears to be overdue for a large earthquake. ⚪️ Seismic waves from earthquakes in California are projected to trigger currently inactive faults under Washington and Oregon. ⚪️ An increase in magma movement has been detected underneath the volcanoes in the region. ⚪️ Vibrations from the 1960 Chile earthquake are projected to reach the region soon and unlock the entire Cascadia subduction zone.

What tectonic action has occurred in western North America over the last 5.5 million years that is responsible for the earthquakes in central and southern California?

🔘 The Gulf of California has opened up in a rifting action that has caused land west of the San Andreas fault to attach to the Pacific plate. ⚪️ The uplift of the Sierra Nevada Mountains has caused the downdrop of coastal California, resulting in normal faulting. ⚪️ A triple junction has developed in the San Francisco Bay area that is causing extension to the north, west, and south toward Baja California. ⚪️ The western push of North America into Pacific Ocean crust resulted in the formation of a subduction zone offshore of California.

What is the tectonic setting of Japan?

🔘 The Pacific plate is diving under Japan, causing powerful subduction-zone earthquakes there. ⚪️ Japan sits atop of a spreading center and is slowly being pulled apart in a northeast-southwest direction. ⚪️ The Pacific plate is sliding past Japan, causing transform faults to occur just offshore. ⚪️ Japan sits in the middle of a tectonic plate where a hot spot occurs.

Why does short-term earthquake prediction currently appear impossible?

🔘 The detailed behavior of fault movements appears to be too unpredictable. ⚪️ Scientists still do not have a good understanding of how earthquakes are produced. ⚪️ Scientists have not yet identified any factors that may increase the probability of future earthquakes.

Which of the following is the only event that did not occur immediately following the Tunguska impact?

🔘 The instant deaths of many people ⚪️ Barometric anomalies ⚪️ Ground shaking ⚪️ A strong light in the sky

Which of the following observations could you use to distinguish a typical Earth rock from a meteorite?

🔘 The outer surface of meteorites have a melted, blackened appearance. ⚪️ Meteorites are radioactive. ⚪️ Meteorites look like giant pieces of dark-colored glass.

Why does the 100-year flood zone map of New York City show the zones expanding farther inland by 2020 and even farther by 2050?

🔘 These areas cover the expected global sea level rise due to climate change. ⚪️ The city is slowly sinking, so water will come farther inland. ⚪️ The definition of the 100-year flood zone will change in the future.

Which meteorological event listed below can produce hail?

🔘 Thunderstorms ⚪️ Tornadoes ⚪️ High-pressure systems ⚪️ Derechos

What feature forms when one oceanic plate subducts beneath another?

🔘 Volcanic island arc ⚪️ Midocean ridge ⚪️ Mountain range ⚪️ Seamount chain

In the early 1900s, forests were transformed by the policy of ___________ that led to incredibly dense forests that were full of fuel for wildfires.

🔘 aggressive/total fire suppression ⚪️ let it burn ⚪️ prescribed fires ⚪️ suppression of human-made fires only

As well as being powerful greenhouse gases, CFCs also ________.

🔘 destroy ozone in the stratosphere ⚪️ form an important component of smog ⚪️ have short lifetime in the atmosphere ⚪️ contribute to methane production

The ______ impact caused global wildfires, short-time fluctuations in global temperatures, and acid rainfall, which made life very difficult in its aftermath.

🔘 end of the Cretaceous ⚪️ Meteor Crater ⚪️ Tunguska ⚪️ Chesapeake Bay

As stream discharge increases, sediment load ______.

🔘 increases ⚪️ decreases ⚪️ remains the same but becomes more diluted ⚪️ remains the same but changes in composition

The widths of magnetized seafloor stripes correlate well with the ________ reversals of Earth's magnetic field.

🔘 lengths of time between ⚪️ polarity variations during ⚪️ number and intensity of ⚪️ locations of

The mega-boulder that destroyed this house is an example of a(n) ______ event.

🔘 mass movement ⚪️ weathering ⚪️ earthquake ⚪️ subsidence

Earthquake intensity is generally greatest ________.

🔘 near the epicenter ⚪️ along coastal regions ⚪️ in large buildings ⚪️ during commute times

The meteoroids that reach Earth atmosphere on a daily basis are ______.

🔘 numerous and small ⚪️ numerous and large ⚪️ infrequent and small ⚪️ infrequent and large

The 1871 fire in Peshtigo, Wisconsin, caused more than 1100 deaths because the fire moved _______ through the canopy and surprised the town.

🔘 quickly ⚪️ slowly ⚪️ quietly

The earthquake forecasting strategy that involves plotting the distribution of earthquakes along a fault to identify the locations at which earthquakes maybe overdue is called the ______ method.

🔘 seismic-gap ⚪️ fault-interlude ⚪️ Long Beach ⚪️ California

At transform plate boundaries, tectonic plates on either side ______ each other.

🔘 slide past ⚪️ move away from ⚪️ move toward

When a locked subduction zone finally slips, the overriding plate will ______.

🔘 spring upward and seaward ⚪️ move upward and landward ⚪️ drop down, causing sea level to drop ⚪️ be dragged down the subduction zone

Glassy spherules formed by in-air cooling of impact-melted glass are called ______.

🔘 tektites ⚪️ meteorites ⚪️ shatter cones ⚪️ astroblemes

Some of the largest floods known on Earth occurred during _______.

🔘 the melting of the continental ice sheets ⚪️ the latter half of the 20th century ⚪️ the expansion of human populations out of Africa ⚪️ the peak of the last ice age

Mantle heat that collects at ______ may cause doming and fracturing in a radial pattern. Gravity may then pull the dome apart and allow magma to well up into the three fracture zones.

🔘 triple junctions ⚪️ subduction zones ⚪️ quarries ⚪️ active faults

Prescribed fires have become a ________ implemented tool in fire management plans.

🔘 widely ⚪️ rarely ⚪️ biannually ⚪️ monthly

Ordinary ocean waves are created by ______.

🔘 wind ⚪️ tsunami ⚪️ currents ⚪️ earthquakes

Which of the following is not an example of a natural hazard?

⚪️ A river with a town built on its floodplain ⚪️ An active volcano located near a city 🔘 A tornado that destroyed large parts of a town ⚪️ An earthquake fault buried beneath a city

Why were many people in Hawaii killed by the 1960 tsunami?

⚪️ It arrived in the middle of the night and they slept through the warning signals. 🔘 They returned home after the second wave, thinking they were out of danger. ⚪️ They decided to try to surf the enormous waves. ⚪️ There was no alert system in place in Hawaii until after the 1960 tsunami.

How does the force of friction generated by winds moving over the surface of Earth affect the balance between the pressure gradient force and the Coriolis effect?

⚪️ It causes the winds to blow parallel to isobars. ⚪️ It causes the winds to blow completely perpendicular to isobars. 🔘 It causes the winds to blow across isobar lines at an angle.

Which of the following was the only process to occur during the last 65 million years?

⚪️ The Atlantic Ocean started to form. ⚪️ Laurasia broke apart from Gondwanaland. 🔘 India rammed into Asia. ⚪️ Africa made contact with Europe.

What is wind?

⚪️ The vertical flow of air 🔘 The horizontal flow of air ⚪️ Air flow in any spatial direction ⚪️ The average kinetic energy of the molecules in a defined region of the atmosphere

Which type of natural disaster has been the most expensive in terms of insurance losses in the period from 1970 to 2016?

⚪️ Volcanic eruption ⚪️ Earthquake 🔘 Hurricane ⚪️ Tornado ⚪️ Fire

The most current hypothesis for how the Moon was formed would suggest that it is mostly made up of material from ______.

⚪️ a stony meteorite 🔘 Earth's mantle ⚪️ an icy comet ⚪️ rocks from Mars

A measure decreases in the amount of outgassing from a volcano means that ______.

⚪️ the volcano is not going to erupt ⚪️ the volcano is going to erupt 🔘 the volcano is less likely to erupt ⚪️ there is no need to monitor it any longer

A building constructed of ______ is likely to have a shorter period.

⚪️ wood ⚪️ steel ⚪️ bamboo 🔘 concrete

Which of the following are common sources of data used to conduct tectonic and earthquake research?

✅ Global positioning systems (GPS) ✅ Historic written records ⬜️ Doppler radar ⬜️ Astronomical tables

Which of these are the three sources of the energy that flows from Earth's interior to its surface? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Gravitational energy ⬜️ Solar energy ✅ Radioactive decay ✅ Impact energy ⬜️ Magnetic energy ⬜️ Earthquake energy

In what way do lava domes present hazards? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Gravity-driven landslides can be generated from the steep slopes of lava domes. ⬜️ Lava domes can rapidly overrun a town, leading to destruction of property. ⬜️ Lava domes commonly collapse into their magma chambers, pushing out magma in a violent eruption. ✅ Lava domes can plug a volcanic vent, allowing pressure to build, which leads to a violent eruption.

What evidence was used to determine a large earthquake occurred in the Pacific Northwest of America in 1700? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Growth rings in trees indicate trees were killed between 1699 and 1700. ✅ Historical records from Japan indicate a tsunami occurred at that time. ⬜️ Native Americas took photographs of the aftermath of the earthquake that were recently uncovered. ⬜️ Pollen records from lakes indicate a spike in the amount of pollen released, likely due to the ground shaking.

Which of the following are examples of coastal-control structures? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Seawall ✅ Groin ✅ Jetty ⬜️ Tidal bore ✅ Breakwater ⬜️ Longshore drift ⬜️ Sandbar

Which of the following occur when a tsunami reaches the shore? (Select all that apply.)

✅ The wave amplitude increases. ✅ The wave velocity decreases. ✅ Water builds up behind the wave front. ⬜️ The wave period increases. ⬜️ The wave begins to travel more quickly.

Which of the following attributes are responsible for the destructive power of tsunami? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Ultra-long wavelength ✅ Long period ⬜️ Large amplitude ⬜️ High frequency

S waves can travel through ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ granite rock ⬜️ molten magma ⬜️ water ⬜️ air ✅ sandstone ✅ mudstone

Natural disasters driven by the Sun's heat include _______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ hurricanes ✅ lightning ⬜️ volcanic eruptions ✅ tornadoes ✅ floods ⬜️ impacts

Our record of glacial advance and retreat during the most recent Ice Age comes from _____. (Select all that apply.)

✅ ice cores ✅ ocean sediment cores ⬜️ historic accounts ⬜️ volcanic ash deposits

The life spans of dams are limited by ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ the durability of their construction materials ✅ the rate at which sediment fills their reservoirs ⬜️ environmental policy ⬜️ the buildup of anoxic water in reservoirs

True or false: If an island doubles its area, the amount of species it can support will double too.

➖ False

Which of the following statements accurate describe tornadoes? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ The rotating winds that compose a tornado must touch the surface of Earth to be classified as a tornado. ✅ The wind speeds in a tornado are the fastest a hundred meters or so above the ground. ✅ Wind speeds in tornadoes can be over 500 km/hr (310 mph). ✅ The majority of tornadoes occur in the U.S. Great Plains.

An energy source for disasters is impacts by ______ from outer space. (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ shooting stars ⬜️ planetoids ✅ comets ⬜️ neutrinos ✅ asteroids

The National Flood Insurance Program uses a ______-year flood standard to reduce the amount of building in sites that flood frequently.

🔘 100 ⚪️ 10 ⚪️ 250 ⚪️ 50

The best time for an earthquake in California is _______, when the loss of life is likely to be lower.

🔘 3 a.m. ⚪️ 9 a.m. ⚪️ 1 p.m. ⚪️ 3 p.m.

What is the cause of the earthquake hazard in Pacific Northwest of the United States?

🔘 A subduction zone ⚪️ A triple junction ⚪️ An onshore transform fault ⚪️ A hot spot

In August 1992, Hurricane ______ began as a Cape Verde-type hurricane by moving off the western coast of Africa as a thunderstorm. It caused a wide path of destruction in the northern Bahamas, southern Florida, and the Gulf Coast.

🔘 Andrew ⚪️ David ⚪️ George ⚪️ Foster

________ transfers heat by physical contact.

🔘 Conduction ⚪️ Radiation ⚪️ Convection ⚪️ Diffusion

True or false: The best way to study hurricanes is to concentrate solely on hurricane data.

➖ False

Joints, faults, and a lack of cement are all ______.

🔘 weaknesses in rocks that increase the probability of a slope failing ⚪️ features that strengthen rocks and decrease the probability of a slope failing

Which of these are processes that remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Photosynthesis ✅ Growth of carbonate shells by marine organisms ✅ Formation of limestone ⬜️ Fire ⬜️ Plant respiration ⬜️ Decay of organic material

Which of the following factors contributed to the damage caused by earthquakes in the San Francisco Bay region? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Poorly built older buildings made of unreinforced masonry or brick-facade construction ✅ Soft mud and artificial fill used in many areas amplified shaking. ⬜️ Building heights that did not match the period of the earthquakes ⬜️ The practice of anchoring some buildings to the bedrock instead of floating them on soft sediment that can absorb some of the energy

What should you do if you find yourself caught in a rip current? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Remain calm ✅ Swim parallel to the shore ⬜️ Swim toward shore ⬜️ Dive under the current

Which of the following are ways in which human activities can increase the impact of tsunami? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Removal of coastal forests ✅ Removal of offshore coral reefs ⬜️ Building of seawalls ⬜️ Widening of harbors and inlets

Which of the following can cause tsunami by displacing a large amount of water? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Fault movement ✅ Volcanic eruption ✅ Underwater landslide ✅ Meteorite impact ⬜️ Rogue wave event ⬜️ Extreme spring tide

A tsunami devastated Indonesia in 1883 when ______.

⚪️ a massive earthquake occurred along the same subduction zone 🔘 the volcano Krakatau erupted and collapsed into the sea ⚪️ monsoon rains caused a series of large landslides off the coast of Sumatra ⚪️ a medium-sized meteorite impacted the waters off the coast of Java

Where are the oldest seafloor rocks found?

⚪️ At the midocean ridges 🔘 At the edges of ocean basins ⚪️ Over hotspots ⚪️ In the middle of ocean basins

Why does melting occur at spreading centers?

⚪️ Temperature increases as mantle material descends. 🔘 Pressure decreases as mantle material rises upward. ⚪️ Water is added to the mantle, lowering its melting temperature. ⚪️ Volcanic activity leads to higher temperatures in the crust.

Subsidence between Houston and Galveston, Texas, due to the extraction of ______ caused part of the coast to be submerged by seawater from San Jacinto Bay.

🔘 oil ⚪️ groundwater ⚪️ salt ⚪️ coal

Which of the following statements best describes life at the end of the Permian?

🔘 Life-forms were under pressure from geologically rapid changes to environment during the late Permian, leading to a mass extinction. ⚪️ Life-forms in the late Permian were accosted by a single, major ecological disaster that led to a mass extinction. ⚪️ Gradual changes to environmental conditions produced a long, drawn-out extinction event that finally ended with the close of the Permian period.

What geologic feature is best associated with continent-continent collision?

🔘 Mountain range ⚪️ Volcanic arc ⚪️ Rift valley ⚪️ Oceanic trench

California's ______ earthquake caused extensive property damage, including disabling the world's busiest freeway system and injuring more than 9,000 people.

🔘 Northridge ⚪️ Parkfield ⚪️ San Francisco ⚪️ Owens Valley

Earthquake early warning systems work on the principle that ______.

🔘 P waves travel faster than S waves and surface waves but do little damage ⚪️ small changes in groundwater levels indicate that an earthquake is approaching a population center ⚪️ earthquakes occur on some faults in regular and predictable intervals ⚪️ surface waves can be detected at some distance from a population center and warning can be provided

The body-wave (mb) scale for earthquake magnitude is based on the amplitudes of _______.

🔘 P waves with 1- to 10-second periods ⚪️ S waves with 0.1- to 2-second periods ⚪️ Love waves with 18- to 22-second periods ⚪️ Rayleigh waves with 18- to 22-second periods

Which of the following groups of people are most at risk from hypothermia?

🔘 People who are outside, including the homeless and those engaging in winter recreation. ⚪️ People who have light skin pigmentation. ⚪️ Populations that are deficient in vitamin B-12. ⚪️ People who were born at low latitudes but are now living at high latitudes.

What did the inhabitants of Heimaey, Iceland, do to prevent lava flows from damaging the town's harbor?

🔘 Sprayed seawater on the advancing lava flows, causing them to rapidly cool and harden ⚪️ Dug deep trenches into the ground to divert the lava flows farther west ⚪️ Quickly dismantled and reassembled major harbor buildings ahead of the advancing lava flow

The winds from a vortex moving in the same direction as a hurricane's direction will ______ the winds from the storm.

🔘 add to ⚪️ oppose

Thrust faults that do not reach the ground surface are called ______ faults.

🔘 blind ⚪️ hidden ⚪️ shadow ⚪️ dark

Since 55 million years ago, Earth's climate has been ______.

🔘 cooling ⚪️ very stable ⚪️ warming

Mount Mayon in the Philippines is notorious for pyroclastic flows that form from ______, which has caused about 1,500 deaths since 1616.

🔘 eruption column collapse ⚪️ direct blasts ⚪️ dome collapse ⚪️ overspilling the crater rim

The law of ______ explains that strata of similar ages can be recognized by their like fossil contents.

🔘 faunal assemblages ⚪️ faunal succession ⚪️ superposition ⚪️ lateral continuity

The rate of radioactive decay is measured by the _____ of isotopes.

🔘 half-life ⚪️ stability ⚪️ atomic mass ⚪️ lifetime

If a hurricane collides with a weather front, it will mix with colder air and can transform into a ________

🔘 post-tropical cyclone ⚪️ air mass thunder storm ⚪️ tornado track ⚪️ derecho wind

Groins, while built to protect beach sand, can be a hazard because they have a tendency to cause _______ to form, which can carry swimmers out to sea.

🔘 rip currents ⚪️ longshore currents ⚪️ breakers ⚪️ backwash tides

Over the past three decades, the average global temperature has ________.

🔘 risen by about 0.2oC per decade ⚪️ fallen by about 0.1oC per decade ⚪️ fallen by 0.2oC and then risen by 0.1oC and again by 0.5oC ⚪️ risen by almost 1oC each decade

In 1903, 70 people in the town of Frank, Alberta, were killed by a(n) _______. This image shows the scar that was left by a large mass of rock that slid down the far side of the valley and the deposit that was left when the rock shattered and flowed out across the valley.

🔘 sturzstrom ⚪️ rotational slide ⚪️ block slide ⚪️ earthflow surge

The deepest parts of the oceans occur in elongate narrow trenches that are associated with ______.

🔘 subduction zones ⚪️ spreading centers ⚪️ hot spots ⚪️ seamount chains

Today, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) might be hesitant to release another volcanic hazard warning for Mammoth Lakes like it did in 1982 because ______.

🔘 the warning caused major economic chaos in Mammoth Lakes and upset residents ⚪️ the Mammoth Lakes caldera appears to have gone dormant ⚪️ newer data reveals that volcanic activity is much more difficult to predict than thought

Estimating the number of people who have died from volcanic eruptions is difficult because ______.

🔘 there is a lack of written historical records for some time intervals and parts of the world ⚪️ many people can die years after suffering volcanic eruption-related injuries, skewing statistics ⚪️ indirect deaths from volcanic eruptions can occur great distances from the volcano and may not have an apparent cause

One of the major reasons that short-term earthquake prediction, such as the Parkfield Earthquake Experiment, has been a failure is the realization that ______.

🔘 there is no reason the fault-rupture process must occur with regularity ⚪️ the elastic-rebound theory was flawed ⚪️ strain accumulates along faults much faster than once believed

Federal disaster relief is provided to states and communities only if ______.

🔘 they receive a Presidential Disaster Declaration ⚪️ damages exceed $1 million ⚪️ more than five people are killed ⚪️ the disaster couldn't have been prevented

Many of those killed in Hawaii by the 1 April 1946 Alaskan tsunami died because ______.

🔘 they thought the tsunami warnings were an April Fool's Day joke ⚪️ there was no tsunami alert and evacuation program in place in the 1940s ⚪️ the tsunami traveled farther inland than any previous tsunami had ⚪️ they were out fishing and didn't hear the warnings

The three catastrophic eruptions at Yellowstone in the past 2 million years occurred at 2 million, 1.3 million, and 0.6 million years ago. What is the return period for caldera-forming eruptions at Yellowstone?

⚪️ 1 million years ⚪️ 200,000 years ⚪️ 170,000 years 🔘 700,000 years ⚪️ 600,000 years

If you were on a ship in the open ocean and a tsunami passed by, what would you experience?

⚪️ An enormous wave with a steep front would throw the ship about wildly, most likely sinking it. ⚪️ The water would get very choppy and disorganized, with numerous whitecaps visible, but the ship would not be affected. 🔘 You probably wouldn't notice the tsunami as tsunami waves are generally only a meter in height in open water.

______ is the transmission of heat by the movement of a mass (e.g., air mass, water, magma), whereas ______ works by transmitting heat by direct contact.

⚪️ Conduction; convection 🔘 Convection; conduction ⚪️ Radiation; convection ⚪️ Specific heat; heat capacity

How is earthquake magnitude measured?

⚪️ From reports about the intensity of shaking and damage 🔘 By analyzing the seismic wave traces on a seismogram ⚪️ Using sensors buried within the fault zone ⚪️ By satellites that can detect the energy released and measure its magnitude

Which weather event is an important source of rain in many areas?

⚪️ High-pressure systems 🔘 Thunderstorms ⚪️ Tornadoes ⚪️ Geostrophic winds

Why didn't the coastal residents of Nicaragua feel the nearby earthquake that generated a devastating tsunami in 1992?

⚪️ It was a very small earthquake 🔘 The fault movement was unusually slow, generating mostly long-period seismic waves. ⚪️ It occurred in the middle of the night and they were sleeping. ⚪️ Earthquakes are so common, most people don't notice them.

Why is it of greater concern to design buildings to withstand horizontal ground movement than it is to design them to withstand vertical ground movement?

⚪️ L waves, which move side to side, are much stronger than Rayleigh waves, which move up and down. ⚪️ Most earthquakes only result in horizontal ground movement because Rayleigh waves are rare. ⚪️ It is much cheaper to strengthen a building in the horizontal plane that it is to strengthen it vertically. 🔘 Most buildings are already designed to handle the vertical forces associated with their own weight.

Which of these laws tells us that when a sedimentary rock layer abruptly terminates, something must have happened to it after it formed.

⚪️ Law of superposition ⚪️ Law of original horizontality 🔘 Law of original continuity ⚪️ Law of topography

Which law of physical geology can be used to determine that these rocks layers were deformed into folds after they were deposited?

⚪️ Law of superposition 🔘 Law of original horizontality ⚪️ Law of original continuity ⚪️ Law of cross-cutting relationships

What is the hazard posed by small (150 m) twisting vortices being pulled into the eyewall of a hurricane?

⚪️ The vortice can separate the eye from the hurricane and cause a tornado to form in its place. 🔘 The side of vortices spinning in the same direction as the eyewall will blow even faster, as the eyewall wind speed is added to its own. ⚪️ They can become trapped within the otherwise calm eye and form into tornadoes. ⚪️ They are pushed downward by the eyewall, causing strong downbursts.

What is the characteristic of the atmospheric gases that allows them to contribute to the greenhouse effect?

⚪️ They are able to absorb energy from gravitation forces and convert it to infrared radiation. 🔘 They allow shorter wavelengths to pass downward toward Earth but absorb the longer wavelengths that come back up. ⚪️ They are able to absorb ultraviolet radiation, which protects us from DNA damage. ⚪️ They are able to reflect or scatter incoming visible light.

Which of the following describes the proper use of elevators during natural disasters?

⚪️ They make perfect storm shelters, since they are well reinforced. 🔘 They can become death traps, and it is best to avoid them. ⚪️ They should be used to escape water-related hazards but avoided in wind-related hazards.

Whereas the velocity of a wind-blown wave can be calculated if you know its wavelength, what piece of information do you need to know to calculate the velocity of a tsunami?

⚪️ Wavelength 🔘 Water depth ⚪️ Wave height ⚪️ Wave period

The most recent example of an ultra-Plinian eruption occurred 74,000 years ago at _______.

⚪️ Yellowstone, in Wyoming ⚪️ Long Valley, in California ⚪️ Krakatau, in Indonesia 🔘 Toba, in Sumatra

The most common and least destructive type of thunderstorm is called a(n) ______ thunderstorm. These storms commonly occur late in the afternoon in the midlatitudes when surface heating causes air to rise.

⚪️ conduction-draft 🔘 air-mass ⚪️ convection-driven ⚪️ heat-core

Taken from the Greek word meaning "to build," the term ______ describes the building of topography and the deformation and movement within Earth's outer layers.

⚪️ construction 🔘 tectonics ⚪️ pangea ⚪️ isostasy

As Earth pulled into a dense mass during its early formation and then differentiated into layers of different density, ______ energy was released.

⚪️ fractionation ⚪️ impact 🔘 gravitational ⚪️ isotopic

The size of a natural disaster is referred to as its __.

⚪️ frequency 🔘 magnitude ⚪️ toll ⚪️ recurrence interval ⚪️ hazard

The amount of time it takes for a building to sway back and forth one time is called its ______.

⚪️ frequency 🔘 period ⚪️ resonance ⚪️ return interval

A stream increases its ______ by meandering more in response to a hike in discharge.

⚪️ gradient 🔘 sinuosity ⚪️ flow ⚪️ base level

The rates of tectonic plate movements are comparable to the ______.

⚪️ growth rate of trees 🔘 rate of human fingernail growth ⚪️ rate of volcano formation ⚪️ flow rates in rivers

Air tankers drop reddish-orange viscous fluids in front of a fire to coat the unburned vegetation so that ______ cannot contact the plants.

⚪️ heat ⚪️ fuel 🔘 oxygen ⚪️ flames

A volcanic mudflow, produced by the mixing of water with volcanic ash, is also known as a _____.

⚪️ lava flow ⚪️ pyroclastic flow 🔘 lahar ⚪️ debris avalanche

Because the Sun is so much hotter than Earth, the energy emitted by it has a ______ wavelength than terrestrial radiation (radiation from Earth).

⚪️ longer 🔘 shorter ⚪️ faster ⚪️ slower ⚪️ hotter ⚪️ colder

High-altitude winds blowing toward higher latitudes in the Hadley cells are progressively bent by the Coriolis effect until they are essentially flowing east to west and form the ______.

⚪️ polar jets 🔘 subtropical jets ⚪️ polar front ⚪️ Gulf Stream

The volcano shown here is an example of a _______.

⚪️ scoria cone ⚪️ lava dome ⚪️ shield volcano 🔘 stratovolcano

The progressive deepening of the oceans away from the midocean ridges is evidence for _____.

⚪️ subduction ⚪️ uniformitarianism ⚪️ magnetic reversals 🔘 seafloor spreading

The paleomagnetic timescale and the patterns of magnetism on the seafloor provide compelling evidence for ______.

⚪️ subduction 🔘 seafloor spreading ⚪️ continental drift ⚪️ the age of the Earth

More than 70% of Earth's magma is erupted at _________.

⚪️ subduction zones ⚪️ continental hot spots 🔘 spreading centers ⚪️ continental rift zones ⚪️ transform faults

Which of these are the two primary building blocks of knowledge for understanding volcanic eruptions?

✅ Plate tectonics ⬜️ Earthquake locations ⬜️ Volume of magma ✅ Properties of magma

Some of the local names of downslope winds of the western United States include ________. (Select all that apply.)

✅ Santa Ana winds ✅ Diablo winds ⬜️ Gulf stream ⬜️ Jet stream

Which of the following are true about hurricanes and the energy involved with them? (Select all that apply.)

✅ The energy released by forming clouds and rain is greater than the energy of the winds. ✅ The kinetic energy of the winds is about half of our global electrical capacity. ⬜️ Hurricanes transfer energy from higher to lower latitudes. ⬜️ The net flow of energy is from the hurricane to the ocean.

Which of the following are true about the global thermohaline circulation? (Select all that apply.)

✅ The major area where surface waters sink to form the thermohaline current is the Arctic Ocean. ⬜️ Cold thermohaline currents rise off the west coast of South America. ✅ Cold thermohaline currents rise in the northern part of the Indian Ocean. ⬜️ Warm, shallow currents of thermohaline circulation sink off the Aleutian islands of Alaska.

Which of the following statements best describe the characteristics of the end-Permian extinction? (Select all that apply.)

✅ The peak of extinction occurred about 252 million years ago. ✅ The peak extinction level lasted about 20,000 years. ✅ Extinctions occurred on land and in the oceans at the same time. ⬜️ Extinctions occurred first on land and then in the oceans millions of years later. ⬜️ The period of peak extinction was nearly instantaneous, lasting only a few decades.

Which of the following are causes for concern about the Greenland ice sheet? (Select all that apply.)

✅ The rate of summer melting has increased. ✅ Meltwater lakes are forming on its surface. ✅ The glaciers that enter the ocean are flowing faster. ⬜️ The ice surface is becoming much more reflective as it melts. ⬜️ None of the ice in the ice sheet is now older than 200 years.

Which of the following statements is true with respect to atmospheric circulation on Earth? (Select all that apply.)

✅ The rotation of Earth and unequal heating set up three convection cells in the each hemisphere. ⬜️ There are four convection cells in the Southern Hemisphere due to the Coriolis effect and large stretches of open ocean. ✅ Air tends to rise in both hemispheres near the equator. ✅ Air tends to fall at the pole in each hemisphere.

Why is storm surge highest near to and to the right of the eye of a hurricane? (Select all that apply.)

✅ The winds there are blowing onshore as opposed to the offshore winds on the left side of the eye. ✅ Low atmospheric pressure in the eye allows water to pile up there. ⬜️ Lower wind speeds there allow water to be moved onshore by tides. ⬜️ Hurricane eyes come ashore to the left of river outlets, which allows the seawater to be pushed upriver.

Which of the following are the projections for earthquakes in the San Francisco Bay region? (Select all that apply.)

✅ There is a 52 to 72% chance that a 6.7 magnitude earthquake will occur in an urban area before 2032. ✅ There is a 27% chance the Hayward fault will cause a magnitude 6.7 or greater earthquake before 2032. ⬜️ There is a 80% chance that the San Andreas fault system will not experience another earthquake before 2032. ⬜️ There is a 65% chance the Hayward fault will cause a magnitude 9.1 or greater fault before 2032.

Which of the following statements about nor'easters are true? (Select all that apply.)

✅ They are low-pressure systems that combine warm, moist air and cold rain to form heavy precipitation. ✅ They occur in the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada. ⬜️ They are high-pressure systems that force moisture-laden air down so quickly that rapid snowfall occurs.

Which of the following accurately explain the positioning of the jet streams in the atmosphere? (Select all that apply.)

✅ They exist where there are sharp pressure drops between convection cells. ✅ They exist between the convection cells because there are significant changes in temperature there. ⬜️ They exist in the middle of the tropopause, where uniform temperatures allow for the free flow of air. ⬜️ They exist where friction passed upward from the ground is effectively zero, allowing air to flow with Earth as it rotates.

Why do hurricanes that form in the eastern Pacific Ocean tend to head out to sea instead of hitting the west coast of North America? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Trade winds blow the hurricanes westward. ✅ Cold water at the surface along the coast robs hurricanes of their strength. ⬜️ The Coriolis effect is too weak to spin them to the east. ⬜️ The subtropical jet stream blows them out to sea.

Which of these processes were involved in climate changes during the past thousand years? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Volcanic eruptions ✅ Changes in Earth's orbital pattern ✅ Changes in solar radiation ✅ Changes in greenhouse gases ⬜️ Continental drift ⬜️ Melting of methane hydrates

How does the meandering process occur? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Water flows from side-to-side in a stream, eroding its banks. ✅ Erosion occurs on one side of the stream and net deposition on the other. ⬜️ Stream water seeks nearby groundwater and in doing so cuts new paths in the landscape. ⬜️ The Coriolis effect results in a flow direction at depth that cuts into the banks of a river, increasing its sinuosity.

Which of the following are considered to be internal causes of slope failure? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Weak rock ✅ Adverse geologic structures ✅ Pore water ⬜️ Rain runoff ✅ Decreasing cohesion ⬜️ Triggers ⬜️ Slope steepening

When scientists went to investigate the cause of the Tunguska event, they found an area near the Tunguska River where ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ about 80 million trees had been knocked down, with many others tilted or disturbed ✅ there was no sign of an impact crater ⬜️ a 8 km diameter impact crater was discovered ⬜️ all signs of life were obliterated, leaving only a charred, barren surface

"Stony" meteorites are not commonly found on Earth because they ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ break up readily in the atmosphere ✅ weather more rapidly when they reach the ground ✅ not easily identified as meteoritic in origin ⬜️ rarely reach Earth's atmosphere

The leave-early-or-stay-and-defend strategies utilize ________ standards as well as having able-bodied adults remaining to assist professional firefighters as a way to reduce property loss from major fires. (Select all that apply.)

✅ construction ✅ landscaping ✅ road ⬜️ medical ⬜️ detection

This graph shows that _______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ floods occur more frequently in urbanized areas ✅ sewer systems and paving increase stream levels during a flood ⬜️ sewers have a stronger effect than paving on increasing flood frequency ⬜️ floods last longer in urbanized areas than they do in rural areas

In the wake of the meteoroid explosion above Tunguska, Siberia, ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ ground shaking was recorded by seismometers from as far away as Germany ✅ a monstrous blast was heard up to 1,000 km away ✅ a strong light was observed in the nighttime sky in Sweden and Scotland ⬜️ hundreds of humans died when a mass of heat rapidly swept through nearby villages

The potential hazards of volcanic eruptions are extensive and include ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ lahars ✅ tsunamis ✅ poison gas ✅ lava flows ⬜️ concussion blasts ⬜️ blinding by caustic gas

Two requirements are usually necessary for an organism to become fossilized: ______.

✅ possession of hard parts (teeth, shells, bones, etc.) ✅ rapid burial ⬜️ large bodies ⬜️ sufficient oxygen in the burial environment

Following the 1965 Puget Sound earthquake, new building codes were enacted to protect against earthquake damage. These changes included ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ tying homes to their foundations more securely ✅ removing water storage tanks from the tops of buildings ✅ strengthening highway bridges ⬜️ prohibiting the construction of split-level homes ⬜️ limiting the overall height of a building to less than 150 meters

True or false: Rotational slides tend to travel farther than translational slides.

➖ False

True or false: The Japanese earthquake and tsunami caused billions of dollars of damage in Japan, but their effects weren't really felt around the rest of the world.

➖ False

True or false: The Portuguese Bend earth flow had a single cause which was triggered by an earthquake.

➖ False

True or false: Tornadoes never strike big cities.

➖ False

Which of the following accurately describe Hurricane Hugo? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ It stuck Charleston early in the American Civil War. ⬜️ It was a category 1 storm. ✅ It weakened after coming onshore as it was cut off from its warm water supply. ✅ It caused extensive economic damage but relatively few deaths.

Which of the following are sources of heat generated during the formation of Earth? (Check all that apply.)

⬜️ Radiant energy from the Sun ✅ Impact energy ✅ Radioactive decay ⬜️ Magnetic energy ✅ Gravitational energy ✅ Differentiation into layers ⬜️ Kinetic energy as the Earth began to rotate

True or false: Human beings tend to react to natural disasters by becoming more inward-looking, concerned only with their own well-being.

➖ False

Which of these are the four energy sources that fuel natural disasters on Earth? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ The magnetic field ✅ Heat from the Earth's interior ✅ Gravity ⬜️ Volcanoes ✅ Heat from the Sun ⬜️ Greenhouse gases ✅ Asteroid impacts

Powered by the Sun and gravity, three agents of erosion are ______. (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ fire ✅ ice ✅ water ⬜️ time ✅ wind

The present rate of world population growth is about _____.

🔘 1.2% ⚪️ 0.056% ⚪️ 2.8% ⚪️ 0.82%

The four inner planets are _________.

✅ Mercury ⬜️ Jupiter ⬜️ Saturn ✅ Earth ✅ Mars ⬜️ Uranus ✅ Venus

True or false: A study by van der Vink and students at Princeton University suggests that the level of democracy is more important than the strength of an economy in determining the death toll of a natural disaster.

➕ True

True or false: The recent decline in global birth rates will result in a decline in world population within the next 50 years.

➖ False

Approximately how many people died worldwide due to the 14 deadliest natural disasters in 2016?

🔘 7,000 ⚪️ 60,000 ⚪️ 500 ⚪️ 800,000

The rapid rise in atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations during the 20th century is the result of _______.

🔘 human activities ⚪️ volcanic eruptions ⚪️ melting of methane hydrates ⚪️ wildfires

When most meteoroids enter Earth's atmosphere, they ______.

🔘 begin to melt ⚪️ explode ⚪️ increase velocity ⚪️ bounce off the stratosphere back into space

Thunderstorms in the United States often cause tornadoes because they are subjected to wind shear ______.

🔘 by winds moving in different directions at low, intermediate, and high altitude ⚪️ by an especially strong Coriolis effect in the middle part of the county ⚪️ as they pass through the eddies caused by the heavy airplane traffic over the country ⚪️ caused by the high number of wind farms in the central part of the country

Climates that have ______ are most susceptible to fire hazards.

🔘 distinct wet and dry seasons ⚪️ cold winters ⚪️ cool winters and moderate summers ⚪️ year-round humid conditions

More than 7,000 pyroclastic flows, formed from ______, occurred on Mount Unzen, Japan, between 1991 and 1994.

🔘 dome collapse ⚪️ eruption column collapse ⚪️ magma chamber collapse ⚪️ a direct blast

A dip-slip fault is one where movement is ______________.

🔘 dominantly vertical ⚪️ dominantly horizontal ⚪️ both vertical and horizontal

The 1991 San Francisco Bay began with fires started when Diablo winds kicked up sparks from ________ that was still smoldering from a previous fire.

🔘 duff ⚪️ fire tornadoes ⚪️ cars ⚪️ campfires

Primary lahars occur ______, whereas secondary lahars occur ______.

🔘 during a volcanic eruption; months or years after an eruption ⚪️ just prior to a volcanic eruption; following the collapse of the eruption column ⚪️ in association with pyroclastic flows; just ahead of advancing lava flows

The Portuguese Bend area of Los Angeles is an example of an ancient ______ that is still moving. Mass movement of the soil here is characterized by rolling, hummocky terrain that looks like a rumpled carpet.

🔘 earthflow ⚪️ slump ⚪️ creep ⚪️ debris flow

The most common cause of tsunami is _______.

🔘 earthquakes ⚪️ volcanic eruptions ⚪️ underwater landslides ⚪️ meteorite impacts

The 1975 Hawaiian earthquake demonstrated that ______.

🔘 earthquakes can sometimes generate volcanic activity ⚪️ volcanic-induced earthquakes can occur without fault movement ⚪️ while earthquake activity on Hawaii is frequent, large earthquakes are rare

Earthquake weather refers to the belief that ________.

🔘 earthquakes occur under certain weather conditions ⚪️ earthquake activity can cause severe weather patterns, such as tornadoes or hurricanes ⚪️ tectonic activity is cyclical and predictable, similar to atmospheric weather patterns

Shrubs are smaller than trees, and their loose layering allows for ________.

🔘 easier burning ⚪️ high fire resistance ⚪️ easy suppression

Interior tornado safe rooms built with thick concrete walls and ceilings have proven to be ______.

🔘 effective even if a tornado destroys the rest of the house ⚪️ ineffective in tornadoes stronger than EF1 ⚪️ death traps as the concrete is weakened by the rains driven by tornadoes

Unlike a typical earthquake and its aftershocks, an earthquake swarm is a(n) ______.

🔘 group of earthquakes that occur clustered together without a mainshock ⚪️ earthquake that persists for an extended period of time, appearing as multiple large earthquakes ⚪️ series of large earthquakes that occur simultaneously along a large length of the same fault

It is difficult to accurately predict future earthquakes along the San Andreas fault because it exhibits ______ movements.

🔘 random ⚪️ quasi-periodic ⚪️ clustered

To determine the _______ of an earthquake, seismologists use a nomograph, which compares the distance from the hypocenter and the amplitude of the seismic waves.

⚪️ location 🔘 magnitude ⚪️ intensity ⚪️ duration ⚪️ likelihood

Good farming, faith, and fatalism, not ignorance, is why people live at the base of ______ an active volcano near Mexico City.

🔘 Popocatépetl ⚪️ Mount St. Helens ⚪️ Mount Fuji ⚪️ Mount Vesuvius

Examine this nomograph. If it is determined from a seismograph that the S-P time is 30 seconds and the amplitude of the seismic waves is 0.5 mm, what is the magnitude of the earthquake?

⚪️ 1.0 🔘 3.5 ⚪️ 6.5 ⚪️ 2.0

Which of these is an example of a shield volcano?

⚪️ Mount Rainier, Washington ⚪️ Paricutin, Mexico 🔘 Mauna Loa, Hawaii ⚪️ Mount Vesuvius, Italy

The spectacular spine that formed on ______ in the Caribbean, after its deadly 1902 eruption, is an example of a lava dome.

⚪️ Soufriere Hills 🔘 Mont Pelée ⚪️ Mount Unzen ⚪️ Mount Merapi

______ is the force per unit area applied to an object.

⚪️ Strain ⚪️ Plasticity ⚪️ Deformation 🔘 Stress

What do braided streams indicate about sediment load?

⚪️ The stream is at equilibrium and erosion is equal to deposition. 🔘 Sediment load is excessive and deposition is exceeding erosion. ⚪️ The stream is sediment starved and erosion is exceeding deposition.

Why is the viscosity of a magma lower at higher temperatures?

⚪️ The viscosity of a magma is not lower at higher temperatures. ⚪️ More crystals form at higher temperatures, thus lowering the fluid content. 🔘 Atoms vibrate more vigorously at higher temperatures, breaking bonds and increasing fluidity. ⚪️ Water turns to gas at higher temperatures, increasing the fluidity of the remaining liquid.

Why do subduction zones result in earthquakes with the greatest magnitudes?

⚪️ They are the only type of plate boundary where true faulting occurs. ⚪️ The types of rocks found in convergent zones are the most resistant to stress. 🔘 The process of subducting a tectonic slab or pushing two continents together requires incredible amounts of energy. ⚪️ Earthquakes waves have their amplitudes magnified in convergent zones.

Removing the tops of hills can reduce the likelihood of landslides because it ______.

⚪️ increases the driving mass 🔘 decreases the driving mass ⚪️ increases the resisting mass ⚪️ decreases the resisting mass

When bracing is incorporated into the earthquake safety design of a building, it is generally constructed of steel because steel is ______.

⚪️ lightweight 🔘 flexible ⚪️ incompressible ⚪️ brittle

Volcanic glass can form when ______.

⚪️ magma is too hot for minerals to form 🔘 magma cools too rapidly for minerals to crystallize ⚪️ magma is extremely fluid ⚪️ magma cools slowly within a magma chamber

The temperature below which a mineral becomes magnetized as lava cools is called the ______.

⚪️ magnetic field ⚪️ polarization temperature ⚪️ declination limit 🔘 Curie point

The San Andreas fault in California is the most famous example of a _______ fault.

⚪️ normal dip-slip ⚪️ reverse dip-slip 🔘 right-lateral strike-slip ⚪️ left-lateral strike-slip

The surface of pyrolyzed wood burns hot and fast in the ________ stage of fire.

⚪️ preheating 🔘 flaming combustion ⚪️ pyrolysis ⚪️ glowing combustion

Away from the oceanic ridges the layer of sediment covering the seafloor becomes ______.

⚪️ thinner 🔘 thicker ⚪️ variable ⚪️ younger

What factors contributed to the 1556 earthquake in the Shaanxi Province of China being the deadliest earthquake in history? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Dwellings were built by digging caves into silt and fine sand that had little cohesion. ✅ The earthquake occurred early in the morning, when people were asleep in their poorly constructed homes. ⬜️ There was a high tide when the earthquake struck. ⬜️ Heavy snow in the days before the event allowed large avalanches to form.

Which of the following are common ways in which winter storms kill people? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Heart attacks from shoveling snow ✅ Automobile accidents ⬜️ Hyperthermia caused by overdressing ✅ Slipping and falling on ice ✅ Freezing to death

Which of the following hurricane characteristics favor the formation of tornadoes? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Large, intense, and strongly curving winds ⬜️ Moving forward at speeds greater than 35 km/hr ✅ Interacting with old, weakened fronts ⬜️ Occurring over warm water

Only about 50% of the Sun's radiation that reaches Earth is absorbed by Earth's surface. What happens to the other 50%? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Some is reflected back into space. ✅ Some is absorbed by the atmosphere. ⬜️ Some is absorbed by the oceans. ⬜️ Some is lost in space before reaching Earth.

This map shows predicted changes in precipitation due to climate change. Which of these regions are likely to experience less rainfall due to climate change? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Southern Europe ⬜️ Scandinavia ✅ Subtropical Africa ✅ American Southwest ⬜️ Canada ✅ Australia

Which of the following accurately describe the flow of energy in a hurricane? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Surface winds converging on the eyewall pick up additional heat from the ocean. ⬜️ Rising air cools, and the condensation of water vapor absorbs latent heat. ✅ Air flowing outward from the top of a hurricane loses heat via long-wavelength radiation. ✅ Upon reaching the eyewall, the air rises rapidly, cools, and releases latent heat of condensation that adds to buoyancy and upward velocity.

Which of the following accurately describe the 1989 "World Series" (Loma Prieta) earthquake? (Select all that apply.)

✅ The vertical fault movement did not offset the ground surface. ✅ It was unusually short in duration for an earthquake of its strength. ✅ The movement occurred in a gently left-stepping constraining bend of the San Andreas fault. ⬜️ The epicenter was in the northern most section of the San Francisco Bay.

True or false: A body of water between a village and a volcano will keep the citizens safe from pyroclastic flows.

➖ False

Which of the following accurately describe the evacuation dilemma posed by hurricanes? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ Storm surge is often worse inland where people are sent. ✅ The population along the coast is growing faster than the infrastructure needed to evacuate everyone. ✅ Heat-related deaths in traffic jams caused by massive evacuation are a problem in summer hurricanes. ⬜️ Tornadoes are likely to take the same track as highways headed inland.

Dip-slip faults generally form in response to ______ forces. (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ shear ✅ tensional ✅ compressional ⬜️ torque

In the worst case scenario, a event with the extinction of 40% of species would occur approximately every ______ years.

🔘 6 million years ⚪️ 1 billion years ⚪️ 30 million years

______ are elongate, north-south oriented disturbances in the trade winds that are known to sometimes result in the formation of Cape Verde-type hurricanes.

🔘 Easterly waves ⚪️ Westerly swells ⚪️ Southern ridges ⚪️ Tropical ripples

Which of the following scenarios would lead to the greatest available habitat space for animals living in shallow marine waters?

🔘 High rate of seafloor spreading and small ice sheets ⚪️ High rate of seafloor spreading and large ice sheets ⚪️ Low rate of seafloor spreading and large ice sheets ⚪️ Low rate of seafloor spreading and small ice sheets

Fault movements, volcanic eruptions, underwater landslides, and meteorite impacts can all generate tsunami because they ________.

🔘 displace large volumes of ocean water ⚪️ transmit their energy to the surface of the ocean ⚪️ cause the ocean floor to vibrate ⚪️ tend to occur in deep water

Water extinguishes a fire by reducing the ________ of a fire.

🔘 heat ⚪️ fuel ⚪️ oxygen ⚪️ carbon

The Late Paleozoic Ice Age was most likely caused by _______.

🔘 the presence of Pangea near the South Pole ⚪️ increased ocean circulation carrying cold water toward the poles ⚪️ a major extinction of plants and marine life across the globe ⚪️ a major caldera-forming eruption from an unknown volcano

What style of eruption is typically associated with scoria cones?

⚪️ Vulcanian ⚪️ Hawaiian ⚪️ Plinian 🔘 Strombolian

From this graph, you can see that _______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ flood levels are greater in urban areas ⬜️ floods last longer in urban areas ✅ floods last longer in rural areas ⬜️ floods are more frequent in rural areas

The common categories of fuel for fire include __________ (Check all that apply.)

✅ grasses ✅ slash ⬜️ heat ⬜️ gases ✅ shrubs

The recent extinction of large animals is likely not just the result of climate change, because ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ large mammals should not have been affected by changing climate since they have heat-regulating bodies ✅ equivalent extinctions did not occur at the end of previous glacial periods ⬜️ climate has remained relatively stable for the past 100,000 years ⬜️ the extinction was biased toward animals, leaving plants largely unaffected

Which of the following accurately describe the distribution of thunderstorms of the United States? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ Thunderstorms are fairly evenly distributed over the lower 48 states. ✅ Florida has the most thunderstorms. ✅ Thunderstorms are common in the central and southern United States. ⬜️ The northwest coast of the United States has the most thunderstorms.

According to demographic transition theory, what factor leads to declines in mortality and fertility rates?

🔘 Economic development ⚪️ Population growth ⚪️ Declining food and energy resources ⚪️ Government-led population growth control

What kind of mass movement is shown here?

🔘 Fall ⚪️ Slide ⚪️ Slump ⚪️ Flow ⚪️ Subsidence

The ______ Volcano produced the most explosive eruption in the past 200 years, starting with two powerful Plinian eruptions and followed by overwhelming pyroclastic flows.

🔘 Tambora ⚪️ Mount St. Helens ⚪️ Lassen Peak ⚪️ Mount Unzen

Which of the following statements accurately describes the movement of a normal fault?

🔘 Tensional forces pull one rock mass away and down from another. ⚪️ Compressional forces push one rock mass toward and over another. ⚪️ Lateral stresses cause two rock masses to slide past one another.

Sulfur dioxide emitted by the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo combined with water in the atmosphere to form aerosols of _______.

🔘 sulfuric acid ⚪️ carbon dioxide ⚪️ black sulfur ⚪️ ash

A ______ is a steep slope created by the separation of masses of rock along a normal fault during an earthquake.

🔘 scarp ⚪️ rift ⚪️ horst

The mineral ______ often forms at impact sites, where the extremely high pressures of the impact event alter the atomic structure of quartz crystals.

🔘 stishovite ⚪️ magnetite ⚪️ augite ⚪️ aragonite ⚪️ bornite

Both the Late Paleozoic Ice Age and the current Ice Age occurred when the continents were ______.

🔘 aligned in a north-south direction ⚪️ aligned in an east-west direction ⚪️ connected to form a supercontinent ⚪️ widely distributed across the surface of the globe

The grooved, ground-up surface shown here is evidence for ______.

🔘 an older mass movement ⚪️ construction activities ⚪️ high water pressure ⚪️ daylighted bedding

Underground fluid pumping sometimes triggers earthquakes because the fluids ______.

🔘 are forced into ancient faults, causing them to be reactivated ⚪️ can fracture rock, creating new faults in the process ⚪️ can accelerate isostatic rebound in the areas into which they are injected

The people who remained in Pompeii during the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 CE were killed by ______.

🔘 ash and pumice that fell on the town ⚪️ volcanic mudflows ⚪️ fast-moving lava flows ⚪️ scalding hot water that flowed down from the summit

The Chicxulub asteroid struck Earth at a low angle, as evidenced by the ______ of the crater.

🔘 asymmetry ⚪️ shallow depth ⚪️ rectangular shape ⚪️ central peak

Oxygen in Earth's atmosphere began to build up about 3.5 billion years ago, when ______.

🔘 bacteria began producing oxygen as a byproduct of photosynthesis ⚪️ comets delivered oxygen-rich minerals to Earth during a period of heavy bombardment ⚪️ an increase in volcanic activity led to an outgassing of oxygen

A stream's cross-sectional profile flattens out as it approaches ______ because it cannot erode below it.

🔘 base level ⚪️ the nickpoint ⚪️ a point bar ⚪️ bedrock

Because of wave refraction, headlands will ________.

🔘 be hit harder by waves and erode quickly ⚪️ be protected from concentrated wave attack ⚪️ become more pronounced as erosion occurs in neighboring bays ⚪️ focus the energy of waves outward in a fan shape

The earliest efforts to control flooding of the Yellow River in China date back to 2356 BCE. These flood-control efforts consisted of _______.

🔘 channel dredging ⚪️ levee construction ⚪️ dam construction ⚪️ channel diversion

Flash floods are commonly caused by ______.

🔘 convective thunderstorms ⚪️ storm surges ⚪️ tidal bores ⚪️ light rain for days over an arid region

Statistics calculated in 1992 suggest that a large asteroid or comet ______.

🔘 could do serious damage to human civilization ⚪️ will never collide with Earth in a time frame meaningful to human life ⚪️ may collide with Earth but will never be large enough to threaten human civilization ⚪️ will probably collide with Earth within the next 50 years

The longer the wait for a large flood, the more likely its occurrence becomes. This is referred to as _______ probability.

🔘 cumulative ⚪️ yearly ⚪️ compounding ⚪️ fatalistic

Not only have historic floods in Florence, Italy, been dangerous to people but the mud and water have also ______.

🔘 damaged and destroyed art and historic objects ⚪️ created a new, livable island ⚪️ replenished agricultural fields

Streams compensate for changes in their systems by adjusting other factors in order to return to a(n) ______.

🔘 equilibrium ⚪️ static condition ⚪️ positive flow ⚪️ passive state

Building a seawall to protect development from coastal erosion often leads to _______.

🔘 erosion of the beach and steepening of the sea bottom ⚪️ accumulation of sand against the wall, steepening the beach face ⚪️ increased longshore drift updrift of the wall ⚪️ stabilization of the beach environment

When deeply buried rocks are uncovered by erosion, the removal of the overlying mass causes the rocks to ______.

🔘 expand ⚪️ melt ⚪️ dissolve ⚪️ sink

As clay minerals take in or lose elements and water from their crystalline structure, they will ________. This can significantly weaken a slope.

🔘 expand and contract ⚪️ dissolve away ⚪️ weather to feldspar ⚪️ undergo metamorphism

Tsunami are commonly generated along subduction zones because ______.

🔘 fault movements at subduction zones commonly have a vertical component ⚪️ oceanic trenches at subduction zones provide the deep water needed for tsunami ⚪️ volcanoes are found at subduction zones and volcanic eruptions are the most common cause of tsunami ⚪️ landslides are very common along continental margins

The Landers earthquake demonstrated that, on rare occasions, ______.

🔘 fault movements can occur across multiple faults ⚪️ surface waves can travel faster than primary waves ⚪️ ancient faults can reactivate given the right conditions

Mass wasting that involves the material moving downslope as a viscous fluid is called a ______.

🔘 flow ⚪️ slide ⚪️ fall ⚪️ slump

The less viscous a fluid, the more ______ it is.

🔘 fluid ⚪️ resistant to flow ⚪️ sticky ⚪️ dense

The presence of 9,000-year-old human remains in the La Brea Tar Pits is significant because it ______.

🔘 indicates humans were living in the area at the same time the large animal extinction was taking place ⚪️ is the earliest known example of murder in human history ⚪️ predates all other known evidence of human habitation of the Americas

The end of the Late Paleozoic Ice Age may have been caused by ________.

🔘 the breakup of Gondwanaland ⚪️ an increase in atmospheric CO2 due to volcanic activity ⚪️ an increase in the amount of radiation from the Sun ⚪️ the shutdown of ocean circulation

Satellite monitoring of Arctic sea ice since 1979 has shown that _______.

🔘 the area covered by sea ice shrinks significantly every decade ⚪️ the extent of sea ice has declined steadily each year ⚪️ so much sea ice has melted that it is now difficult to monitor ⚪️ the Arctic Ocean is now free of sea ice

Valley winds occur during the day when the ______ air in canyons and valleys flows up valley.

🔘 warmer ⚪️ cooler ⚪️ damper ⚪️ drier

Because of its very high heat capacity, ______ acts as a powerful control on Earth's global climate.

🔘 water ⚪️ carbon dioxide ⚪️ nitrogen ⚪️ ozone

On a yearly basis in the United States, the most likely low-fatality events are _____.

⚪️ earthquakes and floods ⚪️ hurricanes and floods ⚪️ earthquakes and tornadoes 🔘 floods and tornadoes

In general, earthquake intensity is greatest in areas underlain by _______.

⚪️ hard rock ⚪️ soft rock 🔘 sediment ⚪️ water

The rocks of the mantle have a composition similar to that of _______.

⚪️ iron meteorites 🔘 stony meteorites ⚪️ comets ⚪️ Saturn

The sharp upward curve in this graph of human population over time is the result of _______.

⚪️ linear growth ⚪️ doubling growth ⚪️ sudden growth 🔘 exponential growth

Melting of the mantle at subduction zones occurs because _______.

⚪️ mantle rocks are dragged down by the subducting plate into regions of high temperature ⚪️ rising mantle material experiences lower pressures ⚪️ friction along the surface of the subducting plate heats the overlying mantle 🔘 water carried into the mantle by the subducting plate significantly reduces the melting temperature of the rock

Volcanism at subduction zones is typically _______.

⚪️ peaceful 🔘 explosive ⚪️ rare ⚪️ very high volume

Which of the following are actions you should take if you suspect a tsunami is coming? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Abandon your possessions. ✅ Head for high ground. ⬜️ Wait until you see the wave approach. ✅ Climb to the top of a strong building. ⬜️ Start filming. ⬜️ Post about it on Facebook.

Which of the following are external processes that increase the odds of a slope failure? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Addition of mass high on a slope ✅ Slope steepening ✅ Removal of lower slope support ✅ Rain runoff ⬜️ Weak materials ⬜️ Pore water pressure ⬜️ Geologic structures

What types of building are most vulnerable to high-frequency P and S waves close to the epicenter of an earthquake? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Buildings constructed of stone or brick ⬜️ Very tall buildings ✅ Short buildings ⬜️ Buildings constructed of wood or steel

What can you do to reduce your chance of dying in a tornado? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Evacuate mobile homes whenever possible, even if it is just to hide in a modern car. ✅ Listen and watch for tornado warnings and sirens. ⬜️ Get to the highest level in the house and stand next to an open window in case you have to jump. ⬜️ Start a fire in a fireplace so you have heat in the aftermath of a tornado.

Why does warm, moist air start to uplift in the initial stages of thunderstorm development? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Heating of the lower atmosphere from below causes it to warm and rise. ✅ Air maybe aided in its rise or forced to rise by ground topography, convergence, or frontal lifting. ⬜️ Conserved rotational velocity from the Earth rotation causes air to spin upwards. ⬜️ Tidal forces between the Earth and Moon pull the lower atmosphere up during full and new moons.

Which of the following are weather patterns associated with normal Pacific Ocean circulation? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Heavy rainfall in Indonesia and Southeast Asia ✅ Arid conditions along the west coast of Peru ⬜️ Drought in Australia ⬜️ Hurricanes in Baja California and central Mexico

Where do shallow earthquakes occur in subduction zones? (Select all that apply.)

✅ In the upper portion of the down-going plate ✅ At the bend in the subduction plate ✅ In the overriding plate ⬜️ Along the bottom of the down-going plate

Which of the following accurately describe the earthquake hazards associated with the tectonic collision between India and Asia? (Select all that apply.)

✅ There are large seismic gaps waiting to be filled. ✅ Millions of new buildings are at risk since they were built without seismic-safety inspections. ⬜️ Recently earthquakes have been hitting mega-cities in the region. ⬜️ Powerful earthquakes are unlikely to occur in the region.

Which of the following describe recent trends in Oklahoma earthquakes? (Choose all that apply.)

✅ They are increasing in number. ✅ They are increasing in magnitude. ⬜️ They are caused by fracking. ✅ They are caused by deep-well wastewater disposal. ⬜️ Only California now has more earthquakes than Oklahoma.

How do Cape Verde-type hurricanes form? (Select all that apply.)

✅ They form from preexisting convective storms near the islands off northwest Africa. ✅ They form from easterly waves, which are north-south oriented disturbances that develop within the trade winds. ⬜️ They develop from tornadoes that spin off the west coast of Africa and grow in size as surface friction is reduced. ⬜️ They form when loops in the subtropical jet stream get cut off from the rest of the jet and descend to the surface.

According to the green flood frequency curve in this figure, ________. (Select all that apply.)

✅ small floods occur more frequently. ✅ larger floods have a longer recurrence interval. ⬜️ small floods have a longer recurrence interval. ⬜️ large floods only happen on large streams. ✅ small floods happen every year or so.

Several lines of evidence suggest that Meteor Crater was formed by an impact event. These include ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ steep-sided and closed crater walls ✅ numerous nickel metallic meteorite fragments discovered nearby ✅ the presence of stishovite in the crater ⬜️ multiple layers of igneous rock, representing lava flows, deposited around the crater walls

True or false: Earthquake early warning systems can predict when an earthquake will occur with great accuracy.

➖ False

Which of these eruptive styles are most closely associated with stratovolcanoes? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ Hawaiian ✅ Plinian ⬜️ Strombolian ✅ Vulcanian

Which of the following statements accurately describe air-mass thunderstorms? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ They occur less often than supercell thunderstorms. ✅ They occur locally rather than in a line at fronts. ✅ They do not last long. ✅ They are the least destructive type of thunderstorm. ⬜️ They only form in the tropics.

Water vapor and clouds account for _____ of Earth's greenhouse effect.

🔘 75% ⚪️ 5% ⚪️ 43% ⚪️ 90%

The 17,566 near-Earth asteroids currently known are dominated by ______ asteroids.

🔘 Apollo and Amor ⚪️ stony ⚪️ metallic ⚪️ rubble-pile

________ is when heat in particles moves from hotter to cooler areas.

🔘 Diffusion ⚪️ Conduction ⚪️ Convection ⚪️ Radiation

Why don't the rocks on either side of a fault simply slide past each other when stress is applied?

🔘 Friction holds the rocks together. ⚪️ Gravity holds the sides together. ⚪️ The rocks must melt before they can slide smoothly. ⚪️ The stress must be applied in the correct direction.

Which of the following is evidence for a major earthquake in the Pacific Northwest that caused 1 to 2 meters of coastal subsidence in 1700?

🔘 Ghost forests of dead tree trunks in tidal marshes ⚪️ Landslide deposits off the Oregon and Washington coast ⚪️ The remains of freshwater fish preserved in coastal marshes

Imagine that modern seafloor spreading rates were comparable to those during the mid-Cretaceous and continental glacier volume were comparable to the glacial peak 20,000 years ago. What would be the approximate affect on global sea level?

🔘 Global sea level would increase about 60 m. ⚪️ Global sea level would decrease about 140 m. ⚪️ Global sea level would increase 200 m. ⚪️ Global sea level would decrease 60 m.

How did marine organisms change following the end-Permian mass extinction?

🔘 Immobile organisms were replaced by free-swimming predators and burrowing clams. ⚪️ Highly mobile organisms were replaced by immobile organisms that anchored themselves to the seafloor. ⚪️ Average body size increased dramatically following the extinction. ⚪️ Organisms occupied fewer niches after the mass extinction.

What effect does a La Niña typically have on the midwestern portion of North America?

🔘 It causes wetter weather than normal and results in many floods. ⚪️ It causes somewhat drier weather than normal, resulting in more flash flooding when it does rain. ⚪️ It causes a drought in the region. ⚪️ It causes heavy snows in winter that result in regional flooding in early spring.

Which of the following is evidence for ancient tsunami caused by flank collapse of the Hawaiian volcanoes?

🔘 Layers of coral, marine shells, and volcanic rocks found inland and significantly above sea level ⚪️ Dead trees that represent subsidence of the coast below sea level ⚪️ Jumbles of human debris such as cars, concrete, and roof tiles ⚪️ Markers left by ancient Hawaiians warning future residents to be wary of tsunami

What causes thunder?

🔘 Lightning very quickly heats the air around it, causing rapid expansion and then contraction, which sends out the pressure waves we hear as thunder. ⚪️ Objects impacted by lightning typically explode, and that causes the sound we hear as thunder. ⚪️ Lightning strikes send out a large pulse of electromagnetic energy with wavelengths in the sound range. ⚪️ After lightning strikes, a void is created in the atmosphere, and the sound we hear as thunder is wind rushing to fill this void.

The largest historic tsunami wave run-up ever recorded (1,600 feet) occurred at ______.

🔘 Lituya Bay, Alaska ⚪️ Sumatra, Indonesia ⚪️ Iwate Prefecture, Japan ⚪️ Burin Bay, Newfoundland, Canada ⚪️ Lake Tahoe, California

A massive volcanic eruption 760,000 years ago blew out hundreds of cubic kilometers of magma to create the modern geography of the ______ region.

🔘 Long Valley-Mammoth Lakes ⚪️ Cascade Range ⚪️ Yellowstone ⚪️ Appalachia

Which of the following accurately describes the tectonic setting in the area of the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, and the northeastern portion of Africa?

🔘 Magma beneath northeastern Africa has caused doming, which resulted in gravity-fueled pull-apart faulting and rifting. ⚪️ A subduction zone in the Red Sea and one in the Gulf of Aden are resulting in large earthquakes that are ripping the surface of the land apart. ⚪️ The collision of Africa with the Middle East is creating downward folds in some areas and upward, mountain-forming zones in others.

Which of the following statements best describes volcanic activity in the Long Valley-Mammoth Lakes region?

🔘 Major eruptions are rare, but smaller eruptions are relatively common. ⚪️ Eruptions are very rare, but when they occur, they are extremely powerful. ⚪️ Eruptions are very common but are always relatively minor.

What changes began in 1979 regarding the naming of hurricanes in the North Atlantic Basin?

🔘 Male names were used in addition to female names. ⚪️ Only names commonly used for both genders were considered. ⚪️ Human names were used for the first time. ⚪️ Hurricanes were no longer given last names.

What is a sector collapse?

🔘 Massive slope failure along the flanks of a volcano due to fracture of rotten rock ⚪️ A series of dome collapses that occur in rapid succession during volcanic eruptions ⚪️ The subsidence of midocean-ridge volcanoes during eruptions ⚪️ The complete smothering of a river valley due to successive waves of lahars

The warm period from about 1000 to 1300 CE, marked with the letter A on this diagram, is commonly referred to as the ______.

🔘 Medieval Maximum ⚪️ Maunder Minimum ⚪️ Early Century Warming ⚪️ Dark Age Heating

Periods of rapid cooling over the past 30,000 years are believed to be related to the shutting down of the North Atlantic's circulation system. What caused these shutdowns?

🔘 Melting of continental ice sheets, which dumps cold freshwater into the North Atlantic ⚪️ Sinking of warm, salty water to the ocean bottom ⚪️ Changes in the intensity of seafloor spreading at the mid-Atlantic ridge ⚪️ Changes in the amount of solar radiation due to eccentricity in the Earth's axial tilt

As can be seen from this image, millions of people in the Bay of Naples live in close proximity to ______, a potentially dangerous volcano.

🔘 Mount Vesuvius ⚪️ Mount St. Helens ⚪️ Mauna Loa ⚪️ Mount Rainier

Over 200 years later, aftershocks from the ______ earthquake(s) are still occurring today.

🔘 New Madrid ⚪️ Owens Valley ⚪️ Puget Sound ⚪️ Charleston

Which of the following accurately describes the relationship between buildings and earthquake fatalities?

🔘 Poor building design results in a lot of deaths in earthquakes as homes collapse. ⚪️ Buildings rarely kill people in earthquakes. ⚪️ Houses designed out of inorganic natural materials such as rock and mud make ideal shelters in earthquakes. ⚪️ There is little variation in how much building design impacts the number of fatalities an earthquake causes.

What happens in the dissipation stage of a thunderstorm that causes it to end?

🔘 Precipitation falls into the core of the thunderstorm's updraft, causing downdraft of cool air that removes energy source that drives the storm. ⚪️ The energy released by latent heat reaches a critical point and causes an outward wind that blows the thunderstorm apart. ⚪️ Tornadoes form and spin the energy of the storm outward from its core until there is not enough energy to maintain the storm. ⚪️ Convection lifting starts to take over from orographic lifting and provides less energy to the storm.

How does air rise in the atmosphere since gravity is a downward force?

🔘 Pressure differences allow air to flow upward toward lower pressure, even against the pull of gravity. ⚪️ Adiabatic processes create void spaces in the atmosphere, which cause air to rise to fill the voids. ⚪️ The Sun's pull on the atmosphere is greater during the day, drawing it upward. ⚪️ Static charges in the atmosphere pull air upward against the force of gravity.

What causes hyperthermia in the human body?

🔘 Prolonged exposure to high heat that overwhelms the ability of the body to cool via perspiration ⚪️ Prolonged exposure to high humidity that adds heat to the surface of the skin as water forms on it ⚪️ Exposure to direct sunlight at high altitudes ⚪️ Exposure to ultraviolet radiation without the use of a sunscreen

Making a home more resistant to hurricane damage includes which of the following?

🔘 Protecting and sealing doors and windows, so winds cannot get inside. ⚪️ Opening doors and windows all the way to allow for the free flow of air. ⚪️ Opening doors and windows on the downwind side of the storm and closing them on the side facing the storm. ⚪️ Cracking doors and windows open no farther than 2.54 cm (1 inch).

What is the tectonic setting of the Dead Sea fault zone?

🔘 Pull-apart basins are growing in the overlaps of the Dead Sea transform fault zone. ⚪️ It is the northern extension of the spreading center in the Red Sea. ⚪️ It is a subduction zone where the Mediterranean Sea is being forced under the Eurasian plate. ⚪️ It is an extension zone where Europe and Asia are being pulled apart.

________ is when heat is transferred as particle waves.

🔘 Radiation ⚪️ Diffusion ⚪️ Conduction ⚪️ Convection

How does the process of rock weathering reduce atmospheric CO2?

🔘 Rock weathering involves the creation of carbonic acid by combining CO2 and water. ⚪️ The weathering of limestone breaks apart the carbonate molecules in its minerals. ⚪️ CO2 is a critical component in the clay minerals that form from weathering. ⚪️ Weathering produces oxygen, which reduces the proportion of the atmosphere made up of CO2.

If you cannot evacuate ahead of time and a hurricane is coming, what are the general rules to follow?

🔘 Run from water, hide from wind. ⚪️ Hide from water, run from wind. ⚪️ Find a boat, don't fight the wind. ⚪️ Get low and outside of buildings.

Using a combination of neotectonics and paleoseismology, geologists estimate that the ______ fault experienced a 7 magnitude or greater earthquake about every 132 years.

🔘 San Andreas ⚪️ New Madrid ⚪️ Wasatch ⚪️ Denali

Why does the building of a seawall often lead to beach erosion?

🔘 Seawalls prevent sand dunes from forming that would normally absorb the energy of the waves. ⚪️ Seawalls generate strong rip currents that pull the sand offshore. ⚪️ Seawalls refract waves, leading to increased longshore drift of sand. ⚪️ Seawalls encourage more development and tourism, which disturbs the beach sand.

Why is the shaking during an earthquake stronger in a building built upon soft sediments?

🔘 Seismic waves slow down in soft sediments, which increases their amplitude. ⚪️ Soft sediments reflect seismic waves, creating many new seismic waves. ⚪️ S waves cannot pass through soft sediments and therefore exit the ground where they are found. ⚪️ It is harder to build a strong foundation for a building on soft sediments.

______ is the effect of a down-going plate at a subduction zone on the lateral motion of the plates.

🔘 Slab pull ⚪️ Ridge push ⚪️ Convection motion ⚪️ Frictional drag

On the western side of the Arabian plate, what is causing the earthquakes?

🔘 Slide-past motion with transform faults ⚪️ A subduction zone ⚪️ A spreading center ⚪️ A triple collision between the Eurasian, African, and Arabian plates

Why are bank erosion and channel migration major problems during desert floods?

🔘 Stream channels are cut into loose, sandy sediments. ⚪️ The floods have a very short duration. ⚪️ Desert floods happen rarely. ⚪️ River channels are very narrow in deserts.

Two magnitude 6 earthquakes occur in the United States on the same day. The first strikes southern Utah, while the second hits Charleston. Which earthquake is likely to cause more damage?

🔘 The Charleston earthquake ⚪️ The southern Utah earthquake

How did the Nazca plate move with respect to the South American plate to cause the largest earthquake ever recorded?

🔘 The Nazca plate moved eastward and downward beneath the South American plate, causing ruptures along a long and wide stretch of the subduction zone. ⚪️ The Nazca plate moved north and horizontally past the southern-moving South American plate causing new transform faults to develop. ⚪️ A pause in the motion of the Nazca plate allowed the South American plate to pull away from other side of the spreading center at a faster rate. ⚪️ The eastern motion of the Nazca plate was met with the western motion of the South American plate, forcing both up in a mountain-building event.

Despite being of similar magnitude, the felt areas of the New Madrid earthquakes were much larger than the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Why?

🔘 The New Madrid earthquakes shook solid bedrock, which transmits energy much farther than other geologic materials. ⚪️ The New Madrid earthquakes shook soft sediments, which shake violently and can be felt from much farther away than other geologic materials. ⚪️ Larger population centers near the New Madrid earthquakes meant that more people felt the earthquakes, artificially inflating the felt areas.

Why are there often clear skies around a hurricane?

🔘 The air diverging out of the top of the hurricane warms adiabatically as it sinks and evaporates clouds on its way down. ⚪️ Clouds from surrounding storm get pulled into the hurricane, thereby clearing out the atmosphere around it. ⚪️ Cold air is pushed out of hurricanes at mid-levels, and that moves clouds away from the boundaries of the storm. ⚪️ Evaporation of water halts in the regions around a hurricane as the storm stops most of the sunlight from reaching the ocean surface.

What happens in the mature stage of a thunderstorm that allows rain to start to fall?

🔘 The amount of water vapor (or ice crystals) becomes too heavy to suspend via updrafts. ⚪️ Clouds at the top of the storm absorb more solar radiation and evaporate. ⚪️ The release of latent heat weakens the updrafts as air is forced downward. ⚪️ Tornadoes remove the lower portion of the storm that was keeping the rain aloft.

How did Luis and Walter Alvarez know that the iridium clay layer marked the boundary between the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods?

🔘 The assemblage of microscopic fossils changes between the older limestone beneath the clay and the younger limestone above it. ⚪️ Radiometric dating showed that the clay layer was about 65 million years old. ⚪️ The clay layer had been a known boundary layer since geologist Charles Lyell first described it in the 19th century.

During the 2001 Tacoma-Olympia earthquake, split-level homes were disproportionately damaged compared to other structures. Why?

🔘 The different sections of these homes vibrated at different frequencies, tearing the homes apart. ⚪️ Many split-level homes were built on soft sediments, and the violent shaking tore them apart. ⚪️ The split-level homes were exempt from certain building codes that made other buildings earthquake resistant.

Why is there a depth-related distribution in the power of earthquakes at a subduction zone?

🔘 The forces that cause earthquakes align differently with depth, and the rock's resistance to stress changes with depth. ⚪️ The increasing mass of the overlying water changes the nature of the earthquakes when they happen at greater depths. ⚪️ The force of gravity changes with depth. ⚪️ The rocks lose heat gained from the atmosphere as they descend, and that changes their resistance to stress.

Listed below are the four steps in the eruptive sequence of a resurgent caldera. Choose the process that occurs first.

🔘 The ground bulges upward due to a surge of underlying rhyolitic magma. ⚪️ Plinian jets of magma and fire erupt in a circular pattern around the edge of the caldera. ⚪️ Enormous amounts of magma erupt. ⚪️ The surface collapses into the emptied magma chamber.

Why is beach sand more effective at absorbing the energy of waves than a cliff?

🔘 The individual grains can be moved around by the water, without harming the sand. ⚪️ Sand is more resistant to erosion than cliffs are. ⚪️ The minerals in sand can easily absorb water into their crystalline structures. ⚪️ Sand is not more effective at absorbing the energy of waves.

What is Tornado Alley?

🔘 The interior portion of the United States where tornadoes are the most common ⚪️ The portion of the troposphere where mesoscale rotation often begins ⚪️ The layer of the atmosphere below the troposphere where tornadoes can exist ⚪️ The narrow range of latitudes over which tornadoes can exist

______ is the concept that the same laws and processes have been operating on Earth throughout geologic time.

⚪️ Catastrophism ⚪️ Punctuated equilibrium 🔘 Uniformitarianism ⚪️ Neptunism

Which of the following is an important mechanism by which heat is transferred in the oceans and atmosphere?

⚪️ Combustion 🔘 Convection ⚪️ Condensation ⚪️ Adiabatic heating

What is the weather event known as a derecho?

⚪️ Strongly rotating winds that fall just short of the wind speeds needed for tornado classification 🔘 Powerful straight-line winds that last a few hours ⚪️ Cold-weather events that drop air from great altitudes to ground level too quickly for it to warm above freezing ⚪️ An updraft of wind strong enough to eject hailstones kilometers out and away from the core of a thunderstorm

What does it mean to say streams are equilibrium systems?

⚪️ They are always in equilibrium despite changing conditions. 🔘 They "seek" an equilibrium by compensating for changes in their systems. ⚪️ It means changes in one stream system will be balanced by an opposite change in another. ⚪️ It means streams are supplied with groundwater and can sustain a flow without rainfall.

How would you recognize a left-lateral strike-slip fault?

⚪️ When you straddle the fault, the left-hand side has moved away from you. ⚪️ When you straddle the fault, the left-hand side has moved up relative to the right. 🔘 When you straddle the fault, the left-hand side has moved toward you. ⚪️ When you straddle the fault, the left-hand side has moved down relative to the right.

The edge of a continent is found at _______.

⚪️ a distance of one mile from the coastline, where waters become deeper and colder ⚪️ the boundary between water and land, shown by the coastline 🔘 the boundary between low-density continental rocks and higher-density oceanic rocks ⚪️ the midocean ridge, where one tectonic plate ends and another begins

In 1790, an eruption of Kilauea led to the death of over 80 members of King Keoua's army. The majority were killed by ______.

⚪️ a fast-moving lava flow 🔘 a base surge of hot ash and gas from an explosive eruption ⚪️ pyroclastic blocks and bombs thrown from the volcanic vent ⚪️ suffocation by thick falling ash and dust

The tectonic plates are made up of the _________.

⚪️ asthenosphere ⚪️ crust 🔘 lithosphere ⚪️ continents

Why are high-pressure systems common over land in winter, while low-pressure systems are common over neighboring oceans?

🔘 The relatively warmer ocean causes the air above it to rise, while the cooler land has air sinking above it. ⚪️ The low angle of the sunlight is easily reflected by the water, causing the air above to rise, while poor reflection on land causes the air to sink. ⚪️ The relatively warmer land causes expansion in the air above it, causing winds to blow onto the land from the ocean. ⚪️ Snow and ice cover on land lowers the albedo far enough to cause cooling and then sinking of air masses above the land which then blow to the ocean. ⚪️ Winter upwelling of water forces the air above the oceans to rise, and that pulls in the air off the land to replace the uplifted air.

How are the stratopause and the mesosphere related?

🔘 The stratopause is located between the mesophere and the stratosphere. ⚪️ The stratopause is located above the mesophere and separates it from space. ⚪️ The stratopause is the located midway though the mesosphere.

How do streams breach natural dams?

🔘 The stream deposits sediment in the basin created behind the dam until it is filled. It will then flow over the dam, eroding it. ⚪️ They cause the ground to subside as the water weight behind the dam grows until the dam is lowered enough that the stream can flow over it. ⚪️ Water flowing behind the dam along the surface evaporates, and the remaining water becomes denser and sinks, eroding the ground from under the dam. ⚪️ The decrease in gradient behind the dam increases the meandering process until the stream is able to find a path around the dam.

Which of following best describes the predictions given before Hurricane Katrina about the hurricane hazards facing New Orleans?

🔘 The strong possibility of a hurricane bringing the damage and destruction caused by Katrina had been long predicted for New Orleans. ⚪️ It was thought the miles of natural barriers (e.g., salt marshes) would protect New Orleans from major damage. ⚪️ It was thought that strong currents in the Gulf Of Mexico would push hurricanes away from New Orleans. ⚪️ Since New Orleans sits below sea level, it was well-known that moderate damage would occur, but nobody thought it would be that bad.

What do hook echoes on radar imagery indicate?

🔘 There is a well-defined concentration of rotating air in supercell thunderstorm, and a tornado is occurring there or is likely imminent. ⚪️ There is a weakening of the mesocyclone in a thunderstorm that is allowing hail to fall in that location. ⚪️ Due to heavy rains, the thunderstorm absorbed all the radar waves in that area rather than reflecting them. ⚪️ Updrafts are starting to increase, and tornado-producing thunderstorms are about to form.

Which of the following has been observed as a pattern in the progression of earthquakes along faults in the San Francisco Bay region?

🔘 There seems to be a northward progression of earthquakes along faults. ⚪️ There seems to be a southern progression of earthquakes along faults. ⚪️ Earthquakes seem to alternate the end of the fault they occur on. ⚪️ Faults seem to be break from the middle outward toward both ends.

What conditions cause central Texas to receive some of the most intense precipitation events in the world?

🔘 Warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico meets hot, dry air from the west, and the air is then forced upward by an escarpment. ⚪️ Large oil refining operations create strong updrafts as they release heat into the environment. ⚪️ The polar-front jet stream often dips to lower altitudes over Texas, causing strong wind current eddies and updrafts. ⚪️ Cold air flowing out of the mountains in Mexico meets the warm, moist air moving south from the Plains states and is forced upward.

When pressure is applied to a pile of sediments, the grains will pack together more tightly, taking up less volume. Water, however, simply stores the pressure. Why is this?

🔘 Water is nearly incompressible. ⚪️ Water can't move around as easily as the sedimentary grains. ⚪️ The pore spaces are isolated from each other. ⚪️ Water is more stable at high pressures.

Volcanoes that form ______ are generally all the same age. Volcanoes that form ______ show an orderly progression in their age from young to old.

🔘 along subduction zones; above hot spots ⚪️ above hot spots; along subduction zones ⚪️ above hot spots; along spreading centers

Venus's atmosphere is rich in ______, which helps create extreme surface temperatures.

🔘 carbon dioxide ⚪️ oxygen ⚪️ nitrogen ⚪️ water ⚪️ sulphur dioxide

We measure measure tectonic plate movement in ______ per year.

🔘 centimeters ⚪️ millimeters ⚪️ meters ⚪️ kilometers

Clay minerals are typically formed through the process of ________.

🔘 chemical weathering ⚪️ magmatic crystallization ⚪️ metamorphism ⚪️ evaporation

The slow, almost imperceptible downslope movement of soil and the uppermost bedrock zones is called ______.

🔘 creep ⚪️ earthflow ⚪️ slip ⚪️ slump

The number of waves passing a given point during one second is referred to as ______.

🔘 frequency ⚪️ amplitude ⚪️ wavelength ⚪️ period

The discovery of ______ within the La Brea Tar Pits suggests that humans were in the area about 9,000 years ago, the same time that the extinction of large-bodied animals was occurring.

🔘 human remains ⚪️ flint arrowheads ⚪️ butcher marks on a mastodon bone ⚪️ hand-woven cloth

Since most volcanic activity occurs below sea level, ______.

🔘 humans cannot directly observe most volcanic activity ⚪️ the oceans are kept 5oC warmer than they would be otherwise ⚪️ carbon dioxide becomes trapped, preventing its release into the atmosphere

Small shrubs, mosses, and lichen are able to grow in permafrost regions during the summer months because _______.

🔘 ice melts at and just below the surface ⚪️ the entire soil layer melts ⚪️ wind blows in a new layer of dirt, which converts to soil ⚪️ they have roots that can penetrate frozen soil

You run the greatest risk of getting caught in an avalanche when you ski or snowboard _______.

🔘 in backcountry areas ⚪️ in the late spring ⚪️ in large groups ⚪️ while making excessive noise

The amount of solar radiation received in a given area is measured as ______.

🔘 insolation ⚪️ sensible heat ⚪️ latent heat ⚪️ albedo

El Niño Southern Oscillation weather patterns tend to __________ brushfires.

🔘 intensify ⚪️ reduce ⚪️ not affect ⚪️ delay

One major hazard in the area surrounding Mount Rainier is the risk of future deposition of ______, which may occur in the path of previous deposits that are rapidly being developed.

🔘 lahars ⚪️ lava flows ⚪️ pyroclastic flows ⚪️ debris avalanches

In southern California, wildfires tend to be ___________ when compared to those in Baja California as a result of differences in suppression policy.

🔘 larger in size ⚪️ more numerous ⚪️ equal in size

The petroleum industry has known for some time that human activity can produce earthquakes, particularly when ______.

🔘 liquids are pumped underground at high pressures ⚪️ oil and gas is forcibly extracted from the ground through pumping ⚪️ tectonic pressure is released as layers of geologic material are removed by strip mining

Nyiragongo produced low-viscosity lava flows during its 1977 eruption, which was caused by ______.

🔘 low SiO2 content ⚪️ high carbon dioxide content ⚪️ unusually high temperatures ⚪️ rapid outgassing

Tall buildings have low frequencies of vibration and are therefore most strongly affected by _________.

🔘 low-frequency surface waves ⚪️ longer-duration earthquakes ⚪️ high-frequency body waves ⚪️ low-amplitude waves

Ground deformation occurs when ______, potentially making it useful for predicting volcanic eruptions.

🔘 magma moves upward beneath a volcano ⚪️ carbon dioxide builds within a volcano ⚪️ the magma chamber begins to grow in size ⚪️ volcanic rock begins to expand and fracture

Most comets have wildly eccentric orbits, passing very close to the Sun at one point in their orbit (called the ______), but then moving out beyond the outermost planets at the other end of their orbit (called the ______).

🔘 perihelion; aphelion ⚪️ aphelion; perihelion ⚪️ euhelion; prohelion ⚪️ helios; anhelios

The pyroclastic flow that killed more than 2,000 people in the coastal province of Katimbang, Sumatra, during the 1883 Krakatau eruption conclusively demonstrated that ______.

🔘 pyroclastic flows could travel long distances over water ⚪️ volcano monitoring and early warning programs were vital to the safely of humans ⚪️ pyroclastic flows are not easily controlled by topography

Subsidence in Mexico City is primarily caused by _______.

🔘 removal of groundwater from below the city ⚪️ extraction of oil just to the south of the city ⚪️ the immense weight of the buildings that make up the mega-city ⚪️ collapse of caves in the limestone that underlies the region

When the trough of a tsunami reaches shore before the crest, a _________ will be observed.

🔘 retreat of the ocean ⚪️ series of unusually large breakers ⚪️ large whirlpool offshore ⚪️ rogue wave

The timescale of magnetic reversals was developed by measuring the magnetism in ______.

🔘 sequences of lava flows ⚪️ large coral reefs ⚪️ oceanic sediments ⚪️ layers of sandstone

A typical shield volcano is composed primarily of __________.

🔘 solidified basalt lava flows ⚪️ layers of volcanic ash ⚪️ cinders and volcanic bombs ⚪️ alternating layers of lava and ash

An earthquake occurs along a south-moving fault. According to the process of directivity, the largest amount of energy should be directed to the ______.

🔘 south, because more energy is sent in the direction of fault movement ⚪️ north, because more energy is sent opposite the direction of fault movement ⚪️ east and west, since more energy is released oblique to the direction of fault movement

If you are near the coast and feel an earthquake, you should consider the possibility of a(n) ______.

🔘 tsunami ⚪️ foreshock ⚪️ seiche ⚪️ impending mainshock

In 2009, a group of scientists and engineers in Italy were charged with manslaughter in connection with a 6.3 M earthquake that killed 309 people in the city of L'Aquila. The group was put on trial because they ______.

🔘 underrepresented the risk of a big earthquake, giving city residents a false sense of security ⚪️ routinely made unfounded short-term earthquake predictions, and residents ignored the potential reality of a major earthquake ⚪️ promised to prevent major earthquakes from occurring in exchange for large sums of money

Of the 36,000 people killed by the Krakatau eruption in 1883, more than 90% of the fatalities were caused by ______.

🔘 volcano-induced tsunami ⚪️ pyroclastic flows ⚪️ pyroclastic surges ⚪️ lahars

In a thunderstorm, wall clouds form ______.

🔘 where updrafts are the strongest, causing water vapor to condense at lower altitudes ⚪️ as downdrafts push clouds to lower altitudes and out to the leading edge of a supercell ⚪️ when hail evaporates as it emerges from the clouds and creates many miniature clouds that quickly coalesce ⚪️ lower-level fog that is pushed upward by the advance of a cold front

When a left-lateral strike-slip fault has a right-stepping bend, what kind of topographic feature is likely to form?

⚪️ A compressional valley ⚪️ An extensional basin 🔘 An uplifted mound or hill ⚪️ A pull-apart block

What is an atmospheric front?

⚪️ The location in an air mass where the isobars start to become more widely spaced 🔘 The boundary between different air masses ⚪️ The location where an air mass first develops its defining characteristics ⚪️ The direction an air mass is moving in response to the pressure gradient force, friction, and the Coriolis effect

The two most important factors in the melting of mantle rock are ______ and _______.

⚪️ an increase in temperature; the addition of water 🔘 a decrease in pressure; the addition of water ⚪️ a decrease in volume; an increase in viscosity ⚪️ the addition of water; an increase in temperature

An air-fall deposit of pyroclastic debris can be distinguished from a pyroclastic flow deposit by the _______.

⚪️ composition of the deposited material ⚪️ thickness of the layer ⚪️ distance from the vent 🔘 sorting of pyroclasts by size

The solubility of gases in a magma _____ with increasing pressure.

⚪️ decreases ⚪️ remains constant 🔘 increases

The breakthrough that led to the development of the theory of plate tectonics was the _______.

⚪️ discovery of continental drift 🔘 exploration of the ocean floors ⚪️ development of satellites ⚪️ study of volcanic activity

Which of the following are zones of relatively stable low pressure around 60° North latitude? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Aleutian low ✅ Icelandic low ⬜️ Bermuda low ⬜️ Siberian low

What factors contributed to the deadly 1972 flood of the Rapid River? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Extremely heavy rain over a short period of time ✅ Development on the flood plain in Rapid City ✅ Most rain fell downstream of a dam built to protect Rapid City. ✅ Failure of the Canyon Lake dam in Rapid City ⬜️ Steep canyon walls surrounding Rapid City ⬜️ Failure of an ice dam during the spring melts

Which of the following conditions must be met to classify a storm as a blizzard? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Falling or blowing snow reducing visibility to less than 400 m (0.25 mi) for at least three hours ✅ Cold winds blowing at least 56 km/hr (35 mph) ⬜️ A winter storm that moves faster than the wind in it ⬜️ A temperature drop that occurs faster than the dry adiabatic cooling rate

Which of the following are consequences of drought? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Famine ✅ Disease ✅ Mass migrations ⬜️ Tornadoes ⬜️ Hypothermia

Why are deltas popular sites for cities? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Fertile soil ✅ Abundant drinking water supply ⬜️ Stable bedrock for construction ✅ Convenient transportation route for goods ⬜️ Low flood risk

The 2003 Cedar fires of San Diego were particularly severe because of which factors? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Five years of drought ✅ Buildup of fuel ⬜️ The preceding wet winter ⬜️ The entire area was dominated by young plants

How do flash floods and regional floods differ? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Flash floods occur in smaller sized drainage basins. ⬜️ Regional floods are shorter lived. ✅ Regional floods are caused by longer rain events. ⬜️ Flash floods cause damage but regional floods do not.

Which of the following processes cause soil to swell? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Freezing of water in pore spaces ⬜️ Melting of water in pore spaces ✅ Absorption of water by clay minerals ✅ Solar heating of the surface ⬜️ Cooling of the surface ⬜️ Drying out of moist soil

The Accumulated Cyclone Energy (ACE) index is ______.

⚪️ the amount of energy available at the surface of the ocean at any one time, divided by the long-term average of energy there 🔘 a compilation of energy expended in a cyclone and in a season ⚪️ an estimate of the amount of hydrological power that could be generated by the inland rains provided by hurricanes ⚪️ the total amount of solar radiation needed to generate each category of hurricane

Which of following would be expected if Earth's flow of internal energy were to stop? (Check all that apply.)

✅ Mountain building would stop. ✅ The continents would erode to sea level. ⬜️ Weathering and erosion would stop. ⬜️ The oceans would dry up. ✅ The planet would be covered by one giant ocean. ⬜️ All life on Earth would expire.

Which of the following are natural sources of methane? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Mud volcanoes ✅ Decomposition of wetlands ⬜️ Volcanic eruptions ✅ Breakdown of vegetation by termites ⬜️ Weathering of carbonate rocks

Why do so many people live at the base of Popocatépetl, despite the hazards associated with an active volcano? (Check all that apply.)

✅ The rich volcanic soil is good for agriculture. ⬜️ They don't know it's a volcano. ✅ There is a good climate with lots of sunshine and reliable rainfall. ⬜️ They like danger. ⬜️ Government rules dictate that they must live there.

Which of the following are the three ways in which volcanoes can cause tsunami? (Select all that apply.)

✅ They explode. ✅ They collapse. ✅ They send debris into the water. ⬜️ They generate large earthquakes. ⬜️ They send lava flows into the water.

If a large (10 km) asteroid or comet were to impact Earth, it would likely result in ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ a huge dust cloud that would block out the Sun and create months of winterlike conditions ✅ the release of massive amounts of greenhouse gases, leading to a rise in global temperature ✅ massive wildfires ⬜️ the end to all life on Earth

Both flood and fire are aggravated by ________ activity. (Select all that apply.)

✅ human ✅ weather ⬜️ fuel ⬜️ salinity

What conditions can result in the development of thunderstorms? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ A lapse rate that is small. ✅ A large temperature difference between underlying warmer air and overriding cooler air ⬜️ Dry air at the surface rapidly rising and cooling ✅ A large heat input from the latent heat released as condensation occurs

Which of the following accurately describe the air masses that move over North America? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ Air masses that develop over the North Atlantic are much more likely to move over North America than those that develop in the Pacific Ocean. ✅ Cold air masses generally move east and/or south. ✅ Air masses coming from the polar region tend to be cool to cold. ✅ The air masses that develop over North America tend to be dry. ⬜️ The air masses that develop over the Gulf of Mexico and move north tend to be cold and dry.

The more NEOs we find, the better we can estimate the recurrence interval of major impact events. Events such as the end of the Cretaceous impact occur about once every ______ years. Tunguska-sized impacts occur about once every ______ years.

🔘 100 million; 300 to 500 ⚪️ 5 million; 1 million ⚪️ 5,000; 300 to 500 ⚪️ 1 billion; 100

There are ______ meteoroids that enter Earth's atmosphere daily.

🔘 100,000 million or more ⚪️ 10 to 25 million ⚪️ 100,000 ⚪️ 15,000

______ km/hr is the minimum wind speed needed for hurricane classification because it is the speed at which incoming winds do not reach the eye of the storm.

🔘 119 ⚪️ 85 ⚪️ 54 ⚪️ 67

The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center uses maps like this one to alert Hawaiians before tsunami arrive. According to this map, approximately how many hours after the 1960 Chilean earthquake would the tsunami have reached Hawaii?

🔘 14 ⚪️ 6.5 ⚪️ 12 ⚪️ 5

Twenty-thousand years ago during the last Ice Age, continental glaciers were about three times larger than they are today. This resulted in a sea level that was about ______ than today.

🔘 140 m lower ⚪️ 140 m higher ⚪️ 70 m higher ⚪️ 210 m lower

The most recent eruption in the Long Valley-Mono Lake region occurred about ______ years ago.

🔘 150 ⚪️ 600 ⚪️ 20,000 ⚪️ 760,000

The ______ earthquake produced no surface faulting, suggesting fault movement occurred below 20 km in depth.

🔘 1886 Charleston ⚪️ 1811 New Madrid ⚪️ 1872 Owens Valley ⚪️ 1906 San Francisco

In the past 3.2 billion years, Earth had about ______ major impacts (i.e., impacts leaving craters greater than 25 km in diameter).

🔘 2,400 ⚪️ 24,000 ⚪️ 2.4 million ⚪️ 240

The Torino scale is used to assess the hazards of comet and asteroid impacts; the scale ranges from 0-10 and has ______ categories ranging from no threat to a collision causing a global catastrophe.

🔘 5 ⚪️ 3 ⚪️ 2 ⚪️ 10

As Earth's atmosphere changed, multicellular life appeared about ______ years ago.

🔘 635 million ⚪️ 542 million ⚪️ 1 billion ⚪️ 4.5 billion

There are at least ______ active volcanoes in the United States, and it is up to the Volcano Hazards Program to monitor them for signs of potential eruptions and alert the public when volcanic activity changes.

🔘 65 ⚪️ 100 ⚪️ 15 ⚪️ 25

If all of Greenland's ice sheet were to melt, sea level would rise by ______.

🔘 7 meters (23 feet) ⚪️ 1.5 meters (5 feet) ⚪️ 35 meters (115 feet) ⚪️ 90 meters (295 feet)

An asteroid about 10 km in diameter struck Earth near the modern-day Yucatan Peninsula with a velocity of about 21 km/sec, creating the ______ crater.

🔘 Chicxulub ⚪️ Barringer ⚪️ Chesapeake Bay

How can cities create their own regional thunderstorms?

🔘 City structures absorb sunlight and radiated heat, warming the air and starting the updraft needed to generate a thunderstorm. ⚪️ City pools and rooftop gardens provide the moisture needed that would not otherwise be there to power a thunderstorm. ⚪️ The ozone produced from car exhaust is pulled up into the ozone layer, creating a updraft of air behind it.

Why is it a bad idea to construct homes on top of sea cliffs?

🔘 Cliffs are constantly eroding due to wave action. ⚪️ Cliffs funnel waves upward, which can lead to flooding. ⚪️ Construction of homes leads to greater sediment deposition at the shore.

Why does subsidence occur on river deltas?

🔘 Compaction of sediments due to the weight of newly deposited sediment ⚪️ Erosion by the meandering river channel ⚪️ Drying out of sediments when the river changes course ⚪️ Frequent flooding events that saturate the delta sediments

The earthquake that generated the 2004 Indian Ocean occurred due to subduction of the _______ plate.

🔘 Indo-Australian ⚪️ Indian ⚪️ Philippine ⚪️ Pacific

How did the population of Heimaey, Iceland, take advantage of the lava flows that nearly destroyed their harbor?

🔘 Installed pipes to pump water through the slowly cooling lava, creating their own thermal heating system ⚪️ Mined the crystallizing magma and exported the raw material for profit ⚪️ Turned the unusual lava formations into a major tourist attraction

Where are we currently situated in the return period of catastrophic eruptions of the Yellowstone caldera?

🔘 It appears to be overdue. ⚪️ We are right at the time when it should erupt. ⚪️ We have another 200,000 years before another eruption should occur.

Which of the following statements best describes the relationship between glacier size and sea level?

🔘 The bigger the glaciers, the lower the sea level. ⚪️ The bigger the glaciers, the higher the sea level. ⚪️ When glaciers are large, sea level is relatively stable; when glaciers are small, sea level change occurs rapidly.

Foreshocks can only be labeled as such ______.

🔘 after a larger earthquake (mainshock) succeeds them ⚪️ if their magnitude is less than 5.0M ⚪️ if they prove to be useful in forecasting when the mainshock will occur ⚪️ when they occur along a different portion of the fault than the mainshock

Most mass-movement fatalities are caused by events that ________.

🔘 are fast moving ⚪️ have the largest volume ⚪️ have the longest duration ⚪️ have the highest water content

It is important to recognize that _______ are a natural defense system, protecting the coast from wave erosion.

🔘 beaches ⚪️ tides ⚪️ cliffs ⚪️ seawalls

Sand is mined from beaches and valleys because it is an important ingredient for ______, which is used to build dams, homes, roads, and office buildings.

🔘 concrete ⚪️ steel ⚪️ tarmac ⚪️ brick

Because water can respond quickly to changes in air temperature and pressure by changing its state (liquid, gas, solid), it is considered to be a _______ greenhouse gas.

🔘 condensing ⚪️ warming ⚪️ minor ⚪️ compressible

Heat can by transferred by air flow through the process of ______.

🔘 convection ⚪️ diffusion ⚪️ radiation ⚪️ conduction

Rising sea levels may not affect the people living on the atoll islands of the Maldives because _____.

🔘 coral reefs can grow and rise at the same rate as the sea level ⚪️ most of the islands are at least 80 ft above sea level ⚪️ the population centers are far from the coast ⚪️ sea levels in the Indian Ocean are actually falling

A volcanic eruption, landslide, or ______ may have been responsible for the release of lethal amounts of carbon dioxide gas from Lake Nyos.

🔘 earthquake ⚪️ heavy rainfall ⚪️ drought ⚪️ nearby road construction

One of the most significant biological impacts of the end-Cretaceous extinction was ______.

🔘 eliminating dinosaurs and allowing mammals (and eventually humans) to dominate terrestrial environments ⚪️ promoting a shift to more mobile marine organisms ⚪️ making angiosperms extinct, allowing for the evolution of flowering plants in the early Tertiary ⚪️ permanently eliminating reef-building organisms

In the accompanying diagram of animal diversity over time, the large drop in diversity at arrow C represents the ______.

🔘 end-Permian extinction ⚪️ end-Cretaceous extinction ⚪️ late Quaternary extinction ⚪️ end-Ordovician extinction

Over 60% of Presidential Disaster Declarations are made in response to ______ disasters.

🔘 flood ⚪️ earthquake ⚪️ tornado ⚪️ hurricane

Earthquake magnitude is strongly influenced by the ________.

🔘 length of fault rupture ⚪️ types of rock at the surface ⚪️ population density close to the epicenter ⚪️ duration of shaking

Following the 1972 Rapid City flood, _______.

🔘 the floodplain was declared a floodway and rebuilding was not allowed ⚪️ homes and businesses were quickly rebuilt, setting the stage for a future disaster ⚪️ the dams upstream from Rapid City were demolished, allowing the Rapid River to return to its natural state ⚪️ the entire city was relocated to a part of the valley less susceptible to flooding

One of the most dangerous phases of a volcanic eruption occurs when ______.

🔘 less energy is fed into the eruption column, causing it to collapse and sending pyroclastic flows down the flanks of the volcano ⚪️ a pause occurs between the cessation of lava flows and the release of an eruption column, since it gives humans a false sense of security ⚪️ lava flows are generated randomly and without warning for weeks following the primary eruptive sequence

Around 1700 destructive wildfires occurred in Florida in May 1998. They were mostly sparked by ______, following an intense ______.

🔘 lightning; drought ⚪️ arson; recession ⚪️ campfires; drought ⚪️ lightning; storm

Water allows the temperature range on Earth to be ______ by absorbing, transporting, and releasing heat as it circulates through convection.

🔘 limited ⚪️ extreme

Meteoroids and short-period comets called ______ pass close to or within Earth's orbit and make up about 90% of potential future impactors.

🔘 near-Earth objects (NEOs) ⚪️ future impact objects (FIOs) ⚪️ hazardous impact objects (HIOs) ⚪️ close-Earth objects (CEOs)

This map shows that _______.

🔘 nearly the entire U.S. coastline is losing beach sand ⚪️ the east and west coasts are losing sand, but the north and south coasts are stable ⚪️ coastal erosion is most extreme along the west coast ⚪️ sand is accumulating at a higher rate than it is eroding along the northeast coastline

Compared to other regions, the extinction of nearly all of Australia's large-bodied animals ______.

🔘 occurred tens of thousand of years before other regional extinctions and coincided with the arrival of humans ⚪️ does not coincide with the arrival of humans ⚪️ occurred fairly recently, during the arrival of the British in the 18th century

Continental flood basalts form on land from the release of immense volumes of basaltic lava. When the same thing happens in the oceans, it forms ______.

🔘 oceanic plateaus ⚪️ midocean ridges ⚪️ volcanic island arcs ⚪️ oceanic trenches

An analysis of earthquake probabilities suggests that it is most likely that the next major California earthquake will occur ______.

🔘 on the southern San Andreas fault ⚪️ along the Sierra Nevada fault ⚪️ along the Hayward fault zone near San Francisco ⚪️ offshore, along a contact between the North American and Cocos plates

The majority of earthquake hazards in the United States are connected to _____.

🔘 ongoing subduction along the west coast of North America ⚪️ reactivation of ancient faults along rift zones ⚪️ human activities such as fluid injection and dam construction

Volcanism not associated with plate boundaries typically occurs _______.

🔘 over mantle hot spots ⚪️ at oceanic spreading centers ⚪️ at continental collision zones ⚪️ within continental rifts

If a jetty is built to protect a harbor, it can interfere with longshore drift. On the up-drift side of the jetty, _______, whereas on the down-drift side, ______.

🔘 sand will build up; the beach will erode ⚪️ rip currents will form; longshore drift will cease ⚪️ coastal erosion will increase; wave refraction will decrease ⚪️ coastal straightening will occur; new headlands will form

Carbon dioxide became trapped in Lake Nyos because the lake is ______.

🔘 stratified into layers ⚪️ too warm ⚪️ too cold ⚪️ rich in dissolve minerals

Comets are nicknamed "dirty snowballs" because ______.

🔘 they are composed of a mixture of ice and rocky debris ⚪️ they are rocky, metallic objects that originate from the coldest area of the Solar System ⚪️ their orbits make it appear that they are tossed at the Sun from deep space

The primary human activity that adds nitrous oxide to the atmosphere is the ______.

🔘 use of chemical fertilizers ⚪️ burning of wood ⚪️ combustion of fossil fuels ⚪️ the raising of livestock

Partial melting of rock in subduction zones is aided by the addition of ______, which is (are) released by sediments on top of the subducting plate.

🔘 water ⚪️ carbon dioxide ⚪️ quartz mineral grains

Slow subsidence of the land surface occurs when _______.

🔘 water or oil are pumped from below the ground ⚪️ subterranean caves collapse ⚪️ sand and gravel accumulate in a basin ⚪️ an earthquake liquifies saturated sediments

Most waves approach the shore at an angle. However, they bend to be nearly parallel to the shore as they approach it. This process is called _________.

🔘 wave refraction ⚪️ longshore current ⚪️ surf alignment ⚪️ parallelism

Poor design and construction material choices such as _______ lead to many houses burning in a wildfire.

🔘 wood ⚪️ clay ⚪️ stone ⚪️ tile

Ultimately, the growing bulge on the side of Mount St. Helens failed because ______.

🔘 the weak rock was unable to overcome the effects of gravity ⚪️ the eruption had already begun, blasting the bulge to pieces in the process ⚪️ an earthquake shook the bulge apart ⚪️ the sticky silica-rich magma that held it together began to become more fluid as water was injected into the mix

Hurricanes are at their most deadly when ______.

🔘 there is little advance warning of them, as was common in the early 1900s and before ⚪️ they produce very little rain ⚪️ two or more hurricanes combine to produce a super hurricane ⚪️ they make landfall during a neap tide

The continents make up approximately _____ of Earth's total volume.

⚪️ 20% ⚪️ 10% ⚪️ 1% 🔘 0.1%

A magnitude 7 earthquake has an amplitude ______ times greater than a magnitude 4 earthquake.

⚪️ 30 🔘 1,000 ⚪️ 300 ⚪️ 10,000

The acceleration due to gravity is ______, which is referred to as 1.0 g.

⚪️ 32 m/sec2 🔘 9.8 m/sec2 ⚪️ 1.5 m/sec2 ⚪️ 196 m/sec2

Much of the present ocean floor was created during the last ____ million years.

⚪️ 5 ⚪️ 15 ⚪️ 35 🔘 65

What is the rate in change of velocity of seismic waves?

🔘 Acceleration ⚪️ Frequency ⚪️ Period ⚪️ Density

Which of these factors are believed to have contributed to global cooling since the end of the Late Paleocene Torrid Age? (Select all that apply.)

✅ The breakup of Pangea and subsequent movement of the continents ✅ Uplift of the Himalaya Mountains ⬜️ Continental masses near the equator ✅ Increased albedo as snow and ice accumulated at the poles ⬜️ Increased area of shallow waters

______ is the name of the single supercontinent proposed by Wegener in his continental drift hypothesis.

⚪️ Gondwanaland ⚪️ Rodinia ⚪️ Laurasia 🔘 Pangaea

The eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines, shown in this image, is an example of a _______ eruption.

⚪️ Hawaiian ⚪️ Strombolian ⚪️ Vulcanian 🔘 Plinian

Which of these climate mitigation methods is not related to controlling the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere?

⚪️ Cap-and-trade ⚪️ Alternative energy sources ⚪️ Air scrubbing 🔘 Cloud brightening ⚪️ Rock weathering

This landslide was driven by which source of energy?

⚪️ Internal heat ⚪️ External heat 🔘 Gravity ⚪️ Impact

What happens to the people who ignore warnings to evacuate from the projected path of a hurricane?

⚪️ No deaths have been recorded among those ignoring hurricane warnings. 🔘 Sometimes they die in the storm. ⚪️ They always die.

If a feature truncated by a strike-slip fault is displaced to the right on the other side of the fault, what type of fault is it?

⚪️ Normal dip-slip ⚪️ Left-lateral strike-slip 🔘 Right-lateral strike-slip ⚪️ Reverse dip-slip

Tsunami often arrive as a series of several waves. Which is usually the largest?

⚪️ The first ⚪️ The second ⚪️ The fifth 🔘 There is no way of predicting which will be the largest wave. ⚪️ The first or the third, rarely the second

Which side of the Arabian plate has a slide-past motion with its neighboring plate that is causing deadly earthquakes?

⚪️ The northern side ⚪️ The southern side ⚪️ The eastern side 🔘 The western side

The eruption and subsequent collapse of _______ in 1883 created a 275 meter deep depression in the seafloor.

⚪️ Toba ⚪️ Kilauea 🔘 Krakatau ⚪️ Santorini

Stories of ancient floods such as the Gilgamesh Epic and the flood described in Genesis represent ________.

⚪️ a major flood that inundated large parts of the globe thousands of years ago 🔘 large floods on major floodplains that would have seemed to submerge the whole world of the people living there ⚪️ the fears of people living along rivers that one day, the whole world will flood

Volcanism associated with the Yellowstone caldera is due to its location ________.

⚪️ above a spreading center 🔘 above a hot spot ⚪️ at a subduction zone ⚪️ near the center of the continent

Transform faults are fractures that form in order to _________.

⚪️ allow slabs of lithosphere to subduct at convergent plate boundaries 🔘 allow spreading centers to wrap around the curved surface of Earth ⚪️ create a spreading center by allowing magma to erupt onto the seafloor ⚪️ relieve the pressure caused by upwelling mantle plumes

Most earthquakes occur ________.

⚪️ along the edges of the continents ⚪️ in the ocean basins 🔘 at plate boundaries ⚪️ in the continental interiors

Decompression melting requires ________.

⚪️ an increase in temperature 🔘 a decrease in pressure ⚪️ both a decrease in pressure and an increase in temperature ⚪️ the addition of water

Since water has a higher heat capacity than land, the oceans ______ than the land.

⚪️ heat and cool more quickly 🔘 heat and cool more slowly ⚪️ heat more quickly but cool more slowly ⚪️ cool more quickly but warm more slowly

Most of the damage from Hurricane Sandy was caused directly by ______.

⚪️ high winds 🔘 storm surge ⚪️ lighting strikes ⚪️ tornadoes

An estimated 36,000 people were killed during the 1883 eruption of Krakatau by ______.

⚪️ hot pyroclastic flows 🔘 a tsunami ⚪️ volcanic ballistics ⚪️ ash fall

Using the S-P time from a single seismograph, it is possible to determine the ______ the epicenter.

⚪️ location of 🔘 distance from ⚪️ direction to ⚪️ distance from and direction to

Compared to continental rocks, some of which are more than 4 billion years old, the rocks of the ocean floor are _______.

⚪️ much older ⚪️ highly variable in age 🔘 extremely young ⚪️ about the same age

The locations where ruptures in Earth's crust occur as two sides move past each other in earthquake-generating events are called ______.

⚪️ plates 🔘 faults ⚪️ cuts ⚪️ gaps

Without a detailed working theory on the behavior of faults, it appears that we may never be able to determine ______.

⚪️ the exact hypocenter of earthquakes 🔘 a method of short-term earthquake prediction ⚪️ what triggers seismic activity

The deadly, explosive eruption of Kilauea in 1790 was caused by _______.

⚪️ the presence of high-silica, high-viscosity magma 🔘 the incorporation of water into basalt and heating of the groundwater ⚪️ an exceptionally large volume of magma ⚪️ the breaking apart of a lava cap that had blocked the vent, leading to a pressure buildup

Which of the following statements accurately explain a part of the hydrologic cycle? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Evaporated water rises due to its lower density. ⬜️ Air warms as it rises, allowing rains to form. ✅ Gravity pulls water on the ground back into the ocean. ⬜️ The Sun's energy drives the condensation of water vapor in the atmosphere.

Which of the following are known to strongly influence the path of hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Existing high- and low-pressure systems they encounter ✅ The trade winds ⬜️ Solar flares and geomagnetic storms ✅ The changing strength of the Coriolis effect with latitude ⬜️ Tides

What problems are known to be caused by heat waves in Europe and Asia? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Fires caused as vegetation dies and dries out ✅ Heat-related deaths ⬜️ Increased earthquake activity as permafrost thaws ✅ Worsening air pollution

Which of the following are common triggers for mass movements? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Heavy rain ✅ Earthquakes ✅ Construction projects ⬜️ Weak materials ⬜️ Steep slopes

Which of the following describe the 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajokull? (Choose all that apply.)

✅ It stopped European air travel for 6 days. ✅ The eruption style changed when glacial meltwater poured into the magma chamber. ⬜️ It was a fissure eruption. ⬜️ The associated lava flow was the longest in recorded history.

Which of the following statements explain why rhyolite is typically a high-viscosity magma? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Rhyolitic magmas have lower temperatures. ⬜️ Rhyolitic magmas typically have high volatile contents. ⬜️ Rhyolitic magmas have high densities. ✅ Rhyolitic magmas have higher SiO2 contents. ⬜️ Rhyolitic magmas generally contain very few crystals.

What two types of cliff armoring are shown in this image? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Riprap ✅ Seawall ⬜️ Breakwater ⬜️ Groins ⬜️ Jetty

Select all the conditions listed below that are ideal for hurricane formation.

✅ Seawater should be at least 27°C (80°F) in the upper 60 m (200 ft) of the ocean. ✅ Air must be warm, humid, and unstable enough to sustain convection. ⬜️ Wave height on the ocean should be below 1.1 m (3.6 ft). ⬜️ The storm forms within 250 km (155 mi) of the equator. ✅ Upper-level winds are weak and blowing in the same direction as the storm.

What lines of evidence support the hypothesis that a large earthquake struck Seattle about 1,100 years ago? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Six major rock avalanches in the Olympic Mountains are dated to this period. ✅ Coarse sediment layers at the bottom of Lake Washington appear to have earthquake origins. ✅ The shoreline along Restoration Point shows significant uplift. ⬜️ Historical writings from that period of time refer to a "great shaking" that occurred. ⬜️ Large offsets observed in local stream beds have been radiocarbon dated to this time period.

Which of the following correctly describe conditions during the Late Paleocene Torrid Age? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Sluggish ocean circulation ✅ Warmer surface ocean temperatures ⬜️ Frequent large storms ✅ Wet and warm climate conditions ⬜️ Widespread drought

Why are the tropical cyclones that hit Bangladesh particularly deadly? (Select all that apply.)

✅ The country is low-lying, making flooding more likely. ✅ The country is densely populated. ⬜️ They tend to occur during the monsoon season, which compounds the problems. ⬜️ The lack of rivers slows the return of water from storm surge to the sea.

Which of these features of Earth are likely the result of widespread melting during Earth's early history? (Check all that apply.)

✅ The crust, which is made of low-density rocks ⬜️ The slight tilt to Earth's rotational axis ✅ Large oceans, formed by the release of volatiles ✅ A denser atmosphere, formed by the release of volatiles ⬜️ The Himalaya mountain range

Which of the following areas are prone to lake-effect snow? (Select all that apply.)

✅ The downwind southern shores of Lake Erie ⬜️ The upwind northern shores of Lake Superior ✅ The areas downwind of the Great Salt Lake, including the Wasatch Range ⬜️ The plains of Kansas and Nebraska

The 1964 earthquake in Alaska was very powerful (9.2Mw), yet the loss of human life was not as high as it could have been. What factors helped to limit the loss of life? (Select all that apply.)

✅ The tsunami struck when the tides were low. ⬜️ It struck at noon when most people were in downtown Anchorage where the buildings are stronger. ✅ Relatively few people lived in the area at that time of year. ⬜️ Heavy snow cover on the ground helped to dampen the rolling of the land as seismic waves passed. ✅ Above-average temperatures helped to prevent cold-related deaths as heating systems were being repaired.

How can volcanoes affect climate? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Throw ash into the stratosphere, which blocks sunlight ✅ Produce volcanic haze, which blocks sunlight ✅ Emit greenhouse gases, which leads to warming ⬜️ Produce pyroclastic flows, which decrease surface albedo ⬜️ Interfere with wind patterns, causing storms to move in different directions

Which of the following are being used to build a better picture of climate variation over the past 1,000 years? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Tree rings ✅ Historic records ✅ Glacial ice ⬜️ Record of atmospheric chemistry ⬜️ Ocean acidity

Which of the following are examples of tsunami hazard mitigation? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Tsunami warning systems ✅ Warning signs ✅ Hazard maps ⬜️ Removal of dense vegetation ⬜️ Coastal shelters

Which of the following are warning signs for hypothermia? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Uncontrollable shivering ✅ Slurred speech ⬜️ Joint pain ✅ Apparent exhaustion ✅ Incoherence ⬜️ Painful vomiting

Which of the following are believed to have combined to cause the Little Ice Age? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Volcanic eruptions in the late 1200s ✅ Change in North Atlantic Ocean circulation ⬜️ Increased sunspot activity ⬜️ Mountain building in Tibet

Which of these are the most common conditions for the formation of deadly rip currents in the Great Lakes? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Waves greater than 3 ft high ✅ Longer-period waves ✅ Winds blowing onshore ⬜️ Waves hitting the shore at an angle ⬜️ Large sets of small waves that hit in rapid succession

Which of the following are underlying causes of the Portuguese Bend earthflow? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Weak bentonitic clay layer ✅ Ocean wave erosion at the base of the slope ✅ The seaward tilt of the rock layers ⬜️ Heavy rain ⬜️ Construction of Crenshaw Boulevard

The Moon is "dead" means that the Moon has no ______. (Choose all that apply.)

✅ plate tectonics ✅ water ⬜️ impact craters ✅ life ⬜️ rocks

During the Lassen Peak eruption in 1915, ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ very viscous magma broke off in huge chunks as it couldn't flow over the crater rim ✅ massive lahars were formed as melting snow combined with rocky debris ✅ a pyroclastic flow formed when the north slope of the volcano split ⬜️ low-viscosity lava moved quickly downslope, devastating several nearby villages ⬜️ pyroclastic flows were observed moving across large bodies of open water

Flood control approaches in San Diego have changed with time. Examine this map of the lower San Diego River. Which segment is most likely to experience major flooding?

🔘 Central ⚪️ East ⚪️ West

_____ but infrequent movements along a locked section of a fault allow it to keep up with a creeping section of the fault.

🔘 Larger ⚪️ Smaller ⚪️ Faster ⚪️ Slower

Which of the following are positive steps to take when a tornado is approaching? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ Move from interior rooms to an exterior wall on the opposite side from the storm's approach. ✅ Leave a mobile home for a storm shelter. ⬜️ Seek cover under powerlines since the electromagnetic field they generate repeals tornadoes. ✅ Get under a heavy, sturdy piece of furniture and cover your head.

Shooting stars average about ______ diameter in size.

🔘 1 mm ⚪️ 0.001 mm ⚪️ 10 mm ⚪️ 1 m

What is a tectonic triple junction?

🔘 A point where three plate edges touch ⚪️ A tectonic plate that has all three types of boundaries along at least one of its sides ⚪️ A fault that is divided into three segments ⚪️ A plate boundary that produces normal, reverse, and thrust faulting

Approximately 2,200 people were killed in July 1998, when a tsunami struck Papua, New Guinea. What generated this tsunami?

🔘 A submarine landslide that was triggered by a magnitude 7.1 earthquake ⚪️ The collapse of the coast of Papua, New Guinea, following a particularly wet monsoon season ⚪️ The eruption of a volcano in nearby Indonesia, which sent pyroclastic flows into the Banda Sea ⚪️ A magnitude 9.1 earthquake off the coast of Sumatra, which lifted the seafloor by more than 6 meters

Why is it difficult to study the early history of the Earth?

🔘 Early Earth rocks are difficult to find due to plate tectonics. ⚪️ We can't date rocks that are older than 3 billion years old. ⚪️ The compositions of early-Earth rocks are so different from today's rocks, we cannot interpret them. ⚪️ There was no life on Earth; therefore, there is no fossil evidence of early-Earth conditions.

According to the map, in which of the urban areas located near Mount Shasta would one most likely be the safest to live during a future eruption?

🔘 Edgewood ⚪️ Weed ⚪️ Mount Shasta ⚪️ McCloud

What is latent heat?

🔘 Heat that is stored or released as water changes phase ⚪️ Heat that is lost to entropy as water changes phase ⚪️ Energy radiated by water in the nonvisible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum ⚪️ The form of heat most readily absorbed by water molecules

The volcano we call ______ went through a series of eruptions from 1914 to 1917, producing large plumes of ash, lahars, and pyroclastic flows that devastated a large but uninhabited area.

🔘 Lassen Peak ⚪️ Mount St. Helens ⚪️ Mount Shasta ⚪️ Tambora

Parks, farms, and nature reserves are ideal land uses for ______ to reduce the economic cost of recovery after hurricanes.

🔘 low ground ⚪️ high ground ⚪️ city centers ⚪️ city outskirts

What is the best step you can take to reduce your chance of being struck by lightning?

🔘 When you hear thunder, go indoors. ⚪️ Drink lots of water or other cool fluids if water is not available. ⚪️ Pick up pieces of wood, preferably without the bark on them. ⚪️ Hold empty batteries or other electric objects that can absorb a charge.

Very large rock falls, with volumes in excess of 1 million m3, can convert into ______ that travel far and are deadly.

🔘 debris flows ⚪️ slumps ⚪️ lateral spreading slides ⚪️ cascading falls

Most Icelandic eruptions occur when lava pours out of long fractures, in eruptions known as ______ eruptions.

🔘 fissure ⚪️ pyroclastic ⚪️ Plinian ⚪️ linear

The fishing port in the Icelandic town of Vestmannaeyjar is an example of ______.

🔘 how volcanic activity can sometimes benefit humans ⚪️ how quickly volcanic activity can eliminate human developments ⚪️ human engineering designed to withstand lava flows

Urbanization tends to ______ flood hazards.

🔘 increase ⚪️ decrease ⚪️ eliminate ⚪️ respond to

When water fills the pore spaces in soil and sedimentary rocks, ________, which can destabilize a slope.

🔘 the weight of the material is increased dramatically ⚪️ the material becomes a loose slurry ⚪️ it deposits minerals ⚪️ the roots of plants rot away

The amount of energy released by a magnitude 5 earthquake is ______ times that released by a magnitude 4 earthquake.

⚪️ 10 🔘 48 ⚪️ 162 ⚪️ 3,800

What is a seiche?

⚪️ An earthquake event that generates seismic waves 🔘 An wave that sloshes back and forth within an enclosed body of water ⚪️ A tsunami caused by a rockfall or submarine landslide ⚪️ A layer of marine debris deposited on land by a tsunami

Which statement below accurately reflects the role of convection in heat transfer in the atmosphere and oceans?

⚪️ Convection plays a minor role in the transfer of heat. ⚪️ Convection is the only method by which heat is transferred. 🔘 Convection plays an important role in the transfer of heat. ⚪️ Convection transports large qualities of heat during the fall and spring but very little in the summer and winter.

What kind of fault is shown here (marked with a blue arrow)?

⚪️ Right-lateral strike-slip ⚪️ Normal dip-slip ⚪️ Reverse dip-slip 🔘 Transform

______ forms when falling rain refreezes in the atmosphere, and ______ forms when falling rain freezes on contact with the ground.

⚪️ Snow; sleet 🔘 Sleet; freezing rain ⚪️ Freezing rain; snow ⚪️ Snow; hail

Which of the following factors is usually the most important in determining whether a volcanic eruption will be peaceful or explosive?

⚪️ Volume of magma ⚪️ Density of magma 🔘 Water content of magma ⚪️ Depth of magma

This image shows a _______ eruption, which is distinguished by discrete explosive bursts that throw pyroclasts tens to hundreds of meters into the air.

⚪️ Vulcanian 🔘 Strombolian ⚪️ Plinian ⚪️ Hawaiian

What is atmospheric circulation like in the Polar cells?

⚪️ Warm surface air moving poleward rises at the poles and travels toward the equator until it cools enough to descend at 60° latitude. 🔘 High-altitude air descends at the poles, flows toward equator, and rises around 60°, where polar surface winds meet the westerlies and rise. ⚪️ Owing to the strong Coriolis effect, circulation in the polar cells runs east and west and is divided into two longitudinally divided cells. ⚪️ Low pressure is centered above the poles in summer, and high pressure is centered above the poles in winter.

Although there has not been a flood basalt eruption in historic time, we know that they can have a devastating global effect because ________.

⚪️ a flood basalt eruption occurred in Siberia at the same time as the collapse of the Roman Empire 🔘 two major flood basalt eruptions correlate in time with two mass extinctions ⚪️ ash deposits from a single flood basalt eruption can be found around the globe ⚪️ the beginning of the most recent ice age correlates with the most recent flood basalt eruption

A(n) ______ basalt lava flow, such as the one shown in this image, has a billowy or ropy surface.

⚪️ aa 🔘 pahoehoe ⚪️ pillow

Sedimentary rocks often have porosities of up to 30%. When the pore spaces are filled with _____, the downward force on the slope increases, which can lead to slope failure.

⚪️ air 🔘 water ⚪️ clay ⚪️ fine sand

Mount Mazama was a ______ that collapsed down into its magma chamber following a large eruption, thus forming Crater Lake, which is a ______.

⚪️ caldera; Plinian eruption ⚪️ shield volcano; crater 🔘 stratovolcano; caldera ⚪️ scoria cone; stratovolcano

When retrofitting bridges, builders add alternating layers of concrete and steel to vertical supports. The concrete provides _____ and the steel provides _____.

⚪️ strength; stability ⚪️ stability; flexibility ⚪️ mass; strength 🔘 strength; flexibility

The core, mantle, and crust are layers of Earth that are distinguished from one another by their different ________.

⚪️ strengths 🔘 densities ⚪️ temperatures ⚪️ thicknesses

The great mountain ranges that extend more than 65,000 km across the ocean bottoms are formed at _________.

⚪️ subduction zones ⚪️ hot spots 🔘 spreading centers ⚪️ seamount chains

Heat waves across Europe and Asia are similar to those in the United States in that ______.

⚪️ they are caused by solar flares that occur during summer months 🔘 they are caused by a persistent atmospheric high-pressure system ⚪️ most deaths occur in the first few days of the heat wave ⚪️ they are caused by warm pools of ocean water arriving in nearby coastal regions

Hurricanes are given human names because ______.

⚪️ they arise from other hurricanes, just like children arise from parents 🔘 although they share many similarities, they each have their own individual characteristics ⚪️ they are named after the scientists who first identify them ⚪️ they are named after the people they have killed in the preceding years

Which of the following are hazards associated with thunderstorms? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Heavy rains ✅ Flash floods ⬜️ Earthquakes ✅ High-speed winds ✅ Lightning ⬜️ Rapid freezing

Which of the following contribute to making deadly heat waves? (Select all that apply.)

✅ High-pressure systems ⬜️ Low-pressure systems ✅ High minimum temperatures at night ✅ Humid conditions ⬜️ High winds

What evidence suggests that the Chicxulub structure is an impact crater? (Select all that apply.)

✅ It is composed of layers of shattered rock. ✅ It has a circular shape composed of a series of rings. ⬜️ A large, iron-metallic object is located just below the structure. ⬜️ The large size of the structure makes it unlikely to be the result of volcanic activity.

Which of these are features that form when an oceanic plate subducts beneath a continental plate? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Oceanic trench ⬜️ Volcanic island arc ✅ Volcanic continental arc ⬜️ Midocean ridge ⬜️ Hot-spot volcanism

Which of the following are transform plate boundary faults? (Select all that apply.)

✅ The San Andreas fault in California ✅ The Alpine fault of New Zealand ✅ The Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault in Haiti ⬜️ The Tokai fault of Japan

Which of the following characterize continental collision zones? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Thick crust ✅ Gigantic seismic zones ✅ Great earthquakes ⬜️ Thin crust ⬜️ Deep earthquakes

Which of the following provide geologic evidence for warmer climates in Earth's history? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Thick limestone layers ✅ Aluminum ores ✅ Abundant salt deposits ⬜️ Glacial striations ⬜️ Polar fossils near the equator

Sector collapses occur when ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ magma injection inflates a volcano ✅ water forcefully expands in a volcano due to contact with magma ✅ an earthquake occurs ⬜️ a magma chamber empties out during very violent eruptions

This stratigraphic column tells us that ______. (Choose all that apply,)

✅ reef builders have been affected by mass extinctions ✅ different creatures have dominated reef-building at different times ⬜️ the same creatures have dominated reef-building throughout geologic time ⬜️ reef-builders are continuously represented throughout geologic time

Channelization projects typically consist of ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ widening the channel ✅ deepening the channel ⬜️ reducing the channel gradient ✅ straightening the channel ⬜️ adding boulders to increase channel roughness

True or false: The greater the magnitude of an earthquake, the greater the intensity.

➕ True

True or false: Tsunami can be generated by earthquakes that do not produce significant shaking.

➕ True

True or false: A large earthquake along the San Andreas fault could very likely cause a part of California to fall off into the Pacific Ocean.

➖ False

Which of the following accurately describe the cross-sectional profile of a typical stream when the graph of the profile is vertically exaggerated? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ It is relatively bumpy while trending upward. ✅ It has a lower gradient near the mouth of the stream. ✅ It is steeper at or near the source of the stream. ⬜️ The base level is typically found in the middle of the profile.

Which of the following statements about the causes of oceanic circulation are true? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ Surface circulation in the oceans is driven mainly by the tides. ✅ Deep-water circulation is driven, in part, by the sinking of cold, dense saline water. ✅ Currents in the ocean are deflected from their course by Earth's rotation. ⬜️ Freshwater flowing off of continents sinks and drives deep-ocean circulation.

About ______ cubic kilometers of ash were released by Mount St. Helens, and a similar amount of material formed pyroclastic flows.

🔘 0.25 ⚪️ 0.01 ⚪️ 1 ⚪️ 0.1

Global sea level rose ______ in the 20th century, and it is likely to rise ______ more in the current century (the 21st).

🔘 1 ft; 2 ft ⚪️ 1 inch; 5 inches ⚪️ 10 ft; 5 ft ⚪️ 2 yards; 5 yards

To create a defensible space around a home, all dry grass and other fuels should be removed from at least ______ meters from around the house.

🔘 10 ⚪️ 1 ⚪️ 2 ⚪️ 5

The amount of measured deformation in southern California means that a magnitude 7 earthquake could occur as often as every ______ years.

🔘 10 ⚪️ 5 ⚪️ 15 ⚪️ 20

Ignoring California and Alaska, the 10 largest earthquakes in the United States occurred in ______ different states.

🔘 10 ⚪️ 9 ⚪️ 7 ⚪️ 4 ⚪️ 2

Air pressure is about ______ at sea level.

🔘 14.7 pounds per square inch ⚪️ 79.4 pounds per square inch ⚪️ 1,013 kilopascals ⚪️ 109.3 millibars

The earthquake with the largest moment magnitude calculated to date was the _______ earthquake.

🔘 1960 Chile ⚪️ 2011 Japan ⚪️ 1964 Alaska ⚪️ 2004 Sumatra

The 1883 tsunami caused by the eruption of Krakatua was the most deadly in history until the ______.

🔘 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami ⚪️ 2011 Japan tsunami ⚪️ 1964 Alaska tsunami ⚪️ 1960 Chile tsunami

In 1984, a group of scientists using an army of instruments predicted an earthquake for the Parkfield, California, area would take place by 1993. An earthquake actually occurred in ______.

🔘 2004, 16 years late ⚪️ 1993, as predicted ⚪️ 1993, but hundreds of miles south in Los Angeles ⚪️ 1994, only slightly late

This graph shows that carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased approximately ______ since 1960.

🔘 25% ⚪️ 5% ⚪️ 80% ⚪️ 50%

What makes 25-28 April 2011 so infamous in terms of tornadoes?

🔘 358 tornadoes were confirmed in the United States. ⚪️ No tornadoes occurred in Tornado Alley. ⚪️ The largest (width) tornado every recorded occurred in southern Illinois. ⚪️ Two large tornadoes damaged New York City.

Assessments of the New Madrid seismic zone suggest that a magnitude 7 or greater earthquake occurs here about once every ______ years.

🔘 500 ⚪️ 100 ⚪️ 5,000 ⚪️ 750

What is a strike-slip fault?

🔘 A fault where the slip is predominantly horizontal and parallel to the fault plane ⚪️ A fault where the hanging wall moves up relative to the footwall ⚪️ A fault where the slip is predominantly vertical and parallel to the fault plane ⚪️ A fault where movement occurs perpendicular to the fault plane

Why are powerful earthquakes projected to hit Mexico City in the near future?

🔘 A large seismic gap exits along a nearby subduction zone. ⚪️ Foreshocks are starting to occur more frequently. ⚪️ There are no more seismic gaps left to fill along the nearby faults. ⚪️ Large earthquakes hit the region every 48 to 50 years, and the last big one hit in 1966.

Why did the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) issue a volcanic hazard warning for Mammoth Lakes in 1982?

🔘 A series of earthquakes accompanied the rapid growth of the resurgent dome. ⚪️ Increased outgassing of carbon dioxide was observed at Mono Lake. ⚪️ Increased ground temperatures indicated that magma was migrating toward the surface. ⚪️ A new fissure opened in the Long Valley caldera and began spewing ash.

What is a rip current?

🔘 A strong, seaward flow of water that cuts through the surf zone ⚪️ A set of unusually large waves that hit a narrow zone of the beach ⚪️ A large, standing wave that moves up through a narrow inlet as the tide comes in ⚪️ A powerful flow of water from offshore toward the beach

Based upon current fault movements, California will ultimately collide with the state of ______, switching from sunny beaches to ski slopes.

🔘 Alaska ⚪️ Hawaii ⚪️ Oregon ⚪️ Washington

What factors led to the Great Midwestern Flood of 1993?

🔘 An extremely wet winter followed by wet spring and summer ⚪️ A very heavy summer storm system that lasted for 10 days ⚪️ Storm surge from a Hurricane Oswaldo ⚪️ The breaking of numerous ice dams that formed in northern Michigan during the winter

358 tornadoes were confirmed in 21 states in ______ in the largest tornado outbreak in history.

🔘 April 2011 ⚪️ January 2012 ⚪️ October 2005

Where do most of the subduction-zone earthquakes of today occur?

🔘 Around the rim of the Pacific Ocean and in the northeast Indian Ocean ⚪️ Around the rim of the Atlantic Ocean and in the eastern Mediterranean Ocean ⚪️ In the southern Indian Ocean and around the continent of Antarctica ⚪️ Along the west coast of Africa and the southern shores of the Arctic Ocean

What role do gas bubbles play in generating eruptions?

🔘 As gas bubble volume increases, it helps propel magma out of the volcano. ⚪️ Increasing the volume of gas bubbles increases the magma's viscosity, and thereby decreases the likelihood of an eruption. ⚪️ Gas bubbles do not play an important role in eruption of magma.

The most powerful earthquake ever measured occurred in ______ on 22 May 1960.

🔘 Chile ⚪️ Alaska ⚪️ Indonesia ⚪️ Hawaii

What is the cause of the tectonic stress that results in earthquakes in Turkey?

🔘 Due to the northward movement of the Arabian plate into Eurasia, Turkey is being rotated and moved westward in what is called escape tectonics. ⚪️ Turkey is being pushed under the Eurasian plate by the northward movement of the Arabian plate in what is known as continental subduction. ⚪️ Due to the impact of India with Asia, Turkey is being wrapped upward from east to west in what is known as rolling uplift. ⚪️ Turkey sits at the opening of a new rift zone between the rest of Asia to the east and Europe to the west.

Smaller, house-sized objects pass very close to Earth many times each day. However, these objects are not a threat to human civilization because ______.

🔘 Earth's atmosphere acts as a defense system, causing these objects to break up and explode before they become a threat on the ground ⚪️ these objects have been observed for years, and their calculated orbits ensure that they will not hit Earth for millions of years ⚪️ space agencies routinely intercept these objects and destroy them with powerful rockets

The concept of earthquake weather is flawed because, unlike weather patterns, earthquake energy is derived from ______.

🔘 Earth's internal energy ⚪️ solar radiation ⚪️ tidal forces

What happens to much of the excess heat received on Earth at low latitudes?

🔘 It is absorbed and redistributed by the oceans. ⚪️ It is absorbed and redistributed in the atmosphere. ⚪️ It is stored in the ocean. ⚪️ It is stored in the atmosphere.

______ is(are) the most common earthquake hazard that people encounter.

🔘 Objects falling on one's head ⚪️ Building collapse ⚪️ Ground subsidence ⚪️ Road hazards while driving

__________ occur because warm air over land rises and cooler air from over the ocean flows in to replace the risen air.

🔘 Sea breezes ⚪️ Land breezes ⚪️ Valley winds ⚪️ Slope winds

Consider two hypothetical islands, each 200 square kilometers in size. Each has the maximum number of species expected based upon their size. Due to tectonic activity, the two islands are brought together to form a single island 400 square kilometers in size. What will most likely happen to species abundance on this new, larger island?

🔘 Some species will go extinct because the single, larger island cannot support all of the species that the two isolated islands could. ⚪️ Species abundance will increase as animals are able to spread out across a wider geographic area. ⚪️ Species abundance will remain the same, but species diversity will increase due to competition between species.

Which type of plate boundary is associated with most killer tsunami?

🔘 Subduction zone ⚪️ Divergent ⚪️ Transform ⚪️ Continental collision zone

What physical change do meteoroids undergo when they pass through Earth's atmosphere?

🔘 The outer surface of the meteoroid melts due to frictional heating ⚪️ Organic volatiles are vaporized, reducing the meteoroid's mass ⚪️ Shocked quartz grains form due to the intense pressure associated with atmospheric entry

What set of conditions can lead to a deadly heat wave?

🔘 The presence of an upper-level ridge of high pressure sitting on top of a slow-moving, hot, humid air mass at the surface ⚪️ The presence of a powerful low-pressure system sitting on top of a thin but warm air mass near the surface ⚪️ A frontal system arrives that has a high air-pressure gradient and relatively dry, hot air.

Landslides into bays and lakes can generate huge tsunami of local extent. What is it about bays and lakes that allows the tsunami to be so large?

🔘 Their constricted topography ⚪️ Their shallow depth ⚪️ Their steeply sloped bottoms ⚪️ Numerous small islets that reflect waves

What is the most abundant volatile in magma?

🔘 Water ⚪️ Carbon dioxide ⚪️ Sulfur dioxide ⚪️ Methane

Why do beaches contain more sand during the summer?

🔘 Waves have shorter wavelengths and height. They push offshore sand up onto the shoreline. ⚪️ Snow melt during the summer increases stream runoff, which carried a lot of sediment out to the coast. ⚪️ Coastal communities import sand during the summer to encourage tourist visits. ⚪️ Sand is carried parallel to the shore. During the summer, ocean currents run from south to north, bringing sand to the Northern Hemisphere.

Why do rip currents form?

🔘 When too much water builds up near the shoreline during heavy surf conditions, rip currents funnel the water back offshore. ⚪️ When the water is shallow during low tide, rip currents help carry water from a river mouth out to sea. ⚪️ After a series of powerful winter storms, sediment is piled up offshore. Rip currents form so that water can flow past these sandbars. ⚪️ When waves hit the coast at an angle, water is pushed along parallel to the shoreline, creating a strong current.

Where are the deepest parts of the ocean found?

🔘 Where the seafloor is oldest ⚪️ Over the midocean ridges ⚪️ Where the seafloor is youngest ⚪️ In the center of the oceans

In what sequence does a tornado typically destroy a house?

🔘 Windows are broken, interior air pressure increases, lift removes the ceiling, and then outside walls followed by inside walls are blown over. ⚪️ The ceiling is blown off, the inside walls are picked up, windows are blown out, and then the outside walls are blown over. ⚪️ Outside air pressure causes an implosion of most walls and roof, followed by an outward rebound force that blows out the windows and remaining walls. ⚪️ The upwind walls are pushed into the interior walls, which in turn fall into the downwind walls in a domino-like effect.

The Oort cloud is ______.

🔘 a diffuse envelope of comets that orbit the Sun beyond the outer plants ⚪️ the collection of rocky masses that orbit the Sun between Mars and Jupiter ⚪️ a collection of asteroids and comets that orbit Earth

NASA was given congressional authorization to search for large near-Earth objects (NEOs) in response to ______.

🔘 a growing understanding of the threat of NEOs and the realization that we didn't know enough about them ⚪️ the 1998 impact of a kilometer-long meteorite that devastated northern Montana ⚪️ observations of the Shoemaker-Levy 9 impact on Jupiter

Global warming that occurred between 1920 and 1945 was mostly likely due to ______, whereas warming that has occurred since 1977 is probably due to _______.

🔘 a hotter sun and lack of volcanism; increases in greenhouse gases ⚪️ increases in greenhouse gases; orbital variations ⚪️ Milankovitch cycles; a lack of volcanism ⚪️ sea-ice retreat; a hotter sun

A(n) ______ basalt lava flow, such as the one shown in this image, has a rubbly and jagged surface.

🔘 aa ⚪️ pahoehoe ⚪️ rubbly ⚪️ plateau ⚪️ Hawaiian

Meteor Crater formed ______.

🔘 about 50,000 years ago by the impact of an iron-nickel meteorite ⚪️ in 1908, when a meteorite exploded above the ground ⚪️ when a meteorite impact generated a series of volcanic eruptions

The "mega-blister" that developed along the flank of Mount St. Helens in early April was the result of ______.

🔘 an increase in magma volume within the volcano ⚪️ increased outgassing of carbon dioxide ⚪️ increasing SiO2 content of magma ⚪️ a self-contained mini-eruption of lava within the brittle rock layers of the volcano

The radiocarbon clock (used to date prehistoric earthquakes) starts "ticking" when ______.

🔘 an organism dies ⚪️ an organism is born

Big earthquakes do not happen every year in the United States, but their cumulative financial effects are forecast using ______.

🔘 annualized earthquake losses ⚪️ ShakeMaps ⚪️ the Mercalli scale ⚪️ the Earth Damage Index (EDI)

The magnitude 9.1 earthquake that struck Indonesia on 26 December 2004 must have caused extensive damage. However, the extent of damage cannot be assessed because ______.

🔘 evidence of damage was washed away by the tsunami ⚪️ the location of the earthquake was very remote and few people lived there ⚪️ large parts of the island are covered in dense forest ⚪️ the island no longer exists

Fossils are ______.

🔘 evidence of once-living organisms ⚪️ inorganic structures found in certain sedimentary rocks ⚪️ a specific set of minerals that form in marine environments

Spreading centers usually start with three arms, but only two tend to spread apart. The third one that does not develop is called a __.

🔘 failed rift ⚪️ restrained rift ⚪️ inactive arm ⚪️ passive margin

Faults can be recognized in the field, even if the fault plane itself is not exposed, because ______.

🔘 faults offset rock units ⚪️ faults create small linear mountain chains ⚪️ earthquakes occur along faults ⚪️ faults generally lie in valley floors

The level of flooding in an area is measured in terms of ______.

🔘 flood stages ⚪️ benchmarks ⚪️ inundation markers ⚪️ flood alerts

The basalt flows that compose a shield volcano typically ______, which results in gentle slopes.

🔘 flow for a long distance, forming thin flows ⚪️ flow just a short distance, forming small mounds ⚪️ erupt explosively, forming spatter cones

As stronger winds cause waves to grow larger, the amount of energy lost to ______ increases as the wind moves over the ocean.

🔘 friction ⚪️ adiabatic warming ⚪️ evaporation ⚪️ the Coriolis effect

The oldest Earth material, dated at 4.37 billion years old, is a(n) ______.

🔘 grain of zircon from Australia ⚪️ granite outcrop in Greenland ⚪️ ancient soil layer discovered in Canada ⚪️ quartz crystal in a sandstone in central Asia

Glaciers commonly form ______, which can later fail and lead to devastating floods.

🔘 ice dams ⚪️ wide valleys ⚪️ fjords ⚪️ topographic lows

The 1908 Tunguska event resulted from a ______.

🔘 meteorite exploding about 8 km above the ground ⚪️ 8 km diameter meteorite impacting a desolate area of Siberia ⚪️ meteoroid skipping across Earth's upper atmosphere, creating a giant air blast

The _________ fires occur in shrublands that have shrubs with high natural oil content.

🔘 most intense ⚪️ slowest-moving ⚪️ mildest

The earthquake activity at Mount St. Helens prior to the eruption was the result of the ______.

🔘 movement of magma as it accumulated beneath the volcano's peak ⚪️ settling of magma as it moved downward toward the volcano's magma chamber ⚪️ release of gases through microscopic fractures in the volcanic rock ⚪️ collapse of the volcano's magma chamber

Oxygen is very important in the Earth's crust because it is abundant and unlike the other most abundant elements, it carries a _____ charge.

🔘 negative ⚪️ positive ⚪️ neutral

Despite the havoc caused by the 2001 Tacoma-Olympia earthquake, the damage could have been worse. It was minimized due to ______.

🔘 new building codes and structural changes that were established after the 1965 earthquake ⚪️ the unnatural mix of soft sediment and artificial fill that quickly attenuated earthquake shaking ⚪️ the location of the earthquake hypocenter within the Juan de Fuca plate, which "blocked" much of the energy from reaching the ground surface

Actions taken in response to flood hazards that do not involve altering the natural stream system are considered to be ________.

🔘 nonstructural responses ⚪️ structural responses ⚪️ government measures ⚪️ environmental measures

Southern California experiences many earthquakes because ______.

🔘 northward movement along the San Andreas fault creates many thrust faults ⚪️ it is located along an active rift ⚪️ the presence of soft sediments increases the likelihood of earthquake activity ⚪️ the large amount of human activity in the region places increased stress on Earth's crust

The high elevation channel bottom of the Mississippi River in New Orleans is due in part to the Army Corps of Engineers ______.

🔘 not allowing the river to change its course ⚪️ building up the river bottom over time ⚪️ dropping the relative sea level

The law of faunal succession states that ______.

🔘 old forms of life have died out and new forms have evolved to take their place ⚪️ rocks of the same age can be identified because they both contain similar fossil contents ⚪️ all species eventually go extinct ⚪️ similar fossil species are related to one another by a common ancestor

The poor conductive quality of rock has ______.

🔘 only allowed some of Earth's early heat to escape ⚪️ allowed most of Earth's internal heat to escape ⚪️ insulated Earth's internal heat from flowing toward the surface

As stress builds up over many years on a fault, _______ is stored in the rocks. This is released as seismic waves when the fault ruptures.

🔘 potential energy ⚪️ tension ⚪️ compression ⚪️ bending

The use of _________ in the area was one of the main reasons the 2003 Cedar Fire in San Diego was less damaging than it could have been and eventually controlled.

🔘 prescribed burns ⚪️ fire breaks ⚪️ air tankers ⚪️ smoke jumpers

Regional floods occur when ________.

🔘 prolonged, heavy rains result from widespread cyclonic systems ⚪️ dams fail suddenly, inundating a broad region ⚪️ downbursts from convective storms bring unusually heavy rain over a short period of time ⚪️ rainfall from regional storms is channeled down steep canyons in a wave of water

Long-length waves ______, whereas short-length wave ______.

🔘 pull sand offshore; push sand onshore ⚪️ push sand onshore; pull sand offshore

During the 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption, a ______ was generated by a direct blast traveling more than 150 m/sec and annihilating everything in its path.

🔘 pyroclastic flow ⚪️ lahar ⚪️ lava flow ⚪️ pyroclastic surge

The most dangerous volcanic processes are ______.

🔘 pyroclastic flows ⚪️ pyroclastic surges ⚪️ lahars ⚪️ lava flows

During the 1973 eruptions on the island of Heimaey, residents used ______ to build barriers that diverted lava flows away from their economically important fishing port.

🔘 pyroclastic material ⚪️ fresh lava ⚪️ beach sand ⚪️ fish

The Great Basin region is subject to many earthquakes because of ______.

🔘 regional extension in the Basin and Range province ⚪️ activity along the San Andreas fault ⚪️ compressional pressure generated by hot spot activity

A _____ is a type of mass wasting in which the descending mass remains relatively intact and moves along a well-defined surface.

🔘 slide ⚪️ flow ⚪️ fall ⚪️ creep

Although still debated, experts speculate that the 2008 Sichuan earthquake was triggered by ______ near the Longmenshan fault.

🔘 the creation of the Zipingpu Reservoir ⚪️ construction of multiple fluid injection wells ⚪️ underground nuclear testing

Extinction occurs when ______.

🔘 the population of a species drops so low that reproduction fails and the species dies out ⚪️ millions of organisms die within a geologically short period of time ⚪️ large comets or asteroids impact Earth, changing massive environment changes

The movement of molten iron inward to form Earth's core resulted in __________.

🔘 the release of gravitational energy, which converted to heat ⚪️ a cooling of the Earth, allowing the iron to solidify ⚪️ an increase in the volume and density of Earth ⚪️ the displacement of lighter elements, which amalgamated to form the Moon

When plate tectonic processes closed off the Mediterranean Sea from the Atlantic ocean during the Late Miocene, species went extinct because ______.

🔘 the salinity of the sea increased ⚪️ the salinity of the sea decreased ⚪️ the temperature of the sea increased ⚪️ the temperature of the sea decreased

Today, evidence of the 1958 Lituya Bay tsunami and its massive run-up can be seen in ______.

🔘 the slopes stripped of mature trees ⚪️ massive gouge marks in the rocks ⚪️ layers of coral and shells found high up on the shore ⚪️ piles of rock debris at the mouth of the bay

Overpressurized pore water in a pile of sediments can cause slope failure because ________.

🔘 the water will start to move upward, lifting the sediments with it ⚪️ pressurized water exerts a strong downward pull on the sediments ⚪️ it can generate an earthquake, which will trigger a landslide ⚪️ pressurized water will deposit minerals, further constricting it and increasing the pressure

Data collected from ocean sediments and ice cores suggest that during the most recent Ice Age, _________.

🔘 there were long periods of glacial advance followed by rapid retreats ⚪️ ice built up over millions of years to a glacial maximum and then retreated ⚪️ ice covered almost the entire surface of the planet, with just a few mountain peaks exposed above it ⚪️ there was rapid cycling of glacial advance and retreat on a timescale of hundreds of years

True or false: The number of costly weather events has stayed relatively the same from 1980 to 2017.

➖ False

True or false: The only real danger posed by winter storms is freezing to death.

➖ False

True or false: The vast size of our Solar System makes it almost impossible for a large, civilization-threating asteroid or comet to collide with Earth.

➖ False

True or false: Tsunami waves are just big wind waves.

➖ False

True or false: Volcanic outgassing occurs only with erupting volcanoes.

➖ False

True or false: Volcanoes produce just one type of seismic wave that can be used to forecast eruptions.

➖ False

Mount St. Helens, one of several large volcanoes in the Cascade Range, has experienced a major eruption every ______ years since about 500 B.C.

🔘 100 to 200 ⚪️ 1,000 ⚪️ 500 ⚪️ 10 to 50

Which type of seismic wave is the fastest?

🔘 Body wave ⚪️ Surface wave ⚪️ Love wave ⚪️ Acoustic wave

______ has(have) been suggested as a viable explanation for some mass extinctions, but no correlation to the fossil record has yet been demonstrated.

🔘 Bombardment of cosmic rays during periods when Earth's magnetic field is weakened ⚪️ The gravitational effects from a near-collision with a miniature black hole ⚪️ The delivery of extraterrestrial viruses from comet or asteroid impacts

If two tectonic plates converge and no subduction occurs, which of the following is true?

🔘 Both of the plates must be continental crust. ⚪️ Both of the plates must be oceanic crust. ⚪️ One plate is composed of oceanic crust, and one plate is composed of continental crust.

Seismic surveys at Vesuvius have shown that a magma body lies at a depth of ____ below the surface, suggesting a future eruption is probable.

⚪️ 1 km 🔘 8 km ⚪️ 20 km

Examine this graph. If the S-P time is approximately 4.5 minutes, how far from the epicenter are you?

⚪️ 1,000 km 🔘 3,000 km ⚪️ 5,000 km ⚪️ 7,000 km

Evidence suggests that changes in the greenhouse gas and aerosol contents of the atmosphere are responsible for _____ of observed global warming in the 20th century.

⚪️ 100% 🔘 90% ⚪️ 50% ⚪️ 10%

Assuming there are 5000 atoms, of a parent isotope, how many would remain after three half-lives?

⚪️ 12.5 ⚪️ 1,666 🔘 625 ⚪️ 1,200

The average density of the continental crust is _____ g/cm3.

⚪️ 16 ⚪️ 5.7 ⚪️ 3.3 🔘 2.7 ⚪️ 1.03

Fossil evidence suggests that modern humans evolved about ______ years ago in Africa.

⚪️ 2.5 million ⚪️ 6,000 ⚪️ 60,000 🔘 200,000

For an annual growth rate of 5%, what would be the number of years required to double to population?

⚪️ 35 ⚪️ 70 ⚪️ 2 🔘 14 ⚪️ 10

The oldest rocks on the ocean floors are approximately _______ years old.

⚪️ 4.5 billion 🔘 200 million ⚪️ 500 million ⚪️ 1.3 billion

Earth has existed as a coherent mass for ______.

⚪️ 4.57 billion years 🔘 4.54 billion years ⚪️ 4.37 billion years ⚪️ 4.05 billion years

At what approximate depth is magma generated below subduction zones?

⚪️ 5 km ⚪️ 50 km 🔘 100 km ⚪️ 1,000 km

If the temperature is 0oF and the wind speed is 50 mph, how long would it take to get frostbite?

⚪️ 5 minutes ⚪️ 10 minutes 🔘 30 minutes ⚪️ 50 minutes

Earth appears to have begun as an aggregating mass of particles and gases about ____ years ago.

⚪️ 5.4 billion ⚪️ 6.2 billion 🔘 4.6 billion ⚪️ 3.2 billion

How old is Earth?

⚪️ 600,000 years 🔘 4.5 billion years ⚪️ 65 million years

The ______ is a panel of scientists set up by the UN that objectively reviews studies on climate change.

🔘 IPCC ⚪️ EPA ⚪️ USGS ⚪️ WHO

Which of the following statements best describes how fossils are used to determine the ages of geologic material?

🔘 If the same fossil assemblages are found in two different rocks, it is assumed the rocks are the same age. ⚪️ Radiometric dating of fossils can determine the exact age of the rocks in which they are preserved. ⚪️ Fossil species go extinct at regular intervals, and one can add up the number of extinctions occurring between rock layers to estimate a rock's age.

What happens to the smallest of meteoroids as they pass through Earth's atmosphere?

🔘 They pass through. ⚪️ They melt. ⚪️ They clump together.

The vast majority of the asteroids in the asteroid belt have diameters between ______ and ______ kilometers.

⚪️ 500; 1,000 ⚪️ 100; 500 ⚪️ 30; 100 🔘 1; 30

According to the law of superposition, which of the layers marked in this image is the oldest?

⚪️ A ⚪️ B ⚪️ C 🔘 D

Which of these images shows a Vulcanian eruption?

⚪️ A ⚪️ B ⚪️ C 🔘 D ⚪️ E

Which of the following could cause the formation of derecho winds?

⚪️ A cyclone moves across lines of latitude so fast that the Coriolis effect bends the curving winds and makes them straight. 🔘 Hot, humid air drawn into a thunderstorm releases energy, causing air to flow down from the cloud mass. ⚪️ Geostropic winds blowing in opposite directions meet as two low-pressure systems collide. ⚪️ A high-pressure system overrides a low-pressure system and flattens it out, forcing the formation of strong straight-line winds.

What is a fault?

⚪️ A fracture in bedrock 🔘 A fracture in bedrock along which sliding has occurred ⚪️ A fracture in bedrock across which no shear displacement has occurred ⚪️ A planar feature that separates one rock type from another

Why does it often take weeks to determine the moment magnitude for great earthquakes?

⚪️ Because seismograms from at least 150 seismometers are required to accurately determine the amplitude of the seismic waves 🔘 Because the area of the rupture zone is defined by aftershocks, which continue for many weeks following a great earthquake ⚪️ Because the mathematics involved in determining the moment magntitude are incredibly complex and require massive computing capacity ⚪️ Because great earthquakes typically occur in remote locations where it is difficult to get to the site of fault rupture

How does a locked zone catch up with the movements in a creep zone of the same fault?

⚪️ By transitioning to a creep zone after a large fault does occur 🔘 By producing larger but less frequent movements ⚪️ By taking a more direct path than a creep zone does ⚪️ By slow but steady motion along the fault

Which statement below accurately describes the intensity of rainfall in central Texas?

⚪️ It almost exclusively receives low-intensity rainfall from the remains of storms that occurred in New Mexico or Colorado. 🔘 It receives some of the most intense precipitation over short time periods in the world. ⚪️ Central Texas receives what has been defined as a rainfall intensity of 1, the average rainfall intensity in a thunderstorm.

What kind of building design is best where the earth foundation is hard rock that transmits high-frequency vibrations?

⚪️ Taller and stiffer ⚪️ Shorter and more flexible ⚪️ Shorter and stiffer 🔘 Taller and more flexible

Why does the majority (75%) of the atmosphere lie within the bottom 10 km of it?

⚪️ The majority of the winds start high in the upper layers of the atmosphere and end in the lower layers. 🔘 Gravity pulls the atmosphere down, and the overlying weight of the atmosphere compresses air, making it progressively denser. ⚪️ Earth's rotation gradually spins the atmosphere downward toward the surface of Earth. ⚪️ Electrostatic attraction between Earth's surface and particles in the air pulls the particles downward.

Tall, conical volcanoes, such as the one shown here, are associated with what type of plate boundary?

⚪️ Transform ⚪️ Spreading center ⚪️ Hot spot 🔘 Subduction zone

Which of the following was not a factor in the global warming of the Late Paleocene Torrid Age?

⚪️ Volcanic eruptions ⚪️ Decreased snow and ice 🔘 Continental masses at the equator ⚪️ Changes in ocean circulation

Which of the following are true about inland flooding caused by hurricanes? (Select all that apply.)

✅ In the United States, inland flooding causes more deaths than storm surges. ⬜️ Inland flooding is only a major risk with category 3 hurricanes or above. ✅ Inland flooding from hurricanes is a hazard even in states without a coastline. ⬜️ Saltwater in the rains poisons drinking water for millions.

Major flooding of the Mississippi River occurred in 1927, 1973, and 1993. What weather conditions contributed to all three flood events? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Saturated ground from wet autumn and winter seasons ✅ A southward bend in the polar jet stream ✅ Repeated wet storms over a long period of time ⬜️ Rapid snowmelt during a warm spring that followed a very cold winter ⬜️ Extremely wet conditions in spring and summer following unusually dry conditions in the winter

At the end of the Cretaceous, an asteroid struck in shallow tropical water near the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. It likely affected short-term climate by ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ vaporizing limestone rock and increasing atmospheric CO2, leading to global-warming conditions ✅ releasing large amounts of dust and soot into the atmosphere, causing short-term cooling ⬜️ generating near-shore volcanic activity, leading to global-warming conditions ⬜️ vaporizing large amounts of water, leading to months-long rainfall

Which of the following would be typical for a hurricane in the North Atlantic-Caribbean-Gulf of Mexico region? (Select all apply.)

⬜️ The hurricane moves in an eastward direction before turning south and then to the west. ✅ It forms in the late summer. ⬜️ It forms in the early spring. ✅ It is large and lasts from 1 to 30 days. ⬜️ The hurricane has an eye diameter of 1000 km (621 miles) or greater.

Pyroclastic debris is classified as dust, ash, cinders, blocks, or bombs according to what feature?

🔘 Size ⚪️ Bubble content ⚪️ Composition ⚪️ Density

Earthquake pairs seem to occur within ______ in the San Francisco Bay region.

🔘 a few years ⚪️ a couple of minutes ⚪️ a few days

Georges Cuvier was the first to realize that plant and animal communities go extinct in geologically short periods of time. He came to this conclusion after observing that ______.

🔘 fossil species made abrupt appearances and disappearances in the rock record ⚪️ there were certain places in the rock record when large numbers of species went extinct at the same time ⚪️ the number of fossil species present in the rock record has gradually declined over time

Asteroid and comet impacts provide ______ energy sources for natural disasters on Earth.

🔘 external ⚪️ internal ⚪️ increasingly common ⚪️ only small

Advances in public health and medicine were some of the main reasons population ______ in the 18th century.

🔘 grew ⚪️ shrank ⚪️ stabilized

Over the past 500 years, the average number of deaths globally due to earthquakes has been ______ per hundred years.

⚪️ 100 ⚪️ 10,000 ⚪️ 100,000 🔘 1,000,000

_____ rocks are those that form when magma cools and crystallizes.

🔘 Igneous ⚪️ Sedimentary ⚪️ Metamorphic

Due to population growth, particularly in less-developed countries, it is estimated that million-death earthquakes are likely to occur once every _____ years.

⚪️ 5 ⚪️ 10 ⚪️ 50 🔘 100

How long would it take for all Earth's continents to erode to sea level if the interior of the Earth cooled completely?

⚪️ 500,000 years ⚪️ 6 million years 🔘 45 million years ⚪️ 300 million years

Which of the following statements about the concept of carrying capacity is incorrect?

⚪️ As food resources increase, so does population. ⚪️ As food resources decrease, the population dependent on that food decreases in size. 🔘 As human population increases, so do the food resources available. ⚪️ The size of a population is limited by the resources of the environment in which it lives.

What increased the carrying capacity of Irish land during the 1500s, leading to a rapid increase in population?

⚪️ Discovery of oil deposits in southwestern Ireland 🔘 Introduction of the potato ⚪️ Improved health care and public health ⚪️ Introduction of domesticated cattle

Which of the following astronomers introduced the most widely accepted hypothesis regarding the origin of the Solar System?

⚪️ Galileo Galilei in 1612 ⚪️ Johannes Kepler in 1609 ⚪️ Nicolaus Copernicus in 1542 🔘 Immanuel Kant in 1755

______ is the reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei collide and join to form a new type element.

⚪️ Sublimation 🔘 Nuclear fusion ⚪️ Nebulization ⚪️ Ionization

Weathering and erosion remove material from the continents and deposit it in the oceans. If it weren't for the _______, there would be no landmasses on Earth.

⚪️ great age of the Earth ⚪️ very slow rate of these processes 🔘 processes of construction ⚪️ small amounts of solar energy

Another term for return period is _______.

⚪️ hazard mitigation ⚪️ risk factor 🔘 recurrence interval ⚪️ frequency number

On a yearly basis in the United States, the most likely high-fatality events are _____.

⚪️ hurricanes and floods ⚪️ floods and tornadoes 🔘 hurricanes and earthquakes ⚪️ floods and earthquakes

The four inner planets of the Solar System are mostly composed of ______.

⚪️ ice and dust 🔘 rocky material ⚪️ iron ⚪️ hydrogen and helium

Which of the following is the best explanation for why more great natural disasters are predicted to occur in the near future?

⚪️ There are more and more earthquakes and volcanic eruptions every year due to plate tectonics. ⚪️ The world economy is declining, and building standards are getting worse. 🔘 Population growth, particularly in areas vulnerable to natural disasters, means that fatalities will be high. ⚪️ Global climate change means that earthquakes will become more frequent and stronger in intensity.

Processes of destruction are those that ______.

⚪️ cause massive loss of life 🔘 erode the lands and dump debris into the oceans ⚪️ create new landmasses through volcanic activity

The deadliest natural disasters occur in the regions of the world where _____.

⚪️ earthquakes are most common ⚪️ slopes are steepest ⚪️ active volcanoes are located 🔘 population density is highest ⚪️ plate tectonics is most active

The Sun's energy comes from ________.

⚪️ its enormous mass ⚪️ intense volcanic activity 🔘 the fusion of hydrogen to form helium ⚪️ turbulence in its magnetic field

An example of a pandemic is the ______, which affected Europe in the 14th century.

⚪️ smallpox virus ⚪️ influenza virus ⚪️ yellow fever 🔘 bubonic plague

Social science research has shown that, in general, people respond to natural disasters in which of the following ways? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Greater levels of sympathy and empathy ✅ Greater participation in humanitarian efforts ⬜️ Greater degree of inward-directed concerns such as self and family ✅ Greater levels of connectedness and cohesion ⬜️ Less tolerance for the needs of others

Over short time spans, Earth's internal energy is released as _____. (Select all that apply.)

✅ volcanic eruptions ⬜️ fires ⬜️ landslides ✅ earthquakes ⬜️ hurricanes

Examine this figure. Which of the following statements is not true?

⚪️ Population growth is not evenly distributed around the world. 🔘 Western Europe, Japan, and North America have moderately high rates of population growth. ⚪️ Population growth is generally higher in poor nations than in wealthy nations. ⚪️ Population growth in sub-Saharan Africa has been increasing.

Between 1845 and 1852, the population of Ireland decreased by approximately 20%. What factors led to this drastic decline? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ War between Ireland and England ✅ Starvation and disease due to potato crop failures ✅ Mass emigration to North America ⬜️ The influenza pandemic of 1845-1847 ⬜️ A drastic drop in fertility rates due to government restrictions on marriage

What is the most current hypothesis for how the Moon was formed?

🔘 Impact of the young Earth by a Mars-sized object ⚪️ Capture of a planetesimal by Earth's gravity ⚪️ Splitting of Earth during its early formation

What is the natural consequence of more people moving to coastal communities in the future?

🔘 More people will die from tsunamis, hurricanes, and floods. ⚪️ More funding will be dedicated to preventing tsunamis, hurricanes, and floods. ⚪️ Enormous walls will be built that block any possible tsunami, hurricane, or flood.

How will population growth affect the frequency of earthquakes that result in more than 1 million deaths?

🔘 We may experience them as often as once per century: five times as frequent as now. ⚪️ We may experience them often as once per millennium: 20 times as frequency as now. ⚪️ Population growth will not affect the frequency.

Urbanization and increasing opportunities for women are the two likely causes for the ______.

🔘 dropping world population growth rates ⚪️ increasing world population growth rates ⚪️ rise in fertility in less-developed countries

_____ is formed as air masses move horizontally in response to differences in air pressure.

🔘 Wind ⚪️ Climate ⚪️ Precipitation ⚪️ Energy

Which of the following best describes the appearance of the surface of a pahoehoe basalt flow?

⚪️ Rough and blocky ⚪️ Sandy 🔘 Smooth and ropy

Molten rock that erupts from a volcano is called ______.

⚪️ basalt 🔘 lava ⚪️ magma ⚪️ lahar

How did Hurricane Irene cause most of the deaths attributed to it?

⚪️ Storm surge 🔘 Wind blowing down trees and inland flooding ⚪️ Freezing due to power outages ⚪️ Tornadoes

What caused the 1989 "World Series" (Loma Prieta) earthquake?

⚪️ A short rupture in the San Andreas fault directly beneath Candlestick Park that lasted almost 2 minutes. 🔘 A long rupture within the San Andreas fault zone deep underground that lasted only 7 seconds. ⚪️ A horizontal movement at the southern portion of the San Andreas fault that moved areas west of the fault 2 meters farther to the west.

The large earthquake of 1700 that occurred offshore of the Pacific Northwest generated a large tsunami. How do we know this?

⚪️ Dead tree trunks still standing in tidal marshes 🔘 The remains of plants that were buried by sands deposited on land by the tsunami ⚪️ Scour marks on the rocks that make up the cliffs along the coastline ⚪️ The remains of coastal settlements that were destroyed by the tsunami

What drives melting at subduction zones?

⚪️ Decreased pressure due to upward convection of the mantle ⚪️ Increased temperature due to subduction of the slab into the mantle 🔘 Release of water into the mantle, lowering its melting temperature ⚪️ The presence of a hot spot, which increases the temperature

Which category of Enhanced Fujita (EF) scale tornado causes the most deaths?

⚪️ EF2 ⚪️ EF1 ⚪️ EF0 🔘 EF5 ⚪️ EF3

Why does liquefaction increase the damage caused by earthquakes?

⚪️ It increases the rigidity of the underlying ground. 🔘 It causes the sediment supporting buildings to behave like a fluid. ⚪️ It changes the period of the buildings above to match that of the earthquake. ⚪️ It causes ground tsunami to form that can travel for long distances while knocking over buildings along the way.

What kind of fault is shown here?

⚪️ Left-lateral strike-slip ⚪️ Reverse dip-slip ⚪️ Right-lateral strike-slip 🔘 Normal dip-slip

______ is a measure of the internal resistance of a fluid to flow.

⚪️ Temperature ⚪️ Density 🔘 Viscosity ⚪️ Permeability

How well did the seismic-gap forecasting method work in Chile?

⚪️ The method did not work at all as a gap was identified, but earthquakes have only occurred in other areas. 🔘 A big earthquake occurred within the identified seismic gap. ⚪️ An earthquake happened within the predicted 12-hour window but on the wrong fault. ⚪️ It was a moderate success in that magnitude of the earthquake was correctly predicted, but its location was off by 500 km (310 mi).

_____ are unstable elements that must kick out subatomic particles to attain stability.

⚪️ The noble gases ⚪️ Half-lives 🔘 Radioactive isotopes ⚪️ Nucleides

When trying to understand the frequency and intensity of hurricanes, it is best to ______.

⚪️ rely strictly on computer models of how hurricanes form ⚪️ focus solely on the hurricanes themselves 🔘 collect data and think not just about hurricanes but other processes as well ⚪️ study each basin prone to tropical cyclones (e.g., hurricanes) as isolated systems

The magma composition with the lowest viscosity is ______ because it is both the hottest and has the lowest silicate content.

⚪️ rhyolite ⚪️ andesite 🔘 basalt

When a tsunami comes onshore, it _______.

⚪️ rises into a wall of water that breaks with enormous force on the shoreline 🔘 rushes inland like a rising tide ⚪️ breaks up into many smaller (but still very large) wavelets ⚪️ comes in slowly, gradually speeding up as it travels farther inland

The frothy, glassy, volcanic rock shown here is called ______.

⚪️ scoria ⚪️ obsidian ⚪️ basalt 🔘 pumice

Earthquakes that occur along inclined planes adjacent to deep-ocean trenches are evidence for _______.

⚪️ seafloor spreading 🔘 subduction ⚪️ hot spots ⚪️ continental drift

Which of the following accurately characterize spreading center earthquakes? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Earthquakes can occur in swarms as magma migrates underground. ✅ Small and moderate-size earthquakes dominate. ⬜️ The earthquakes tend to produce S waves but not P waves. ⬜️ Large earthquakes occur as the rate of spreading increases.

Which of the following towns would be affected if the Osceola mudflow were to occur today at Mount Rainier? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Enumclaw ✅ Buckley ⬜️ Orting ⬜️ Tacoma ⬜️ Seattle

The largest earthquakes to occur outside of California and Alaska took place in two different states: ______ and _______.

✅ Hawaii ✅ Washington ⬜️ Utah ⬜️ Nevada ⬜️ Idaho

Why is New Orleans sinking relative to sea level? (Select all that apply.)

✅ It is built on delta sediments, and it is the nature of those deposits to compact and subside. ✅ Levees, built to protect the city, keep additional sediment out that would otherwise help to raise ground level. ✅ Global sea level is rising. ⬜️ Tectonic uplift in the Gulf of Mexico is sending water onshore.

Which of the following were consequences of the Little Ice Age? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Reduced crop yields and local famine ✅ Permanent snowfields in northeastern Canada ⬜️ Extinction of horses and camels in North America ✅ Reduced fishing in Iceland ⬜️ Ice sheets covering Scandinavia

Which of these are strategies for preventing mass movements? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Removal of material from the top of a slope ⬜️ Removal of material from the base of a slope ✅ Construction of retaining walls ✅ Addition of rock bolts ⬜️ Addition of irrigation systems

True or false: Rip currents don't just form in the oceans; they are common in lakes such as the Great Lakes of North America.

➕ True

Which of the following accurately describe atmospheric conditions in a supercell thunderstorm? (Select all that apply.)

✅ There is spiraling column of air rotating around a vertical updraft axis. ✅ They contain rotation known as a mesocyclone. ⬜️ Tornadoes commonly occur at their leading edges and hail in their trailing portions. ⬜️ Supercells develop over a smaller geographic area than air-mass thunderstorms.

The group of organisms known as archaea ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ are represented by the oldest known fossils in the rock record ✅ can live in extreme environments today but cannot survive in the presence of oxygen ⬜️ include mammals, birds, and fish ⬜️ are multicellular organisms ✅ derive energy from breaking down the chemical bonds between water, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen molecules

In eastern North America, large earthquakes ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ mostly occur at the sites of failed rifts ✅ lack significant recent faulting ✅ are associated with low-strain regions ⬜️ are the product of recent subduction along the east coast ⬜️ have unusually high strain rates

Lahars are produced by a combination of ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ water ✅ loose pyroclasts ✅ gravity ⬜️ silica-poor magma

Which of the following statements accurately compare the Fujita scale and Enhanced Fujita scale? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ Both scales use the same wind speeds for classification. ✅ Both scales rate tornadoes from 0 to 5. ✅ The Fujita scale requires the collection of fewer observations. ⬜️ Tornadoes can be rated on the Enhanced Fujita scale, unlike the Fujita scale, by radar observations alone.

Water is expelled from plants, wood, or fossil fuels during which phase of fire?

🔘 Preheating ⚪️ Flaming combustion ⚪️ Pyrolysis ⚪️ Glowing combustion

The lateral spreading of the plates away from the elevated midocean ridge is driven in part by ______.

🔘 gravitational pull ⚪️ solar energy ⚪️ centrifugal forces ⚪️ crustal expansion

Three of the most significant earthquakes to hit the Puget Sound area (in 1949, 1965, and 2001) originated ______.

🔘 near the subducting Juan de Fuca plate ⚪️ along the leading edge of the San Andreas fault ⚪️ with the upward movement of magma from deep within the lithosphere

One of the similarities between the influenza pandemics of 1918 and 2009 is _______.

⚪️ the high proportion of deaths from the elderly (65 years and older) ⚪️ the high proportion of deaths from infants (less than 1 year old) 🔘 the high proportion of deaths from the young (29 years and younger) ⚪️ the high proportion of deaths from the middle aged (30 to 65 years)

Which of the following are consequences of collisions of large objects during the formation of the Solar System? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Formation of even larger objects ✅ Loss of volatile elements to space ✅ Melting of rock ⬜️ Increase in the Sun's energy ⬜️ Formation of the solar nebula

Which of the following will likely increase with continued worldwide population growth? (Choose all that apply.)

✅ Global warming ✅ Pollution ✅ Natural disasters ⬜️ Fresh water sources ⬜️ Fossil fuel supplies

Which of the following are concerns about the human population explosion? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Increased frequency of mega-killer natural disasters ✅ Decreasing supplies of fresh water and food ⬜️ Decreased fertility rates ✅ Increased pollution ✅ Climate change ⬜️ Increased carrying capacity of the Earth

This volcanic eruption is driven by which source of energy?

⚪️ Gravity ⚪️ External heat ⚪️ Impacts 🔘 Internal heat

If a feature truncated by a strike-slip fault is displaced to the left on the other side of the fault, what type of fault is it?

⚪️ Reverse dip-slip ⚪️ Normal dip-slip ⚪️ Right-lateral strike-slip 🔘 Left-lateral strike-slip

What kind of volcano is shown here?

⚪️ Shield ⚪️ Scoria cone ⚪️ Stratovolcano 🔘 Caldera

Which of the following affect the timing and amplitude of tides. (Select all that apply.)

✅ Alignment of the Sun and the Moon ✅ Shape of the coastline ✅ Offshore topography ⬜️ Ocean currents ⬜️ Wind strength

The spread of fire depends upon which four factors? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Fuel type ✅ Weather conditions ✅ Topography ⬜️ Initial cause ✅ Fire behavior ⬜️ Glowing combustion

How do we know that the Yellowstone caldera is active? Choose all the evidence from the list below.

✅ The ground is deforming. ✅ There are lots of earthquakes. ✅ Heat flow is high. ⬜️ There is an actively opening fissure. ⬜️ A cinder cone is building in Yellowstone Lake.

True or false: Most mass extinctions can be attributed to a single cause or event.

➖ False

Aptly named, Earthquake Lake formed as a result of the ______ earthquake.

🔘 Hebgen Lake ⚪️ Denali ⚪️ Borah Peak ⚪️ New Madrid

About 100 million tons of rock were pulverized during the ______ event, generating about double the energy released by the Mount St. Helens eruption, when a meteorite impacted Arizona about 50,000 years ago.

🔘 Meteor Crater ⚪️ Sunset Crater ⚪️ Tunguska ⚪️ Chicxulub

______ are one deadly volcanic hazard that can be released by both erupting and nonerupting volcanoes.

🔘 Poison gases ⚪️ Pyroclastic flows ⚪️ Lava flows ⚪️ Pyroclastic surges

What hazard to swimmers is shown in this image?

🔘 Rip current ⚪️ Tidal bore ⚪️ Rogue wave ⚪️ Longshore drift

Which of the following best describes the structure of clay minerals?

🔘 Stacked parallel sheets ⚪️ Three-dimensional framework ⚪️ Parallel chains held together loosely by elements ⚪️ Porous, spongelike structure

During the last Ice Age, large swaths of land in the North Hemisphere were covered with a thick ice sheet. What has happened to the land since the removal of the ice?

🔘 The land is undergoing isostatic uplift. ⚪️ The land has not changed elevation since the glaciers receded. ⚪️ The land was compressed, became denser, and has been slowly sinking down.

Why does the ground surface of a slope move up and down?

🔘 The soil is constantly swelling and shrinking. ⚪️ Worms and burrowing animals displace the soil surface. ⚪️ Agricultural activities redistribute the soil. ⚪️ Mini-earthquakes are constantly shaking Earth's surface.

Which of the following building materials is both flexible and can handle the large accelerations of seismic waves?

🔘 Wood ⚪️ Concrete ⚪️ Steel

Outbursts from glacial meltwater lakes can change global climate by ________.

🔘 changing deep-ocean circulation patterns ⚪️ reducing the amount of water available for evaporation ⚪️ changing the albedo of the Earth's surface ⚪️ changing the topography of the Earth

Water can weaken a rock by ______ minerals that form the rock's cement.

🔘 dissolving ⚪️ depositing ⚪️ accumulating ⚪️ adsorbing

Fire __________ chaparral ecosystems.

🔘 recycles nutrients in ⚪️ destroys ⚪️ is extremely rare in

During the 2011 flood of the Mississippi River, the Morganza and Bonne Carre ______ were opened to divert water out of the river channel, thus protecting the cities of New Orleans and Baton Rouge.

🔘 spillways ⚪️ levees ⚪️ drain pipes ⚪️ tunnels

The cross-sectional profile of the river shown in the figure is ______.

🔘 typical of rivers all around the world ⚪️ unique compared to other rivers around the world ⚪️ similar to other rivers in the Mississippi River basin but different from other river systems in the United States

When designing roads, buildings, and bridges in a floodplain, engineers consider the statistical probability of a flood of a given size happening in a given year. A 50-year flood has a ____ probability of occurring in a given year.

⚪️ 50% ⚪️ 15% 🔘 2% ⚪️ 0.5%

Based upon his observation of the slow processes acting upon the Earth's surface, ________ proposed in 1788 that the Earth must be extremely old.

⚪️ Alfred Einstein 🔘 James Hutton ⚪️ Pliny the Elder ⚪️ Charles Darwin

The properties of magma vary in many ways that govern whether eruptions are peaceful or explosive. Which of these is not one of those?

⚪️ Chemical composition ⚪️ Gas content ⚪️ Ability to flow easily 🔘 Plate tectonic setting ⚪️ Volume

Which of the following storm systems has a mesocyclone?

⚪️ Single-cell thunderstorms 🔘 Super-cell thunderstorms ⚪️ Both single- and super-cell thunderstorms

Processes of _______ create and elevate landmasses.

⚪️ destruction ⚪️ erosion 🔘 construction ⚪️ deposition ⚪️ accumulation

This hospital is an example of a building with a ______. Collapse of buildings like this caused many deaths in the 1971 San Fernando Valley earthquake.

⚪️ low-frequency design 🔘 soft first story ⚪️ poor foundation ⚪️ lack of adequate exit points

In general, earthquake ______ decreases with distance from the epicenter.

⚪️ magnitude 🔘 intensity ⚪️ duration ⚪️ resonance

To study earthquakes, seismologists must record the movement of earthquake waves in ______ directions.

⚪️ two ⚪️ four 🔘 three ⚪️ ten

What are the main factors that cause a change in the density of water in the ocean? (Select all that apply.)

✅ A change in the amount of dissolved salts ✅ A change in temperature ⬜️ A change in the amount of dissolved oxygen ⬜️ A change in current direction ⬜️ A change in the amount of latent heat stored

Which of the following accurately describe anticyclones? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Dry conditions are common in them. ✅ Air descends and warms in the middle. ⬜️ The air flow is counterclockwise around them in the Northern Hemisphere. ⬜️ Surface winds blow in toward the center of an anticyclone.

Which of the following can cause flooding? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Heavy rain over a short period of time ✅ Heavy rain over a long period of time ✅ Failure of an ice dam ✅ Failure of levees ⬜️ Light rain in an arid region ⬜️ Widening of a river channel

True or false: Some tornadoes have central downdrafts that accompany the massive rotating updrafts.

➕ True

_________ brings an area of cool ocean water closer to the Americas, leading to drier-than-average weather in the southern United States.

🔘 La Niña ⚪️ El Niño ⚪️ Los Alamos ⚪️ Santa Ana winds

The cold interval that affected Europe from about 1300 to the mid-1800s (marked with the letter A in this diagram) is commonly referred to as the ______.

🔘 Little Ice Age ⚪️ Maunder Minimum ⚪️ Mid-Century Freeze ⚪️ Long Winter

Imagine that the Kelut Volcano experienced an eruption last year. Recent heavy rainfalls have mixed with pyroclasts to produce a series of devastating lahars. How would a geoscientist classify these lahars?

🔘 Secondary lahar ⚪️ Primary lahar ⚪️ Tertiary lahar ⚪️ Delayed lahar

Below are listed the three possible fates of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Which of these accounts for 50% of CO2?

🔘 Stays in the atmosphere ⚪️ Removed by plants ⚪️ Dissolved in ocean water

What principle do scientists use to determine the relative age of a rock unit by its particular fossil content?

🔘 The law of faunal assemblages ⚪️ The law of superposition ⚪️ The law of faunal succession ⚪️ The law of original horizontality

Why is tidal wave a poor name for tsunami?

🔘 Tsunami have nothing to do with the tides. ⚪️ Tsunami only occur in Japan, and so the Japanese term is more appropriate. ⚪️ Tsunami that are caused by the tides only occur once every hundred years. ⚪️ Tidal suggests that tsunami will flow out, and they only flow in toward land.

Which of these is an example of a giant continental caldera?

🔘 Yellowstone ⚪️ Santorini ⚪️ Krakatau ⚪️ Haleakala

The grooves in this rock, known as striations, are evidence for ancient _______.

🔘 glacial erosion ⚪️ global warming ⚪️ earthquakes ⚪️ coral reefs

Lassen Peak is a ______.

🔘 lava dome that formed from highly viscous magma ⚪️ shield volcano that formed from low-viscosity magma ⚪️ mid-ocean ridge formed at a spreading center ⚪️ volcanic island formed above a hot spot

Coral reefs and natural vegetation absorbs tsunami energy; our removing these features ______.

🔘 makes tsunami risk worse ⚪️ makes tsunami risk less ⚪️ does not affect tsunami risk

When a slump occurs, the head of the slide will typically _____.

🔘 move downward and rotate backward ⚪️ move downward parallel to the slope surface ⚪️ rotate forward, then drop vertically down ⚪️ disintegrate rapidly, generating earth flows

A recent study conducted for the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) estimates that ______% of the houses built within 150 m (500 ft) of the shoreline will fall in the water over the next 60 years if nothing is done to protect them.

⚪️ 5 🔘 25 ⚪️ 75 ⚪️ 99

Why was Wegener's hypothesis of continental drift not accepted by the scientific community?

⚪️ He did not provide evidence for movement of the continents. ⚪️ It had already been proposed by another geologist and disproved. 🔘 The mechanism he proposed was deemed physically impossible. ⚪️ Evidence that the continents had not moved was abundant.

Why do tornadoes often form in clusters or outbreaks?

⚪️ Tornadoes only seem to occur in clusters because a day with multiple tornadoes is more likely to make the national news. 🔘 The larger-scale atmospheric processes (i.e., storm fronts) that cause tornadoes to form occur over wide areas. ⚪️ The gravitational tidal forces that aid in the formation of tornadoes occur only a few days each month. ⚪️ Tornadoes provide positive feedbacks to frontal systems that increase the likelihood of tornado formation elsewhere.

When very high-viscosity lava piles up over a volcanic vent, it typically forms a ______.

⚪️ volcanic crater 🔘 lava dome ⚪️ cinder cone ⚪️ volcanic neck

Which of these processes are capable of producing the significant and long-lived increase in global temperatures of the 20th century? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Increases in greenhouse gases ✅ Changes in Earth's orbit ⬜️ Volcanic eruptions ⬜️ La Niña ⬜️ El Niño ⬜️ Plate tectonics

Building codes call for protecting the roof as the number one priority for safe buildings during hurricanes. Which of the ways listed below are thought to help with that goal? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Remove or strengthen eaves (projections) that stick out from the roof. ✅ Strap roofs to walls. ⬜️ Require the use of rapid-fire staples to attach thin asphalt roofing sheets. ⬜️ Require the use of clay in the roofing materials to soak up water and add weight to the roof in a storm.

What happens to carbon dioxide that is released into the atmosphere? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Removed by plant photosynthesis ✅ Dissolved in the oceans ✅ Remains in the atmosphere ⬜️ Reacts with ozone to form CFCs ⬜️ Rises up into the stratosphere, where it converts to methane

Which of the following natural conditions can increase the destruction caused by earthquakes? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Soft sediments near the surface ✅ Resonance of seismic waves ⬜️ Elevated temperatures in the rocks along the fault zone ⬜️ Low atmospheric pressure

Which of the following accurately describe thunderstorms? (Select all that apply.)

✅ They are tall, buoyant cumulus clouds of rising, moist air. ⬜️ They are wide, falling cirrus clouds of cold but warming air. ✅ They commonly cause rain, gusty winds, and sometime hail. ⬜️ They commonly cause snow, high pressure, and rapid evaporation of surface waters.

Sea-level rise occurs through ________. (Select all that apply.)

✅ melting of glaciers ✅ thermal expansion of sea water ⬜️ isostatic drop of the ocean floors ✅ isostatic drop of the continental edges

Foreshocks are defined _____ the mainshock occurs.

🔘 after ⚪️ before

What is the difference between negative and positive feedback? Negative feedback ______.

🔘 moves a system toward an equilibrium, whereas a positive feedback drives continued or runaway change ⚪️ reduces the longevity of a system, whereas a positive feedback increases the longevity of a system ⚪️ changes a system in such a way that the original change is enhanced, whereas a positive feedback returns the system to equilibrium

During the last 3 million years, the ice sheets that formed on North America and Eurasia had a strong influence on global climate change because ______.

🔘 they expanded and shrank in a dynamic fashion, increasing and decreasing Earth's albedo ⚪️ they were located far from the poles ⚪️ their formation led to an increase in sea level, which created an unstable climate condition ⚪️ they eroded huge volumes of rock from the continental interior, lowering the level of the land

Tsunami are able to rush inland for great distances because _______.

🔘 they have very long wavelengths ⚪️ the velocity of tsunami is so great ⚪️ of the great height of tsunami waves ⚪️ there is little at the shoreline that can stop them

Slab avalanches are analogous to ______.

🔘 translational slides ⚪️ slumps ⚪️ debris flows ⚪️ falls

Which of the following accurately describe Popocatépetl's activity over the past few thousand years? (Select all that apply.)

✅ It has frequent small eruptions. ⬜️ It has been dormant for the past 200 years. ✅ It occasionally has large eruptions. ⬜️ It has frequent large eruptions.

The current doubling rate for the world population is ______.

⚪️ 103 years ⚪️ 10 years 🔘 58 years ⚪️ 2,300 years

Why is population growth linked to increased loss of life and property due to natural disasters?

⚪️ Higher population density leads to more war and famine. ⚪️ Places with higher populations have weaker economies. ⚪️ The impact of natural disasters is not linked to population. 🔘 More people live in proximity to natural hazards.

It is widely believed that the Solar System formed through _________.

⚪️ cosmic expansion following the Big Bang 🔘 collisions of matter within a rotating cloud of gas and dust ⚪️ a catastrophic collision between a star and a black hole ⚪️ capture of comets by the early Sun

A natural event, such as a tsunami, that so overwhelms a region that international assistance is needed with rescue, medical care, and rebuilding is called a(n) ________.

⚪️ earthquake 🔘 great natural disaster ⚪️ natural catastrophe ⚪️ national emergency

Hydrogen and helium, the two main constituents of the Sun, are both ______ elements.

⚪️ noble gas 🔘 lightweight ⚪️ heavy ⚪️ rare earth

The most important factor determining the number of deaths globally due to natural disasters is ______.

⚪️ plate tectonics 🔘 population ⚪️ economics ⚪️ climate ⚪️ location

Over geologic time, the flow of Earth's internal energy has produced all of the following except ______.

⚪️ the continents ⚪️ the oceans ⚪️ the atmosphere ⚪️ mountain ranges 🔘 the Moon

Of the 40 greatest insurance loss disasters between 1970 and 2016, most were due to ______.

⚪️ the effects of war ⚪️ economic recessions 🔘 natural disasters ⚪️ the effects of famine and disease

Of the 40 deadliest natural disasters between 1970 and 2016, most occurred in ________.

⚪️ western Europe ⚪️ North America ⚪️ Latin America 🔘 Asia ⚪️ Australia

Viruses move easily between humans, _____, and _____ because they live and interact with them.

⚪️ cows; pigs 🔘 pigs; birds ⚪️ cats; dogs ⚪️ monkeys; chickens

What led to the collapse of civilization on Rapa Nui? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Soil erosion, which led to decreased agriculture ✅ Destruction of trees in order to transport carved stone statues ⬜️ Rapid climate change during the Little Ice Age ✅ Collapse of the social system due to reduced food resources ⬜️ The rise of piracy and the slave trade during the 1600s ⬜️ The rapid spread of bubonic plague, introduced by rats from visiting ships

Which of the following statements best reflects the relationship between the magnitude and frequency of natural disasters?

⚪️ Large events are more common than small events. ⚪️ The larger the event, the greater the frequency. 🔘 Small events are more common than large events. ⚪️ There is a positive correlation between frequency and magnitude.

______ describes the number of years between same-sized natural disaster events.

⚪️ Magnitude ⚪️ Frequency ⚪️ Risk 🔘 Return period

The weathering of rocks into sediment, the transport of sediment, and its ultimate deposition in the oceans are driven by ______.

⚪️ the Earth's internal heat 🔘 the Sun's energy ⚪️ plate tectonics ⚪️ the magnetic field

Which of the following explain the rapid increase in global population growth rates in the 18th century? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ An increase in birth rates ✅ A decline in death rates ⬜️ A period with no wars ✅ Public health policies ⬜️ The population reaching 1 billion

Which of these are the two sources of Earth's internal heat? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ Heat from the Sun ⬜️ Volcanoes ✅ Early Earth formation ✅ Radioactive decay ⬜️ The magnetic field

What two factors, other than population size, were shown by Van der Vink to be related to the number of natural-disaster deaths?

⬜️ Level of health care ✅ Level of democracy ✅ Level of economic development ⬜️ Level of education

Mega-killer earthquakes in the past 500 years occurred in which countries? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ United States of America ✅ Haiti ✅ Japan ⬜️ Chile ✅ Indonesia ⬜️ France ✅ China

Why is it expected that the number of deaths by natural disasters will rise?

🔘 Global population is increasing. ⚪️ Volcanic activity is increasing. ⚪️ Earthquakes are becoming more frequent. ⚪️ Climate change is leading to more frequent hurricanes and floods.

Processes that create and elevate landmasses, such as volcanic eruptions, are driven by Earth's _______.

🔘 internal energy ⚪️ external energy ⚪️ gravitational field ⚪️ magnetic field

The ______ formed through collisions of particles that fused together, forming larger objects.

🔘 planets ⚪️ universe ⚪️ asteroid belt ⚪️ solar nebula

Countries where a significant percentage of the population is under 15 years old are likely to experience ______ over the next 50 years.

🔘 population growth ⚪️ a stable population ⚪️ population decline

The famous carved statues of Easter Island were one of the reasons the Rapa Nui society collapsed because ______.

🔘 there were no trees left for canoes, homes, or fuel ⚪️ their construction resulted in the deaths of many young men ⚪️ statue worship required copious sacrifices of food resources

Which of the following are likely causes for the rise in population growth that occurred 8,000 years ago? (Select all that apply.)

✅ The development of agriculture ⬜️ The Industrial Revolution ⬜️ The end of the last ice age ⬜️ The development of penicillin ✅ The domestication of animals

Why are the most expensive (in terms of insurance losses) natural disasters not also the deadliest? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Wealthy countries are better insured. ✅ Wealthy countries build stronger buildings. ⬜️ Wealthy countries are located in parts of the world with fewer natural disasters. ⬜️ Wealthy countries have much smaller populations.

Of the 40 deadliest natural disasters between 1970 and 2016, the two most frequent mega-killers were _______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ hurricanes ⬜️ tornadoes ✅ earthquakes ⬜️ floods ⬜️ volcanic eruptions

As global population has grown, so too have the _____ of natural disasters. (Select all that apply.)

✅ number of fatalities ⬜️ hazards ✅ economic costs ⬜️ return period

During early human history, before the development of agriculture, the global population size was strongly controlled by ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ weather ⬜️ trade patterns ✅ abundance of food ⬜️ government policy ✅ disease

The following are types of plate boundaries except _________.

⚪️ divergent ⚪️ transform ⚪️ convergent 🔘 transient

A ______ during a tropical cyclone can cause flooding of coastal lowlands.

⚪️ eye wall wind burst 🔘 storm surge ⚪️ hail storm ⚪️ freezing front

When ice turns into water vapor, the process is known as ______.

⚪️ gasification 🔘 sublimation ⚪️ vaporization ⚪️ fusion

This image demonstrates the principle of ______.

⚪️ gravity ⚪️ deformation 🔘 isostasy ⚪️ glaciation

An earthquake occurs from the release of ______ when stress on a fault builds high enough for the rocks to snap and move suddenly.

⚪️ heat ⚪️ movement 🔘 energy

Which of these correctly describe the nature of surface waves? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Low frequency ⬜️ High frequency ✅ Slow-moving ⬜️ Fast-moving

In terms of characteristics, earthquakes of eastern North America most closely resemble those that occur in ______.

🔘 central North America ⚪️ western North America ⚪️ Hawaii

Much of California is covered by a group of evergreen shrubs known collectively as ______.

🔘 chaparral ⚪️ mariposa ⚪️ palmetto ⚪️ grassland

Because mass movements often change as they progress, ______.

🔘 it can be difficult to classify them ⚪️ it is impossible to study them ⚪️ hazard mitigation will never work

The lowering of coastal lands due to the 2011 Japanese earthquake is called _______.

🔘 subsidence ⚪️ subduction ⚪️ submergence ⚪️ sublimation

Grasslands dry out in __________, during which time grass fires may occur everyday.

🔘 summer and early fall ⚪️ fall ⚪️ summer ⚪️ early fall and winter ⚪️ winter

A comet's tail forms as it nears the Sun because ______.

🔘 sunlight causes the outer layers of the comet to sublimate directly to vapor ⚪️ its velocity increases, which elongates the natural gaseous envelope that surrounds its core ⚪️ the otherwise dim tail structure becomes illuminated by sunlight and visible to the naked eye

Habitat changes can occur geologically rapidly when ______, resulting in changes to global shorelines, reducing areas of climatically harsh climates, and placing pressure on species to adapt or go extinct.

🔘 supercontinents break up ⚪️ seafloor spreading increases ⚪️ flood basalts are active ⚪️ landmasses drift nearer the North or South Pole

The law of ______ states that in a sequence of nonoverturned sedimentary rocks, the lowest layer is the oldest and the uppermost layer is the youngest.

🔘 superposition ⚪️ faunal assemblages ⚪️ original horizontality ⚪️ lateral continuity

El Chichón Volcano in southern Mexico demonstrated the deadly nature of pyroclastic ______ when several of these hazards descended radially outward from the volcano, killing everyone within a 8 km radius.

🔘 surges ⚪️ flows ⚪️ falls

Which of the following are warning signs for heat-related problems in the human body? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Mental confusion ✅ High body temperature ✅ Dry skin and rapid or slow pulse ⬜️ Cancerous growths on the skin

The length of a comet's tail is primarily a function of ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ distance to the Sun ✅ the amount of ice cover on the comet's surface ⬜️ the comet's velocity ⬜️ the shape of the comet's orbit

Which one of these elements is not one of the eight most abundant in the Earth's crust.

⚪️ Oxygen 🔘 Hydrogen ⚪️ Silicon ⚪️ Calcium ⚪️ Magnesium ⚪️ Sodium ⚪️ Iron ⚪️ Potassium ⚪️ Aluminum

How do scientists identify the depth to the top of the asthenosphere in the Earth's interior?

⚪️ P waves speed up and S waves slow down. ⚪️ Both P and S waves speed up. ⚪️ P waves slow down and S waves speed up. 🔘 Both P and S waves slow down.

Earth today has an estimated 40 to 80 million species, which represent about ______ percent of all the species that have ever lived on Earth.

⚪️ 99.9 🔘 0.1 ⚪️ 1 ⚪️ 10 ⚪️ 99.1

Which of the following best describes a stratovolcano?

⚪️ A broad, gently sloping volcano constructed of solidified lava flows ⚪️ A steep-sided, dome-shaped mass of solidified viscous lava ⚪️ A volcano constructed of pyroclastic fragments ejected from a central vent 🔘 A large volcano composed of alternating layers of pyroclastic fragments and solidified lava flows

What is a hook echo on radar imagery?

⚪️ A phantom tornado caused by bouncing radar waves that appears to be twice the distance from the radar as the actual tornado 🔘 A swath of high radar reflectivity in the shape of a hook where an echo region develops in an updraft ⚪️ The shape created by the anvil of a supercell and the wall cloud below ⚪️ A blank space created in the image as a tornado passes directly overhead of the radar receiver

Which of the conditions below would likely produce the most intense winter storm (e.g., "the storm of the century")?

⚪️ A single large low-pressure system moving from land to the ocean. ⚪️ Two large low-pressure systems that bring cold and relative dry air together. 🔘 The intersection of a low-pressure cold air mass with two moist low-pressure air masses. ⚪️ The collision of three high-pressure zones over an inland sea or large body of water.

What is creating the down-dropped rift valleys in pull-part basins that have formed the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, and the Great Rift Valley?

⚪️ A snaking spreading center that is offset by many transform faults 🔘 The triple junction of three spreading centers ⚪️ A continental collision between northern Africa and southern Europe ⚪️ A series of transform faults that connects the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean

What is the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault in Haiti?

⚪️ A thrust-fault related to the eastern portion of Haiti being pushed up and over the eastern portion by seafloor spreading 🔘 A left-lateral transform fault (slide-past) related to the boundary between the Caribbean plate and the North American Plate ⚪️ A fracture related to the post-glacial rebound happening in response to the last Ice Age ⚪️ A radial fracture pattern that is forming in relation to volcanic activity on the island

Which of the following accurately describes the diversity of the profiles (longitudinal cross-sections) of streams around the world?

⚪️ All ecosystems have their own unique stream profiles. 🔘 Streams around the world, in all types of settings, have similar stream profiles. ⚪️ Each continent has its own unique stream profile. ⚪️ The concave-upward profile of streams becomes more pronounced with increasing latitude.

Which of the following accurately compares the recurrence interval of magnitude 6 to 7 earthquakes to magnitude 8 earthquakes in the San Francisco Bay area?

⚪️ All magnitudes greater than 6 tend to have the same recurrence interval of 17 years. ⚪️ Magnitude 6 to 7 earthquakes tend to occur once a century, whereas magnitude 8 earthquakes occur about once a decade. 🔘 Magnitude 8 earthquakes occur about once a century, whereas magnitude 6 to 7 earthquakes tend to occur about once a decade. ⚪️ Magnitude 8 earthquakes occur about once every 25 years, whereas magnitude 6 to 7 earthquakes tend to occur about twice a century.

Which of the following accurately describes the economic impact of severe weather?

⚪️ Although severe weather kills, it causes little economic damage. 🔘 There were many severe weather events between 1980 and 2010 that caused over a billion dollars of damage each. ⚪️ The economic damage from severe weather is moderate and only costs more than a million dollars about once every 10 years (on average). ⚪️ Severe weather only causes an economic impact in countries with weak building codes.

Which of the following describes the hurricane threat in Hawaii?

⚪️ Although theoretically possible, the main Hawaii islands have never been hit by one. 🔘 Hawaii sits at the northern edge of warm water capable of producing hurricanes and is sometimes stuck by them. ⚪️ Hawaii is too far north to be struck by hurricanes, although their remains can bring heavy rains. ⚪️ Hawaii sits in what is know as "Hurricane Alley" and is struck by at least six major hurricanes each year.

Which of the following statements accurately compares the amounts of energy the surface of Earth receives from the Sun and Earth's interior?

⚪️ Although there are regional differences, planetwide Earth receives an equal amount of energy from the Sun and Earth's interior. 🔘 The energy that reaches the surface of Earth from the Sun is about 4,000 times the heat that flows from Earth's interior. ⚪️ The energy that reaches the surface of Earth from Earth's interior is about 500 times the amount the surface receives from the Sun.

Which of these statements accurately describes how solar energy varies on Earth?

⚪️ Although there is day-to-day variation, all latitudes receive roughly the same amount of solar energy over the course of a year. 🔘 Lower latitude regions receive more solar energy over the course of a year than do higher latitude regions. ⚪️ The amount of energy received by Earth varies by longitude over the course of a year with low longitude locations getting the greatest amounts. ⚪️ The amount of solar energy received at different locations is dependent upon variations in the energy output of the Sun at equivalent locations.

______ magmas are associated with the most violent and explosive volcanic eruptions.

⚪️ Basaltic ⚪️ Andesitic 🔘 Rhyolitic

______ strain occurs when the differences in stress coming from different directions are low.

⚪️ Brittle ⚪️ Ductile 🔘 Elastic ⚪️ Shear

Which of the following sets of conditions are most favorable for hurricane formation?

⚪️ Cold surface water, hot dry air, high waves, strong surface currents, and a subtropical location 🔘 Warm humid air, warm surface water, a location 660 km (404 mi) from the equator, and weak upper-level winds ⚪️ Warm humid air, cold surface water, a location 1000 km (621 mi) from the equator, and strong upper-level winds ⚪️ Cold dry air, warm surface water, a location within a few kilometers of the equator, and high pressure

Why hasn't all of the heat generated during the formation of Earth escaped, even after 4.6 billion years of Earth history?

⚪️ Convection of the mantle keeps the heat circulating in Earth's interior. 🔘 Rocks are poor conductors of heat. ⚪️ The early formation heat has all escaped, but recent impacts and radioactive decay keep heating Earth up again. ⚪️ Heat from the Sun insulates Earth, keeping it warm.

At which type of plate boundary would you be most likely to find normal faults?

⚪️ Convergent ⚪️ Collisional ⚪️ Transform 🔘 Divergent

At which type of plate boundary would you be most likely to find reverse dip-slip faults?

⚪️ Divergent 🔘 Convergent ⚪️ Transform

What kind of plate boundary is most commonly associated with deep earthquakes?

⚪️ Divergent 🔘 Subduction zone ⚪️ Transform ⚪️ Hot spot

What is the balance between the amount of solar radiation received by Earth and the amount of radiation Earth returns to space?

⚪️ Earth receives much more energy than it returns to space. ⚪️ Earth receives much less energy than it returns to space. 🔘 The amount of energy Earth receives and gives off are effectively equal.

The emergence of the spreading centers in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden has caused the formation of the Arabian Plate by cutting it off from ______.

⚪️ Europe ⚪️ Asia 🔘 Africa ⚪️ the Indian Ocean's crust

Which statement below best summarizes the large-scale pattern of surface circulation in the ocean?

⚪️ Flow is generally north to south in the Atlantic, south to north in the Pacific, and east to west in the Indian ocean. 🔘 There are large-scale rotating loops of surface water currents in oceans of each hemisphere with smaller counter-currents near the equator. ⚪️ In each hemisphere's ocean, there are 3 large-scale patterns of ocean circulation that align with 3 convection cells in the atmosphere. ⚪️ Flow in the Atlantic, Pacific, & Indian Ocean is from the North Pole to South Pole in the west and from the South Pole to North Pole in the east.

What is the hurricane evacuation dilemma?

⚪️ Hurricane track predictions are so poor that people may be told to evacuate to an area that is later struck. 🔘 Improvements in hurricane forecasting and evacuation orders have helped lead to a growing population along the coast that is harder to evacuate. ⚪️ Evacuations always cause more highways deaths than would have been caused by the hurricane. ⚪️ The evacuation of coastal areas results in greater damage inland.

Where are tornadoes most likely to form in a hurricane?

⚪️ In the back-left quadrant, 50 to 100 km (31 to 62 mi) from the eye 🔘 In the front-right quadrant, 80 to 500 km (50 to 300 mi) from the eye ⚪️ Within the eye of the storm, when it is over land ⚪️ Just outside the eye of the storm, when it is over the ocean

In which of the following locations are severe thunderstorms commonly found?

⚪️ In the center of high-pressure systems 🔘 At the collision of weather-system fronts ⚪️ On the leeward side of mountains, where air is rapidly descending ⚪️ At high latitudes, where the average surface albedo is high

Which of these has the lowest density?

⚪️ Inner core ⚪️ Outer core ⚪️ Mantle ⚪️ Asthenosphere ⚪️ Continental crust 🔘 Oceans

On Simuele Island, which lies very close to the epicenter of the 2004 magnitude 9.1 earthquake, only 7 of the 75,000 inhabitants were killed by the tsunami that ravaged their coastline. Why was this?

⚪️ Islands very close to the epicenter were not affected by the tsunami. 🔘 Their oral history instructed them to run for high ground when the ground starts shaking. ⚪️ Their buildings were made of wood and straw, so they were not hurt by the debris carried by the tsunami wave. ⚪️ The main trade on the island is fishing, and almost all of the inhabitants were out at sea and unaffected by the tsunami.

What is the impact of the Balcones Escarpment on the weather in Texas?

⚪️ It causes the rapid dissipation of thunderstorms as they move up and over it. 🔘 It causes the formation of intense thunderstorms as wind blowing at right angles to it is forced upward. ⚪️ The escapement acts as a wind tunnel and is able to force the formation of tornadoes without the development of thunderstorms. ⚪️ Intense storms moving east to west in the area are forced to reverse course and flow back in the direction from which they came.

Which of the following accurately describes the subparallel fault system that includes the San Andreas fault?

⚪️ It is a 500 km (310 mi) long, low-angle thrust fault system. 🔘 It is a 1,200 km (750 mi) long, right-lateral strike-slip fault system. ⚪️ It is a 3,250 km3 (2,020 mi3) wide radial normal fault system. ⚪️ It is a 4,880 km (3,032 mi) long, high-angle reverse fault system.

Which of the following accurately summarizes the natural setting of New Orleans?

⚪️ It sits at the mouth of a river, on a dome of igneous bedrock that prevents it from sinking but limits the ability of water to soak into the ground. 🔘 Built on a river delta, it is surrounded by bodies of water on nearly all sides and is sinking relative to sea level. ⚪️ It sits on top of a barrier island that is being washed over into the bay behind it. ⚪️ New Orleans sits to the south of an east-west trending normal fault and is on the down-dropping block, causing it to sink into the ocean.

Which of the following statements about magnetic reversals is true?

⚪️ Magnetic reversals occur every 1.5 million years. ⚪️ The magnetic field only reverses polarity for very short periods of time. 🔘 Magnetic reversals are generated by random changes in the liquid outer core. ⚪️ Magnetic reversals have only been detected in rocks younger than 200 million years.

Which of these is not an example of a stratovolcano?

⚪️ Mount Rainier, Washington ⚪️ Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania ⚪️ Mount Fuji, Japan 🔘 Mount Wrangell ⚪️ Mount Shasta, California

Which type of fault is shown here?

⚪️ Normal dip-slip 🔘 Reverse dip-slip ⚪️ Left-lateral strike-slip ⚪️ Right-lateral strike-slip

What is the position of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in January that results in a shutting down of Caribbean-type hurricane formation?

⚪️ North of the equator ⚪️ At the equator 🔘 South of the equator

The surface-wave (Ms) scale for earthquake magnitude is based on the amplitudes of ______.

⚪️ P waves with 1- to 10-second periods ⚪️ S waves with 1- to 2-second periods ⚪️ Love waves with 18- to 22-second periods 🔘 Rayleigh waves with 18- to 22-second periods

Approximately 220 million years ago, the continents were joined together into one supercontinent known as Pangaea. This supercontinent was surrounded by an ocean named ______.

⚪️ Panacea ⚪️ Panoceana ⚪️ Panmarina 🔘 Panthalassa

What is the best step to take when a tornado is approaching?

⚪️ Race to a hilltop since the winds are weaker aloft. 🔘 Evacuate weak structures and shelter in strong ones, preferably underground, immediately. ⚪️ Run in a direction 90 degrees to the path the tornado appears to be on. ⚪️ Hide in a building with a large-expanse roof if possible.

Which of these is not considered a fast-action strategy for slowing global warming?

⚪️ Reducing black carbon emissions ⚪️ Reducing ozone production ⚪️ Reducing methane emissions ⚪️ Reducing hydrofluorocarbon emissions 🔘 Rock weathering

The ______ Scale is a descriptive scale based upon the effects of an earthquake on people and buildings.

⚪️ Richter Magnitude 🔘 Mercalli Intensity ⚪️ Moment Magnitude ⚪️ Did-You-Feel-It?

Which of the following best describes the appearance of the surface of an aa basalt flow?

⚪️ Ropy or billowy 🔘 Rubbly and jagged ⚪️ Sandy ⚪️ Perfectly smooth

Which of the following accurately summarizes the use of the seismic-gap tectonic forecasting method in Chile?

⚪️ Satellite imagery was used to indently an old-growth forest along a fault zone, which suggested the area was overdue for an earthquake. 🔘 Historic records, including an event described by Charles Darwin, were used to identify a seismic gap that was then heavily monitored using GPS. ⚪️ The supercomputer Deep Blue was used to run simulations of the tectonic movements to identify the areas most likely to rupture next. ⚪️ The record of earthquakes in Chile was plotted over time and used to produce a line equation that could be solved to predict the next rupture.

Which of these descriptions best characterizes a Vulcanian eruption?

⚪️ Slow eruption of very viscous lava, leading to the buildup of a lava dome ⚪️ High volumes of low-viscosity basaltic magma spreading out over large areas ⚪️ A sustained eruption column of hot gases and pyroclastic material that climbs to several kilometers in the atmosphere 🔘 Alternating flows of thick, highly viscous lava and explosive blasts of pyroclastic material

The Earth's internal energy comes mostly from impacts, gravity, and radioactive isotopes. Which of these is also a source of Earth's internal energy?

⚪️ Solar energy ⚪️ Rotation 🔘 Tidal friction ⚪️ Volcanism

What is the plate tectonic setting of Mount Vesuvius in Italy?

⚪️ Spreading center ⚪️ Continental rift ⚪️ Transform fault 🔘 Subduction zone ⚪️ Continental collision zone

Which type of tectonic setting listed below has the largest number of strong earthquakes?

⚪️ Spreading centers 🔘 Subduction zones ⚪️ Transform plate boundaries ⚪️ Interplate areas

Which statement below accurately relates isobars, the pressure gradient force, and the strength of wind?

⚪️ Strong winds push isobars closer together, and that increases the pressure gradient force. 🔘 Isobars represent areas of equal pressure. The closer together they are, the stronger wind is because the pressure gradient force is greater. ⚪️ High air pressure represented by closely spaced isobars causes weak winds because the pressure gradient force must act over a larger area. ⚪️ Isobars run parallel to the pressure gradient forces that form as the winds blow.

What has been the proven impact of stronger building codes in reducing hurricane-related damage to mobile homes in Florida?

⚪️ Stronger building standards for mobile homes still are not enough to limit hurricane damage. 🔘 Mobile homes built to higher standards suffered less damage than those built to lower standards. ⚪️ Stronger building codes resulted in greater destruction as winds were able to pick up entire mobile homes rather than just pieces of them. ⚪️ Mobile homes built to higher standards suffered less damage but only because they are generally placed on higher ground.

Strike-slip faults form in response to which type of stress?

⚪️ Tension ⚪️ Compression 🔘 Shear

How is the Arabian plate related to the powerful earthquakes occurring in Eurasia?

⚪️ The Arabian plate is pulling away from the Eurasian plate, causing extensional faulting. 🔘 The spreading centers that formed the Arabian plate are pushing it into Eurasia, causing collision uplifts. ⚪️ The Arabian plate is being subducted under the Eurasian plate. ⚪️ The Arabian plate is being uplift in the middle by a pool of magma, causing it to slide into Asia.

What group is responsible for tracking and forecasting hurricanes in the Atlantic Basin?

⚪️ The International Association of Meteorology and Atmospheric Sciences 🔘 The National Hurricane Center ⚪️ U.S. Coast Guard ⚪️ The National Academy of Sciences ⚪️ Joint Typhoon Warning Center

Why is there less seasonal variability in the Southern Hemisphere than in the Northern Hemisphere?

⚪️ The Southern Hemisphere receives a more consistent supply of solar energy. ⚪️ The hole in the ozone layer in the Southern Hemisphere allows excess heat to escape during its summer. 🔘 The Southern Hemisphere has a greater amount of its surface covered by water. ⚪️ There are more convection cells in the Southern Hemisphere to redistribute heat.

Where does the latent heat that fuels the formation of hurricanes come from?

⚪️ The adiabatic warming of air that descends when upper-level winds weaken 🔘 The evaporation of warm sea-surface waters (27°C = 80°F) ⚪️ The adiabatic cooling of dry ascending air in the center of the forming storm ⚪️ The evaporation of cold water (10°C = 50°F) molecules ejected out of the top of thunderstorms

Increased erosion that occurs on the outside of a bend in a river and deposition on the inside of a bend have the net effect of ______.

⚪️ decreasing a stream's sinuosity 🔘 increasing a stream's meandering process ⚪️ increasing a stream's gradient ⚪️ decreasing a stream's load

Which of the following describes the spreading center basin related to the northern end of the Gulf of California?

⚪️ The basin ends at the northern shoreline with Mexico. 🔘 It continues from the Gulf of California in Mexico and finally stops at the end of the Salton Sea in the United States. ⚪️ It takes a right turn at a junction and ends up in central Mexico, where it is causing rifting. ⚪️ It takes a left turn at a junction and ends up in the Pacific Ocean, where a subduction zone is formed.

Which of the following accurately states the primary causes of surface water circulation?

⚪️ The currents are controlled by tidal forces and modified by underwater topography and freshwater runoff. 🔘 The currents are wind-blown, modified by the Coriolis effect, and deflected by land masses. ⚪️ The tilt of Earth causes water to constantly fall to the south, but the piling of water in the south creates an equal return flow to the north. ⚪️ Atmosphere pressure differences pushing down on the surface of the ocean create a flow that is modified as pressure conditions change.

Earth receives energy from the Sun and radiates back to space an equal amount. What statement below accurately describes how this occurs?

⚪️ The energy is returned to space in the wavelengths at which it is received. 🔘 The energy that is not reflected directly back to space is radiated back at longer wavelengths in the infrared portion of electromagnetic spectrum. ⚪️ The energy from the Sun is absorbed by Earth, but Earth's interior radiates an equal amount of heat to space.

Which of the following is true about movements along the entire length of the San Andreas fault?

⚪️ The entire fault seems to move in the same fashion along its length. 🔘 Movements along the fault occur with different frequencies at different locations. ⚪️ The frequency and location of earthquakes along the length of the San Andreas fault seem to be random.

What happened about 541 million years ago as evidenced in the fossil record?

⚪️ The first appearance of multicellular life 🔘 The beginning of rapid evolutionary change ⚪️ The first mass extinction

How do cities contribute to heat waves?

⚪️ The large-scale use of air conditioners raises the heat outside as warm indoor air is pushed outside. 🔘 Human-made structures absorb more heat during the day than natural objects and release it at night. ⚪️ The high albedo of buildings and pavement causes more sunlight to be reflected back up to further heat the lower atmosphere. ⚪️ Tall buildings block the upper-scale movements of warm air, forcing it downward and into the lower portion of the city.

Which of the following is true about the largest floods in an area?

⚪️ The largest flood on record in an area is likely to have been the largest flood that will even happen in that location. 🔘 A future flood will likely exceed the largest flood already recorded in an area. ⚪️ The history of large flooding in an area is not very useful for forecasting the future of large flooding in that area. ⚪️ Floodplains will always be flooded by larger floods at some point in the future.

Why do the common earthquakes of the Salton Trough tend to occur in swarms?

⚪️ The locked faults in the area tend to break in a domino-like effect along the length of the Salton Trough. 🔘 The earthquakes are related to the forceful movement of magma beneath the crust. ⚪️ The cold crust cannot break all at once but does so in smaller segments that rupture in a brittle fashion. ⚪️ The earthquakes that occur in this region are secondary earthquakes that occur when seismic waves from other regions trigger them.

Why do resurgent domes form within calderas?

⚪️ The products of caldera-forming eruptions pile up in the center of the caldera, forming a topographic high. ⚪️ Basaltic magma pours into the depression left by the massive eruption, forming a large mound of lava flows. ⚪️ Inflation of the pyroclastic deposits as they cool causes them to uplift into a dome structure. 🔘 The eruption of vast amounts of magma created a void that is filled by a new rising mass of magma.

Which of the following best summarizes the impact of rain delivered by thunderstorms?

⚪️ The rain delivered by thunderstorms only causes problems; it does not deliver enough water to be useful. 🔘 Although the rain brought by thunderstorms can cause destruction, it is also an important source of water in many areas. ⚪️ Rain delivered by thunderstorms is useful and almost never causes any problems itself. ⚪️ There is almost no impact at all from the rain in thunderstorms since it rarely makes it all the way to the ground before evaporating.

What is an ice storm?

⚪️ The rapid melting and refreezing of ground snow that occurs if a high-pressure system follows after a blizzard. 🔘 A storm that delivers large volumes of freezing rain that coats trees, roofs, and other surfaces. ⚪️ A thunderstorm that delivers so much hail the ground becomes covered in ice. ⚪️ The rapid cooling and freezing at the Earth's surface that occurs as high-altitude winds bring extremely cold air down.

What is the S-P time?

⚪️ The time during which a seismometer records both S and P waves 🔘 The difference in arrival time of S waves and P waves ⚪️ The break in shaking after S waves arrive and before P waves arrive ⚪️ The difference in arrival times of body waves and surface waves

Why is an ocean basin opening up north of the Gulf of California in the Salton Sea area of California?

⚪️ There is a large down-dropped block related to the tectonic forces that created the Rocky Mountains. 🔘 There is a developing spreading-center segment of the rift that opened the Gulf of California. ⚪️ Prevailing winds push currents hard against the land, causing erosion and the scraping out of a new basin. ⚪️ The withdrawal of groundwater to supply residents of the western United States with water has left a void that is being filled with magma.

What is the projection for earthquakes along the North Antolian fault zone in Turkey?

⚪️ There should be a fairly long period of quiet now as there are no more seismic gaps along the fault line. 🔘 They will likely follow the pattern that has developed since 1939 and continue to move to the west toward Istanbul. ⚪️ The earthquakes will start to migrate eastward toward Erzincan, thus reversing the western migration of earthquakes since 1939. ⚪️ A southern expansion of the fault zone and new earthquake zones are projected to develop as the country is rotated by collisional tectonics.

One of the most critical factors in determining the loss of life from a earthquake is ________.

⚪️ distance from the epicenter 🔘 time of day of the event ⚪️ depth of the hypocenter ⚪️ tectonic setting

What is the projection for the frequency of heat waves in the near future?

⚪️ They are expected to decline in frequency as global warming results in stronger upper-level winds. 🔘 They are expected to increase in frequency as the climate continues to warm and cities grow in size. ⚪️ No change is predicted in the frequency of heat waves as they are a natural phenomenon.

Why might two adjacent buildings that are constructed of the same materials but have different heights suffer very different amounts of damage during an earthquake?

⚪️ They experience very different amounts of ground movement and acceleration due to their different heights. 🔘 One may have the same period as the seismic waves and thus experience resonance. ⚪️ A building constructed of low-quality materials is more likely to collapse than one constructed of high-quality materials.

What is the reason divergent boundaries have fewer earthquakes than other boundaries?

⚪️ They have lower rates of plate motion. 🔘 The rocks located there are warmer, which prevents them from building up a lot of stored stress. ⚪️ They tend to occur in the deep ocean where the pressure of the overlying water dampens earthquake frequency. ⚪️ They are located in the shadow zones where seismic waves cannot travel.

Why does lightning occur in thunderstorms?

⚪️ Thunderstorms create a vortex in which electrons from the Sun are funneled together before striking the ground. 🔘 Tall clouds can separate charged particles, creating an imbalance that is released by lightning. ⚪️ Layers of dry air in thunder clouds prevent the flow of electrons and cause the buildup of electrical imbalances.

Why do geologists map the location of active faults?

⚪️ To predict when the next earthquake will occur 🔘 To assess earthquake hazards ⚪️ To predict the size of the next earthquake ⚪️ To find old faults that might move in the future

Why is volcanism not generally associated with transform faults?

⚪️ Transform faults are too far away from plate boundaries. ⚪️ Water is added to the mantle at transform faults, lowering its temperature. ⚪️ At transform faults, the crust is too thick to allow magma to reach the surface. 🔘 Mantle material is neither rising nor sinking at transform boundaries; the plates are simply sliding past each other.

Why does the name tsunami come from the Japanese terms for harbor and wave?

⚪️ Tsunamis form in harbors, where ocean waves become compressed and join together to form a single large wave. 🔘 The impact of tsunami on harbors is great because the narrowness of harbors focuses tsunami into even larger waves. ⚪️ As with the name tidal wave, the reference to harbors has nothing to do with tsunami.

How did the chain of volcanic islands and seamounts shown here form?

⚪️ Volcanic activity above a subduction zone 🔘 Volcanic activity above a hot spot ⚪️ Volcanic activity above a midocean ridge ⚪️ Volcanic activity at a collision zone

A huge eruption of large volumes of viscous magma that generates high ash columns and widespread sheets of outward-flowing ash and pumice is called a(n) _____ eruption.

⚪️ Vulcanian ⚪️ Mazaman 🔘 ultra-Plinian ⚪️ flood basalt ⚪️ resurgent

Waves disturb the water column to a depth of one-half their wavelength. Tsunami have wavelengths of up to 780 km, meaning that ocean water up to 390 km in depth will be disturbed. Why is this impossible?

⚪️ Water at such great depths has a higher density and will not be disturbed. 🔘 The maximum ocean depth is approximately 11 km. ⚪️ At such great depths, the orbital wave motions below the surface will interfere with each other. ⚪️ A wavelength of 780 km is impossible because the largest ocean is only 500 km across at its widest point.

The Aleutian Islands of Alaska are an example of a volcanic island arc that forms when _______.

⚪️ a continental rift forms over a spreading center ⚪️ two plates slide past one another along a transform fault ⚪️ an oceanic plate subducts beneath a continental plate 🔘 an oceanic plate subducts beneath another oceanic plate

The most reliable measure of earthquake size is seismic moment, which measures the ________.

⚪️ amplitude of all seismic waves, both body and surface and long- and short-period 🔘 the amount of strain energy released by the movement along the rupture surface ⚪️ variations in severity of shaking with distance from the fault rupture and with rock type ⚪️ the amount of movement along the entire length of the fault

The dry adiabatic lapse rate is the rate at which ______.

⚪️ an air mass will slow its rise as it cools adiabatically in dry air. 🔘 a rising and expanding air mass will cool if it is unsaturated with water ⚪️ latent heat is released in an unsaturated air mass as it cools adiabatically ⚪️ the relative humidity of an air mass drops as it cools adiabatically

A mercury barometer is able to display changes in atmosphere pressure because a change in ______.

⚪️ atmosphere pressure will cause the expansion or contraction of the mercury in the tube of a barometer 🔘 the downward force of air pressure will change the height of the mercury in the tube of the barometer ⚪️ air pressure changes the rate of evaporation and condensation of mercury, which affects the height of the mercury in the tube ⚪️ the outward force of mercury is much stronger than the downward force of air pressure

Subduction-zone earthquakes are ______.

⚪️ barely detectable at the Earth's surface 🔘 sometimes extremely powerful ⚪️ powerful enough to shake small buildings but not powerful enough to cause real damage ⚪️ unique in that they only produce surface waves

The next major movement along the Hayward fault is projected to ______.

⚪️ cause just under 50 million dollars of damage and possibly a few dozen deaths 🔘 last about 22 seconds and have about 2 meters of slip along 13 km of fault ⚪️ be relatively a nonevent due to the enforcement of stronger building codes and better earthquake preparedness ⚪️ cause trillions of dollars of damage and push the land to the west of the fault into the Pacific Ocean

According to plate tectonic theory, the initiation of a rift zone is caused by _______.

⚪️ cooling and fracturing of the Earth's surface ⚪️ isostatic uplift of the continents 🔘 the rise of hot mantle material toward the Earth's surface ⚪️ a major meteorite impact

Areas of high and low pressure can be displayed on a map using ______ to represent lines of equal pressure. The closer together these lines are, the stronger the ______ gradient force will be that drives the wind.

⚪️ isobaths; adiabatic 🔘 isobars; pressure ⚪️ pycnographs; density ⚪️ isotherms; barometric

This image shows _____, a method used to provide resistance to the up, down, and sideways movements of the ground.

⚪️ shear walls 🔘 bracing ⚪️ base isolation ⚪️ brackets

At least some tornadoes have downward-moving air in their center. This indicates that ______.

⚪️ some tornadoes are mostly composed of air spinning downward rather than upward 🔘 some of the air being sucked up by the tornado is coming from the air flowing down its core ⚪️ tornadoes are caused by zones of rotating high-pressure aloft ⚪️ near vacuumlike conditions are being created in the center of tornadoes

The most explosive and dangerous volcanoes are generally found at _______.

⚪️ spreading centers ⚪️ transform faults ⚪️ oceanic hot spots 🔘 subduction zones

The heat produced by masses colliding to form Earth is referred to as ______ energy.

⚪️ stellar 🔘 impact ⚪️ solar ⚪️ gravitational

This diagram shows a broad, gently sloping volcano made up of low viscosity lava flows, which is called a ______.

⚪️ stratovolcano ⚪️ scoria cone 🔘 shield volcano ⚪️ caldera ⚪️ lava dome

The most striking feature of the magnetic signature of the seafloor is _______.

⚪️ the consistency of the thickness of the stripes 🔘 the symmetry of the stripes on either side of the volcanic ridge ⚪️ its decrease in strength away from the volcanic ridge ⚪️ the way the stripes cut across the volcanic ridge at right angles to it

The largest earthquake ever recorded was caused by ______.

⚪️ the detonation of nuclear explosions underground near the end of World War Two 🔘 a rupture along the Nazca plate as it was converging with the South American plate ⚪️ a rupture along the entire length of San Andreas fault ⚪️ a rupture along a fault between the India plate and Eurasian plate as they first collided

The amount of water vapor in the atmosphere is measured as ______, whereas ______ is the ratio of the amount of water vapor to the maximum amount of water vapor that can be held by an air mass.

⚪️ the dew concentration; fog ⚪️ wet bulb amount; dry bulb 🔘 humidity; relative humidity ⚪️ saturation potential; actual humidity

Sinkholes, such as the one shown here, are common in central Florida because _______.

⚪️ the region experiences heavy rain during the hurricane season 🔘 the region is underlain by limestone ⚪️ large basements below buildings are vulnerable to collapse ⚪️ flooding washes away the sand and gravel that make up the subsurface of roads

Some geologists do not like the term uniformitarianism because it suggests that _______, which is not entirely true.

⚪️ the same processes occurring on Earth today have been operating on Earth for its entire history 🔘 Earth processes have always acted at a uniform and slow rate ⚪️ Earth must be well over 4.6 billion years old ⚪️ we must understand the physical processes operating on Earth today in order to interpret the past

When designing bridges, engineers will take into account ________.

⚪️ the size of only the smaller floods as they are more likely to occur than larger floods, which only occur every 100 years or so 🔘 the size of larger floods because, although they are uncommon, the cost of a bridge failing during a large event would be very high

An ocean ______ is a series of regular, long-period waves that are formed through the interference of multiple sets of ocean waves.

⚪️ tsunami 🔘 swell ⚪️ sink ⚪️ set

The 1998 Papua, New Guinea, tsunami taught us that ________.

⚪️ tsunami are generated by large earthquakes along subduction zones, and therefore, places far from subduction zones are not at risk from tsunami 🔘 it doesn't take a large earthquake to cause a tsunami; small earthquakes can trigger submarine landslides, which in turn generate tsunami ⚪️ since the Atlantic Ocean isn't surrounded by subduction zones and subduction zone volcanoes, there is no risk of tsunami ⚪️ there is no way to detect tsunami and warn people to evacuate on time

In open water, the orbital motion of waves ceases at a depth of approximately _______.

⚪️ twice the wave height 🔘 one-half of the wavelength ⚪️ 5,000 feet ⚪️ three times the orbital radius

The Enhanced Fujita scale more accurately describes the power of tornadoes than the Fujita scale by ______.

⚪️ using the metric system instead of the imperial system 🔘 requiring more observations and accounting for the differences in building strength ⚪️ detecting and comparing the amount of residual energy left behind by tornadoes ⚪️ ignoring the damage to human-made structures and focusing solely on the damage to trees and other vegetation

The damage done to this house was most likely due to ________.

⚪️ vertical ground movement 🔘 horizontal ground movement ⚪️ liquefaction of soft soil ⚪️ passage of P waves

Locally, tsunami caused by ______ can be bigger and cause larger run-ups of water than those caused by earthquakes.

⚪️ volcanic eruptions 🔘 landslides ⚪️ explosions ⚪️ climate change

The widespread collision of air masses that creates the conditions favorable to tornado formation can result in many dozens of tornadoes occurring. This is known as a ______.

⚪️ vortex swarm 🔘 tornado outbreak ⚪️ mesoscale eruption ⚪️ supercell blowup

The Richter magnitude scale uses the _______ of seismic waves to determine the amount of shaking and thus the size of an earthquake.

⚪️ wavelength ⚪️ frequency ⚪️ arrival times 🔘 amplitude

Wave height in open, deep water is controlled by wind speed, the length of time the wind blows, the consistency of wind direction, and the ______.

⚪️ wavelength ⚪️ water depth ⚪️ currents ⚪️ wave crest 🔘 fetch

It is estimated that a large flank collapse event at Kilauea, which sits on the southeast coast of Hawaii, will generate a tsunami that ______.

⚪️ will be large but localized to the islands of Hawaii ⚪️ will travel to the west, devastating Japan 🔘 will travel to the southeast, impacting California and Mexico ⚪️ will deeply erode the coastline of Hawaii, setting off even more flank collapse events

Choose the correct size and velocity of the asteroid that created the Chicxulub crater.

✅ 6 miles ⬜️ 500 feet ⬜️ 4,000 feet ✅ 47,000 mph ⬜️ 1,200 mph ⬜️ 7,700 mph

After the Alvarez team brought their findings about the iridium clay layer to light, other scientists began looking for additional clues. They found more evidence to support the Alvarez hypothesis, including a(n) ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ 65 million-year-old sedimentary layer in Haiti containing shocked quartz and spherules ✅ chaotic, thick sedimentary deposit in Cuba about the same age as the clay layer ✅ thick bed of sediment in Mexico that appeared to result from a massive tsunami ⬜️ large, circular crater in Arizona dated to 65 million years ago ⬜️ abundance of tektites scattered across North America that were 65 million years old

Which of the following can be used to recognize a rip current? (Select all that apply.)

✅ A break in the incoming waves ✅ A zone with a different water surface that cuts through the surf zone ✅ A zone of muddy water extending out from shore ⬜️ Unusually large waves breaking on the shore ⬜️ A pulling back of the water from the beach

Which of these factors led to the large scale of the Big Thompson Canyon flash flood in 1976? (Select all that apply.)

✅ A cloudburst from a thunderstorm ✅ 19 cm of rain over four hours ✅ Steep rocky slopes that directed runoff into the canyon ⬜️ A wide, flat valley floor that allowed water to spread out rapidly ⬜️ Collapse of the Big Thompson dam as rainwater filled the reservoir

Which of the following are likely impacts of the eruption of 2,800 km3 of material from Toba 74,000 years ago? (Select all that apply.)

✅ A dense cloud of ash and sulfuric acid in the stratosphere for up to six years ✅ Global cooling by 3 to 5oC for several years ⬜️ Warming by 1.5oC due to high volumes of CO2 being outgassed ✅ Famine and drought ⬜️ Extreme storms in the upper troposphere for several years

You are on a beach. Which of the following can alert you to an incoming tsunami? (Select all that apply.)

✅ A large earthquake ✅ The sea suddenly withdraws from the shore. ⬜️ Interference static on your radio ✅ A loud siren starts blaring. ✅ A sudden change in how the ocean water is behaving ⬜️ The clouds turn black and the wind picks up.

What are the conditions needed to form a hailstorm? (Select all that apply.)

✅ A large thunderstorm with strong updrafts ⬜️ Updrafts created by tornadoes ✅ Upper-level freezing with strong temperature contrasts ⬜️ Limited moisture as compared to most thunderstorms

Which of the following are rock structures that set up slope failure? (Select all that apply.)

✅ A layer of clay ✅ Alternating soft and hard rock layers ✅ Joints, fractures, and faults ⬜️ Earthquakes ⬜️ High water pressure

Which of the following occurred as a result of the Chicxulub impact event 65 million years ago? (Select all that apply.)

✅ A massive earthquake occurred. ✅ Soot and dust launched into the air, blocked sunlight, and reduced global temperatures. ✅ Regional (possibly global) wildfires destroyed vegetation. ⬜️ A massive impact crater changed global sea levels.

Which pieces of evidence point to the Chicxulub structure as being an impact crater? (Select all that apply.)

✅ A thick layer of shattered rock that includes shocked quartz ✅ A generally circular shape ✅ The presence of raised inner and outer rings suggestive of a complex crater ⬜️ Magnetic studies that indicate the presence of a large, spherical object rich in iridium buried at depth

Which of the following are ways that human activities can trigger earthquakes? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Adding or removing material at construction sites ✅ Pumping pressurized fluids underground ✅ Extracting large volumes of groundwater ✅ Setting off underground explosions ⬜️ Making a lot of noise at large sports events ⬜️ Removal of vegetation from forested slopes

The two states where the large majority of earthquake activity occurred from 1974-2003 are ______ and ______.

✅ Alaska ✅ California ⬜️ Utah ⬜️ Nevada ⬜️ Missouri

Which of these are reported signs of climate change? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Appearance of mosquitoes farther north and south ✅ Longer growing seasons ✅ Greenland becoming green ✅ Earlier flowering of plants ⬜️ Noticeably warmer air temperatures ⬜️ Increased number of hurricanes in the Atlantic

How has life responded to the Mount St. Helens eruption since 1980? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Bacteria have cleaned many of the lakes of volcanic debris. ✅ Plants have begun to recolonize barren ground. ⬜️ Plants and animals have continued to avoid the devastated area, and recovery is slow. ⬜️ Biological activity has essentially erased any traces of the eruption.

Which of the following statements explain why basalt is typically a low-viscosity magma? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Basaltic magmas have higher temperatures. ⬜️ Basaltic magmas generally contain more crystals. ⬜️ Basaltic magmas typically have high volatile contents. ✅ Basaltic magmas have lower SiO2 contents. ⬜️ Basaltic magmas have high densities.

The Mississippi River has long "wanted" to abandon its current course and flow down the Atchafalaya River channel to the ocean. What cities would it no longer flow through if the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers allowed it to do so?

✅ Baton Rouge ✅ New Orleans ⬜️ St. Louis ⬜️ Dubuque

Which of the following would be indicators that creep is occurring on a hill slope? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Bent tree trunks ⬜️ Fences leaning upslope ✅ Telephone poles leaning downslope ✅ Bedrock layers deformed downslope ⬜️ Fractures in the slope surface

Which of the following are zones of relatively stable high pressure at around 30° North latitude? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Bermuda high ✅ Pacific high ⬜️ Icelandic high ⬜️ Siberian high

Which of the following are suggestions that have been made to prevent a near-Earth object (NEO) from impacting Earth? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Blowing the NEO apart with a nuclear blast ✅ Attaching a rocket engine to the NEO to push it away from Earth ✅ Using a big mirror to focus sunlight on the NEO to vaporize it ⬜️ Using a series of high-mass spacecraft to slightly modify Earth's orbit and avoid a collision

Which of these gases directly contribute to the greenhouse effect? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Carbon dioxide ✅ Methane ✅ Water vapor ⬜️ Oxygen ⬜️ Nitrogen

Which of the following are considered to be important greenhouse gases? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Carbon dioxide ✅ Water vapor ✅ Methane ✅ Ozone ⬜️ Sulfur dioxide ⬜️ Oxygen

Which of the following were factors that led to major fires in the Great Lakes region in October 1871? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Clear-cutting of native forests ✅ Numerous small fires for clearing farmland ⬜️ Dense communities of wooden houses ✅ Drought conditions in summer and fall ⬜️ Cultivation of high oil-content plants ✅ Gale-force winds from the southwest

How was fire used in the early development and expansion of agriculture? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Clearing land ✅ Creation of fertilizer ⬜️ Energy source for machinery ✅ Scaring away predators ⬜️ Creating new crop types

Why do coastal communities need to build coastal-control structures? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Cliff erosion ⬜️ Rip currents ✅ Beach sand transport ✅ Sea-level rise ⬜️ Tidal bores

Which of the following are kinds of tsunami preparation used in Japan? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Coastal barrier walls ✅ Tsunami alert system ⬜️ Tsunami-proofed buildings ⬜️ Underground shelters

Which of the following factors have contributed to the "sinking" of Venice? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Compaction of soft sediments under the weight of buildings ✅ Global sea-level rise ✅ Pumping of groundwater in the 20th century ⬜️ Overpumping of the Italian oil fields ⬜️ Sinkhole formation in the limestones underlying the city

Which of the following describe conditions during the last glacial maximum, 20,000 years ago? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Continental ice sheets covering about 27% of today's land ✅ Wetter climates in the midlatitudes ✅ Arid conditions in the Indian subcontinent ⬜️ Higher sea levels ⬜️ Disappearance of tropical forests at the equator

Which of the following are the two main categories of schemes that have been proposed to control climate? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Control the CO2 content in the atmosphere ✅ Manage the amount of solar radiation received by Earth ⬜️ Develop drought-resistant crops ⬜️ Create snow and ice in areas of melting ⬜️ Reduce global population size

Reefs can be constructed by which of the following organisms? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Coral ✅ Bryozoans ✅ Red algae ⬜️ Bivalves ⬜️ Photosynthetic bacteria

Which of the following are evidence for massive floods caused by failure of ice dams at the end of the last glacial period? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Countryside stripped of soil and sediment cover ✅ Gravel deposits at high elevations ✅ Large braided channel networks ⬜️ U-shaped valleys ⬜️ Large meandering river channels

Which of the following are types of flow? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Creep ✅ Debris avalanche ✅ Mudflow ⬜️ Slump ⬜️ Subsidence ✅ Debris flow

Which of the following can lead to flooding of a river that is protected by a dam? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Dam failure ✅ Heavy rains that fall downstream of a dam ✅ Overtopping of a dam ⬜️ Reservoir formation ⬜️ Accumulation of sediment in the river downstream of a dam

Which of the following are considered to be structural responses to flood hazards? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Dams ✅ Levees ✅ Channel widening ✅ Sandbagging ⬜️ Construction of channel meanders ⬜️ Flood forecasting

Which two effects on ground surface do dams have that can trigger earthquakes?

✅ Dams cause the earth beneath them to sink isostatically, increasing pressure. ✅ Water seeping underneath the impounded reservoir creates a region of high pressure that may cause fault movement. ⬜️ The accumulation of sediments behind dams can fracture the bedrock underneath. ⬜️ Underground seepage of water can lubricate faults, reducing friction.

Which of the following are processes that release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Decay of organic material ⬜️ Photosynthesis ✅ Fossil fuel burning ✅ Fire ⬜️ Formation of limestone ✅ Plant respiration

Which of these are likely consequences of building a breakwater? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Deposition of sand behind the breakwater ✅ Erosion of sand from beaches farther along the coast ⬜️ Increased coastal erosion behind the breakwater ⬜️ Increased longshore drift behind the breakwater

Which of the following were predictions or comments made in the years before Hurricane Katrina hit New Orleans? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Despite the billions spent to defend the city, the vulnerability grows worse every day. ✅ The levees, meant to protect the city, may fail, causing extensive damage. ⬜️ Evacuation of the entire city is possible and likely with two days' advanced notice of a hurricane's arrival. ⬜️ A tsunami is likely to accompany a major hurricane, increasing the damage caused. ⬜️ Since there has been no history of hurricanes causing problems in New Orleans, scientists think the luck will hold.

Which of the following accurately explain the basic pattern of atmospheric circulation on Earth? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Differential heating and cooling causes the rising and sinking of air masses. ✅ The horizontal movements of air masses are deflected by the rotation of Earth. ✅ The circulation pattern on Earth develops to redistribute the heat. ⬜️ The force of gravity plays only a minor role in structure of atmospheric circulation.

Which of the following were factors that contributed to the 18 November 1929 tsunami that affected Newfoundland, Canada? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Earthquake ✅ Submarine landslide ⬜️ Volcanic eruption ⬜️ Meteorite impact ⬜️ Flank collapse

Which of the following could provide the initial energy that allows a mass of earth or rock to overcome inertia and friction and begin moving downslope? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Earthquake ⬜️ Gravity ✅ Heavy rain ⬜️ Resistance ✅ A bulldozer

Which of the following are the likely possible causes of tsunami in Lake Tahoe, California? (Choose all that apply.)

✅ Earthquakes ✅ Landslides ⬜️ Meteorite strikes ⬜️ Volcanic eruptions

Which of the following are ways in which a stream will typically respond to increases in discharge? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Erosion will increase along its bottom. ✅ The sediment load will increase. ⬜️ The vertical drop of the stream will increase. ⬜️ The sinuosity of the stream will decrease.

How can you reduce the hazard posed to houses from wind-borne debris in a hurricane? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Exterior glass must be shatterproof or protected by shutters or plywood. ✅ Eliminate potential debris by picking up and storing outside items, and encouraging others to do the same. ⬜️ Plant small trees and shrubs around the house to act as windbreaks. ⬜️ Place heavy furniture on the first floor to help hold the house down.

Which of the following are nonstructural responses to flood hazards? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Flood forecasting ✅ Zoning policies ✅ Insurance programs ✅ Evacuation planning ⬜️ Sandbagging ⬜️ Channel widening

Which of the following changes in animal or plant assemblages took place in the wake of the end-Cretaceous extinction? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Flowering plants diversified rapidly. ✅ New bird species appeared to fill the sky. ✅ A different type of reef-building coral appeared, creating new reef environments. ⬜️ Immobile marine organisms were replaced by highly mobile free-swimming predators.

Which of the following are steps to take if you hear thunder but cannot get indoors? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Get inside an automobile, but avoid metal surfaces in it. ✅ Move to the lowest place outside that is unlikely to flood. ⬜️ Hide under a tall tree or other outdoor objects. ⬜️ Put headphones in your ears to protect them.

Which of the following statements are true with regard to the relative amount of water held in each reservoir? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Glaciers contain more water than exists as groundwater ✅ The oceans hold the most water of any of the reservoirs on Earth. ⬜️ There is more water in the atmosphere than there is in lakes (fresh and saline). ⬜️ Rivers contain more water than Earth's glaciers.

Why was Earth's internal energy higher during its early history? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Great abundance of radioactive isotopes ✅ Early gravitational compaction ✅ More frequent meteorite impacts ⬜️ Lack of plate tectonics ⬜️ Fewer continents compared to ocean floor

What factors listed below are thought to increase the number of hurricanes that form in any one hurricane season? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Greater wetness in the western Sahel Region of Africa because a wetter surface provides more nuclei for hurricanes ✅ Warmer sea-surface temperatures, since they provide the needed energy to grow tropical depressions ⬜️ High atmospheric pressure in the Caribbean to allow more time for storm development in the eastern Atlantic Ocean ⬜️ The presence of a strong El Niño in the eastern Pacific

Which of the following explain the distribution of hail in the United States? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Hail is uncommon in Florida because the cold upper-level winds needed are not common. ✅ Hail is prevalent in the midcontinent because the necessary cold upper-level air is common. ⬜️ Hail is common in Florida because airborne sea salt helps to raise the freezing point of water. ⬜️ Hail is absent from thunderstorms in the upper Midwest because any hail that does form is pulled into the polar-front jet stream.

Which of the following are weather conditions associated with an El Niño year? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Heavy rainfall in Peru and Ecuador ✅ Drought in Australia ⬜️ Stronger monsoon in Indonesia ✅ Hurricanes in the central Pacific ⬜️ Drought in California

Which of the following correctly describe typical weather patterns in North America when La Niña conditions are in effect? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Heavy rainfall in the Pacific Northwest ✅ Below-average rainfall in the American Southwest ⬜️ Dry winter conditions in Washington and Oregon ✅ A strong hurricane season on the East Coast

What factors came together to cause the Red River Flood in the spring of 1997? (Choose all that apply.)

✅ Heavy rainfall the previous fall ✅ Heavy snowfall the previous winter ⬜️ A unnoticed leak in the reservoir ✅ A rapid rise in temperature ⬜️ A collapsed dam

Which of the following are life-saving choices to make when threatened by a hurricane? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Hide from the wind in strong structures. ✅ Move quickly to higher ground. ⬜️ Move to low areas to allow wind to pass overhead safely. ⬜️ Open windows to prevent damage to the building.

Which of these statements explain the explosive nature of eruptions at subduction zones? (Select all that apply.)

✅ High silica content of magma ⬜️ Basaltic composition of magma ✅ High water content of magma ⬜️ High pressure of magma ✅ High viscosity of magma ⬜️ High temperature of magma

Which of the following factors contribute to making a hurricane's storm surge higher? (Select all that apply.)

✅ High tides ✅ Larger waves brought by the storm ⬜️ Being on the left-hand side of where the eye makes landfall ⬜️ Being farther away from the eye

Which of the following explain why rhyolitic eruptions are commonly violent and explosive? (Select all that apply.)

✅ High viscosity ✅ High water content ⬜️ High temperature ✅ High silica content ⬜️ High pressure

Which of these are hypotheses proposed to explain how long-runout debris flows move so far and fast? (Select all that apply.)

✅ High water content fluidizes the material ✅ Steam fluidizes the material. ✅ Frictional heating within the flow melts some material. ✅ Air trapped under the flow acts as a lubricant. ⬜️ The impact of the fall shakes the ground, which enhances flow. ⬜️ Large blocks travel farther than smaller ones.

How do tornadoes cause destruction? (Select all that apply.)

✅ High winds simply blow buildings and trees away. ✅ Objects entrained in the winds become like missiles as they impact objects (or people) at high rates of speed. ✅ Strong winds can lift roofs up and off, exposing interiors and weakening walls. ⬜️ Cold temperatures in the center of tornadoes can cause instant freezing and brittle deformation. ⬜️ Lower pressures cause rapid expansion of wood and other building materials, which weakens them.

Which of the following climate mitigation options involve changing energy-usage technologies in order to reduce carbon dioxide emissions? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Hybrid cars ✅ LED lightbulbs ✅ Solar power ⬜️ Fracking ✅ Wind power ⬜️ Clean coal

A scientist determines that "Crystal Volcano" is 5,000 years old. What can that scientist assume about the ages of three other nearby volcanoes? (Select all that apply.)

✅ If the volcanoes were created by subduction, they are likely to be about the same age. ✅ If the volcanoes were created by a hot spot, the ages of the other volcanoes depend on the location of Crystal Volcano in the sequence. ⬜️ If the volcanoes were created by a hot spot, they are all about the same age. ⬜️ Volcanoes created along subduction zones are vastly different in age, so the scientist would have to study each one to determine how old it is.

Which of the following physical or biological changes could result from the breakup of a supercontinent such as Pangaea? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Increases in world shoreline ✅ Reduction in area of continental interiors ✅ Increases in species diversity ⬜️ Increases in sea level ⬜️ Increased geographic range for species

What has been the effect of the triple junction located in the northeast Africa since its development about 25 million years ago? (Select all that apply.)

✅ It has created the Arabian plate by splitting it from northeast Africa. ✅ The influx of seawater into a rift zone has created a sea between Africa and separated the land on the Arabian Plate. ✅ It has created steep escarpments and dramatic valleys in northeast Africa. ⬜️ It has caused powerful subduction zone earthquakes that have killed hundreds of thousands of people in the region.

Why do hurricanes need warm sea-surface temperatures to form? (Select all that apply.)

✅ It increases the amount of water vapor that can be stored in the atmosphere by warming the air from below. ⬜️ The warmer surface water has greater amounts of the dissolved salts needed to seed cloud formation. ✅ Warmer water evaporates at a faster rate, and this transfers latent heat into the storm more quickly. ⬜️ Warmer water provides much less frictional resistance to wind, allowing greater wind speed to develop.

Select the statements below that accurately describe the 1964 earthquake event in Alaska. (Select all that apply.)

✅ It occurred on Good Friday, 27 March. ✅ The earthquake had a magnitude of 9.2Mw. ⬜️ It was caused by a fault along a spreading center. ✅ The ground shook for a long time, causing many mass-wasting events and a large tsunami. ⬜️ It happened during a high tide.

Why is the surface of Earth as warm as it is? (Select all that apply.)

✅ It receives energy from the Sun. ✅ Some energy is trapped in the lower atmosphere by the greenhouse effect. ⬜️ Earth's rotational velocity provides friction that warms the lower atmosphere. ⬜️ Earth gains an substantial amount of energy from stars in the Milky Way.

Which of the following describe the 1815 eruption of Tambora Volcano in Indonesia? (Choose all that apply.)

✅ It started with a Plinian eruption. ✅ The eruption lasted 1 week. ✅ It created the "year without a summer." ⬜️ Approximately 10,000 people died. ⬜️ The primary hazard was a poisonous gas cloud.

Which of the following accurately describe the Wind Chill Chart? (Select all that apply.)

✅ It states the apparent temperature felt on exposed skin at a given wind speed. ✅ It lists the time, in minutes, skin can be safely exposed to wind at a given temperature. ⬜️ It lists the amount of calories needed to maintain homeostasis when skin is exposed to wind at a given speed. ✅ Wind speeds in the chart are measured at face level.

Which of the following accurately describe the eyewall of a hurricane? (Select all that apply.)

✅ It typically contains the highest wind speeds. ⬜️ It typically contains almost no rain. ✅ Winds in it are spiraling upward. ⬜️ The air in the eyewall is adiabatically warming as it changes altitude.

Which of the following are true about Hurricane Camille? (Select all that apply.)

✅ It was a category 5 hurricane that hit the United States. ✅ The storm surge killed 30 people at a "hurricane party" along the coast. ⬜️ Its landfall in the United States occurred in Virginia. ⬜️ It had a clockwise rather than a counterclockwise rotation.

Which of the following are true about Hurricane Katrina? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Katrina was a category 5 storm. ⬜️ Katrina first made landfall near New Orleans. ✅ It became a named storm in August 2005. ⬜️ It was reduced in size by cool waters in the Gulf of Mexico.

The New Madrid earthquakes permanently reformed the landscape, visible today as ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ Lake St. Francis and Reelfoot Lake ✅ long, low cliffs scattered across the countryside ✅ waterfalls along some streams ⬜️ massive sinkholes located near the cities of St. Louis and Louisville ⬜️ large scarps that continue for many kilometers north and south of the town of New Madrid

Which of the following are true in regard to large-scale surface water circulation in the world's oceans? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Large clockwise circulation patterns exist in the North Hemisphere in both the Atlantic and Pacific. ✅ Large counterclockwise circulation patterns exist in the southern Pacific and southern Atlantic. ✅ A surface ocean current flows around Antarctica in the Southern Ocean. ⬜️ Currents moving from high to low latitude are warm water currents.

Which of the following distinguish hurricanes from storms formed at higher latitudes? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Latent heat released by the condensation of water vapor is the main energy source. ⬜️ They do not weaken when they move over land. ✅ They are not associated with fronts. ✅ They can become stronger when high-altitude winds are weaker. ✅ Air in the center is warmer and descending.

Which of the following describe a primary (P) wave? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Moves in a push-pull fashion ✅ The first to reach a recording station ⬜️ Cannot travel through fluids ⬜️ Has a shearing motion ⬜️ Slower than surface waves ✅ Can travel through any material

The combined movements of the ______, ______, and ______ plates account for most of the seismic activity experienced in North America.

✅ North American ✅ Farallon ✅ Pacific ⬜️ South American ⬜️ Nazca

Which of the following attributes can be used to distinguish between normal ocean waves (as shown here) and tsunami? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Ocean waves are generated by the wind. ✅ Tsunami have longer wavelengths. ⬜️ Ocean waves have longer periods. ✅ Ocean waves break at the shore and retreat. ⬜️ Tsunami waves have less water mass behind the wave front.

Why do ocean water depths increase away from the midocean ridges? (Check all that apply.)

✅ Older oceanic crust is denser and thus sits lower on the asthenosphere. ⬜️ Cold ocean water is less dense and thus takes up more space. ⬜️ The oceans are always deepest at their center. ✅ The accumulation of sediments over time adds weight to the seafloor.

The arrival times of which two types of seismic wave are used to calculate the location of an earthquake's epicenter? (Select all that apply.)

✅ P wave ✅ S wave ⬜️ Love wave ⬜️ Rayleigh wave

Why do summer monsoons form? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Rapid heating of the land in summer and the resulting heating of the lower atmosphere ✅ Warmed and moist air rises and cools, which causes it to reach the saturation point, and rain is formed. ⬜️ Cold, dry air blows toward land from the ocean. ⬜️ Warm oceans cause the formation of low-pressure systems above them, and those systems get moved over land and then deliver their rains.

Why does lake-effect snow occur? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Saturated air moving over a colder land surface from the water cools and slows as it drops snow. ✅ Air traveling over a large stretch of open water (fetch) absorbs moisture from the surface. ⬜️ Evaporating water releases heat, which forces air to rise and reach 100% relative humidity. ⬜️ Cold water in lakes cools moist air, causing snow to form by the time the air mass reaches land.

Which of the following are used to classify different types of mass movement? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Speed of movement ✅ Water content ⬜️ Death toll ⬜️ Steepness of slope ⬜️ Depth of slip plane

A number of large cities lie within the New Madrid seismic zone, including ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ St. Louis ✅ Memphis ✅ Nashville ⬜️ Milwaukee ⬜️ Cincinnati ⬜️ Chicago

Which of the following are factors that can increase the likelihood of a snow avalanche? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Steep slope ✅ Thick accumulation of snow ⬜️ Cold temperatures ⬜️ Weak underlying rocks

Which of the following are consequences of groundwater pumping in Houston? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Subsidence ✅ Renewed movement on old faults ⬜️ Mud volcanoes ⬜️ Earthquakes

Which of the following accurately describe the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Surface winds meeting from each hemisphere are forced upward and produce heavy rains. ✅ The location of the ITCZ varies throughout the year. ⬜️ The ITCZ is unaffected by the seasons since the oceans in the area store so much heat. ✅ The winds blowing together to form the ITCZ are the trade winds from each hemisphere.

What two factors are used to calculate the heat index, or the perceived temperature?

✅ Temperature ⬜️ Wind speed ✅ Relative humidity ⬜️ Dew point

Which of the following are occurring as a result of rapid warming in the Arctic? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Thawing of permafrost ✅ Release of CO2 and methane from thawed permafrost ✅ Wildfires in dried-out permafrost ⬜️ Glacial advance ⬜️ Absorption of CO2 into thawed permafrost soils

Why is the Red River of the North so susceptible to regional flooding? (Select all that apply.)

✅ The Red River valley is not very deep. ✅ The slope of the riverbed is very gentle. ✅ Snowmelt flows northward into still-frozen portions of the river. ⬜️ The population density in the region is very high. ⬜️ The region frequently has warm, wet winters that swell the river.

Which of the following accurately describe a part of the global energy budget? (Select all that apply.)

✅ The amount of incoming solar radiation equals the combined amount of outgoing short and long wavelength radiation. ✅ Half of the incoming solar radiation is scattered or reflected before striking the ground. ⬜️ Sensible heat transfer to the atmosphere from the ground is greater than latent heat transfer. ✅ Most of the outgoing long wavelength radiation from the ground is absorbed in the atmosphere.

Why are tornadoes so common in the United States? (Select all that apply.)

✅ The central part of the country has low-lying topography that does not disrupt the flow of air. ✅ Ideal conditions for thunderstorms exist in the spring and summer in the central and southern portions of the country. ✅ Warm, most air from the Gulf of Mexico meets colder air flowing down from the north. ⬜️ The polar-front jet stream helps to limit wind shear in upper portion of storms.

What are the natural conditions that help to increase the threat from cyclones in Bangladesh? (Select all that apply.)

✅ The country mostly sits atop of low-lying delta sediments, and they are sinking as they compact. ✅ The topography and orientation of the land and water funnel storms toward Bangladesh. ⬜️ Powerful upper-levels winds in the area tend to strengthen storms. ⬜️ A large ocean gyre in the Indian Ocean helps to give hurricanes their spin.

Which of the following are realistic theories about how tornadoes form? (Select all that apply.)

✅ The decrease in the axis of rotation from mesocyclones, to wall clouds, to small structures increases the angular momentum. ✅ Vortexes are stretched by their own rotation and that further increases the wind speed as they contract. ✅ Rain in the trailing edge of a thunderstorm creates a downdraft, which pulls a portion of the rotating mesocyclone down with it to create a tornado. ⬜️ Thunder produced by lightning in supercells alternatively compresses and expands air, which creates the wind shear needed to produce tornadoes.

Which of the following are observations about changes in Arctic sea ice since 1979? (Select all that apply.)

✅ The extent of sea ice is decreasing every decade. ✅ Sea ice is thinner than it used to be. ✅ Sea ice is younger in age than it used to be. ⬜️ Sea ice is expanding in the eastern Arctic but melting to the west. ⬜️ Sea ice extent is decreasing, but ice thickness is increasing.

Which of the following statements about the impact of an Ice Age on Earth's climate zones are true? (Select all that apply.)

✅ The frigid zones expand to the north and south from the poles. ✅ The torrid zone shrinks but does not go away. ⬜️ The three zones become one single frigid zone. ✅ The temperate zone retreats toward the equator. ⬜️ The temperate zone disappears and the torrid zone becomes temperate.

The accompanying image shows the cross-section of a lake that has been disturbed by prior seismic activity. Based upon this cross-section, which of the following statements must be true? (Select all that apply.)

✅ The lake is bounded by a thrust fault. ⬜️ The lake is bounded by a normal fault. ✅ Two earthquakes have occurred since sedimentation began in the lake. ✅ Earthquakes occur, on average, every 250 years. ⬜️ The earthquake that occurred 745 years ago was greater in magnitude than the earthquake that occurred 500 years ago.

Which of the following are important steps in the development of a thunderstorm? (Select all that apply.)

✅ The release of latent heat as condensation occurs ⬜️ The scattering and reflection of the majority of the incoming solar radiation ✅ The heating and rising of warm and humid air near the surface ⬜️ A raising of the air pressure as cold upper-level air descends and warms

Select all the statements below about the San Andreas fault that are accurate.

✅ The section south of San Francisco has frequent small- to moderate-size earthquakes in this "creeping" part of the fault. ⬜️ The section in San Francisco has large earthquakes that occur about every two years in this "jumping" part of the fault. ✅ The fault segment north of Los Angeles is a locked zone and experiences large earthquakes when movement occurs. ⬜️ The southern-most segment of the San Andreas fault has caused some of the largest earthquakes ever recorded in California.

What factors contributed to the collapse of Interstate 880 during the World Series (Loma Prieta) earthquake? (Select all that apply.)

✅ The supporting columns failed at joints where the steel bars in them were discontinuous. ✅ The supporting columns failed as the soft ground beneath them was deformed by the shaking. ⬜️ Bricks used to build the supporting columns fractured in the shaking produced by the earthquake. ⬜️ Sections built on sand and gravel rolled back and forth farther than projected, causing them to fail.

Why is water so easily adsorbed onto the surface of clay minerals? (Select all that apply.)

✅ The water molecule is bipolar, with a positive charge on one side and a negative charge on the other. ✅ The surfaces of clay minerals have a negative charge. ⬜️ Clay minerals have large spaces in their crystal structure that can accommodate water. ⬜️ Clay minerals are weakly magnetic and attract the water molecules.

According to this image, which of the following statements about the age of the seafloor are correct? (Select all that apply.)

✅ The youngest oceanic rocks are found at the midocean ridges. ✅ The seafloor gets progressively older away from the midocean ridges. ✅ The oldest rocks of the seafloor are approximately 180 million years old. ⬜️ The oldest rocks of the seafloor are found near the midocean ridges. ⬜️ The volcanic rocks of the seafloor are much older than the rocks of the continents.

What are the problems posed by the widespread use of concrete floor slabs in Haiti? (Select all that apply.)

✅ They are weak in earthquakes. ✅ They are heavy. ✅ They are supported by flimsy concrete columns that fail in earthquakes. ⬜️ They accelerate fires burning in the aftermath of earthquakes due to a flammable chemical used to make them.

Which of the following accurately describe cyclones? (Select all that apply.)

✅ They have a surface-level clockwise flow around them in the Southern Hemisphere. ✅ They have a core of low pressure with rising air. ⬜️ They are associated with dry conditions in their centers. ⬜️ Surface air flows outward from their centers.

Which of the following accurately explain the distribution of thunderstorms in the United States? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Thunderstorms are common in Florida because warm air masses from the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico converge there and are forced upward. ⬜️ In the central and southern United States, thunderstorms are produced as dry air from the west increases rates of evaporation in lakes and streams. ✅ In the west-central United States, warm, moist air comes in contact with warm, dry, desert air, and the moist air is pushed upward. ⬜️ In the upper Midwest, strong tornadoes produce regional updrafts, which produce air-mass thunderstorms.

From a standpoint of limiting hurricane damage, which of the following are good land-use ideas for coastal areas? (Select all that apply.)

✅ Use low-lying areas for parks, farms, or natural reserves instead of for buildings. ✅ Use higher and more protected land for housing. ⬜️ Allow rebuilding to occur where damage has recently happened, since the recurrence interval has been reset there. ⬜️ Concentrate buildings near coastal rivers and lakes.

The conditions for a slab avalanche occur when ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ a layer of heavily cemented snow sits on top of loose snow ✅ a warm, dense layer of snow sits on a cold, low-density layer ✅ two layers of snow are separated by a melt-freeze crust ⬜️ a thick layer of loose, powdery snow accumulates on top of a layer of cemented snow ⬜️ layers of packed snow are unable to form due to high winds

Pyroclastic debris can be deposited by ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ air-fall from an ash cloud ⬜️ the breakup of lava flows as they cool ⬜️ lava domes ✅ high-speed, gas-charged flows

The Richter magnitude scale is only useful for assessing earthquakes that _______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ are moderate in size ✅ occur nearby ⬜️ are a magnitude 8 or larger ⬜️ have an epicenter at least 3,000 km away ⬜️ have a duration of one minute or longer

The intensity of an earthquake varies with _____. (Select all that apply.)

✅ distance from the epicenter ⬜️ time of day of the earthquake ✅ bedrock type ✅ building style ⬜️ population density ✅ magnitude

The 2011 Japanese tsunami caused damage in other locations including ______. (Choose all that apply.)

✅ dock and boat damage in California ✅ massive bird deaths on Midway Atoll ⬜️ the destruction of homes in Italy ✅ damage to homes in Chile

It is jokingly stated that California has four seasons, which are _______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ flood ✅ drought ✅ fire ✅ earthquake ⬜️ monsoon ⬜️ freeze ⬜️ bake

The fire triangle is a reference to the three components fire needs to burn, which are ________, heat, and _________. (Select all that apply.)

✅ fuel ✅ oxygen ⬜️ carbon dioxide ⬜️ water

Steep topography aids the formation of flash foods by ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ helping convective thunderstorms to form ✅ channeling water into narrow, steep valleys ⬜️ collecting snow and ice at high elevations ⬜️ preventing the easy flow of rivers

A pyroclastic flow ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ is a mixture of magma, volcanic ash and gas, and air ✅ can move at speeds that exceed 100 m/sec ✅ can reach temperatures of 350o C ⬜️ forms when airborne pyroclasts of various sizes begin to rain down upon the ground ⬜️ are rarely responsible for volcano-related deaths

The Long Valley-Mammoth Lakes area in California ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ is an area of abundant crustal melting ✅ experienced a major eruption 760,000 years ago that influenced its modern geography ⬜️ makes up part of the Cascade Range along with Mount Rainier and Mount St. Helens ⬜️ sits above a hot spot, similar to the Yellowstone caldera

The Intermountain Seismic Belt ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ is the eastern boundary for the Great Basin ✅ encompasses parts of Utah, Idaho, Wyoming, and Montana ✅ experiences earthquakes that result from the North American plate being stretched apart ⬜️ consists of a series of faults running between the Sierra Nevada and White-Inyo Mountains in eastern California ⬜️ is the westernmost boundary of the Rocky Mountains

Several factors contributed to the end-Cretaceous extinction, including ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ long-term changes to sea level and climate ✅ flood basalt volcanism ✅ an asteroid impact ⬜️ upwelling of anoxic bottom waters into shallow marine environments ⬜️ the formation of a supercontinent that increased competition among organisms

Species go extinct every day for a variety of reasons, including ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ low population size ✅ reduced geographic area ✅ predation ⬜️ sudden mass dying events

The end-Cretaceous extinction is best known for the elimination of dinosaurs. However, many other animal groups also went extinct, including ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ marine reptiles ✅ ammonoids ⬜️ bony fishes ⬜️ mammals

The word astrobleme ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ means "star wound" ✅ describes impact scars ⬜️ refers to large asteroids and comets that could potentially impact Earth ⬜️ describes the destructive effect of Earth's atmosphere on meteorites.

The Siberian flood basalt had a tremendous effect on Earth's climate because it ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ melted Siberian permafrost, releasing large amounts of methane frozen in hydrates ✅ released large amounts of carbon and sulfur dioxide as it rose through sedimentary rocks toward the surface ✅ emitted large amounts of carbon dioxide as part of outgassing ⬜️ released large amounts of Earth's internal heat, warming the surface

Antarctica is a great place to collect meteorites because ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ meteorites are stored in the ice, protecting them from weathering and erosion ✅ ice flow can concentrate meteorites in one area, making them easier to discover ⬜️ most meteorites impact Earth near the poles, so meteorite abundance is much greater there than elsewhere ⬜️ the thinning atmosphere above Antarctica allows more meteorites to reach the surface intact

Human-induced earthquakes can be triggered by ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ nuclear explosions ✅ dam construction ✅ underground pumping of fluids ⬜️ highway construction ⬜️ building demolition

Plate tectonics have a major impact on Earth, because over time, tectonic activity can change the ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ number and size of landmasses ✅ rise and fall of sea level ⬜️ size and volume of Earth ⬜️ shape of Earth's orbit ⬜️ orientation of Earth's axis

Regional floods differ from flash floods in that they ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ occur over a wider area ✅ can last for several weeks ✅ occur in large river valleys ⬜️ occur in regions with steep topography ⬜️ result from short burst of very heavy rainfall

Magnetic reversals ______. (Choose all that apply.)

✅ occur randomly ⬜️ occur approximately every 120,000 years ✅ are related to changes in the outer core ⬜️ are caused by the pull of the Moon's gravity ⬜️ have occurred many times in the past but will never occur again

Annualized earthquake losses are calculated from a number of factors, including ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ population size ✅ building types ✅ shaking potential ⬜️ historical earthquake activity ⬜️ measured crustal strain

Pyroclasts, the shattered fragments of erupted magma thrown up into the atmosphere during an eruption, are brought back to ground during the formation of ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ pyroclastic flows ✅ pyroclastic surges ✅ pyroclastic falls ⬜️ lahars ⬜️ pyroclastic seeps

Fault-movement timing groups fall into one of three classifications: ______ movements, ______ movements, and ______ movements.

✅ quasi-periodic ✅ clustered ✅ random ⬜️ perennial ⬜️ diurnal

After a study of flood potential in New Orleans was conducted in response to the 1927 flood, new flood control measures were put in place, including _____. (Select all that apply.)

✅ raised levees and new levees ✅ dredging of the river bottom ✅ construction of dams ⬜️ diversion of the river channel away from the city ✅ construction of floodways ⬜️ raising of the ground level by 12 feet

Continued human development near Mount Shasta could prove disastrous because ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ several towns are already located within the danger zone for pyroclastic flows ✅ nearby towns are located in valleys, which are more susceptible to lahar flows ⬜️ seismic activity created by human construction has been linked to rising magma beneath Mount Shasta ✅ the rock record shows previous eruptions of Mount Shasta were much larger than those of Mount St. Helens

Thrust faults ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ tend to be inclined at a shallow angle ✅ occur when one rock mass is pushed above another in a reverse fault movement ⬜️ occur when one rock mass is forced beneath another in a normal fault movement ⬜️ usually occur at very steep angles

The end of the Permian period was marked by numerous events that contributed to mass extinction, such as ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ the Siberian flood basalt ✅ drastically lowered sea level ✅ increases in chemical weathering on land ⬜️ a large asteroid impact near the Yucatan peninsula ⬜️ the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea

Subduction zone volcanoes affect humans more than any other type of volcanic activity because ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ the areas around subduction zone volcanoes are often heavily populated ✅ they eject material directly into the atmosphere, causing short-term changes in climate ⬜️ they produce more lava each year than any other type of volcano ⬜️ massive, civilization-ending eruptions are most often associated with these volcanoes

The damage caused by the 2001 Tacoma-Olympia earthquake was largely the result of ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ the settling of soft sediments from shaking ✅ inadequate earthquake protections built into older structures ⬜️ the shallow location of the earthquake hypocenter ⬜️ compounded damage to previously weakened structures caused by a series of foreshocks

The mineral stishovite, fused masses of sand grains, and shatter cones are found in rocks that form ______. (Select all that apply.)

✅ under intense pressure ✅ under intense heating ⬜️ from collisions between asteroids in outer space ⬜️ on the surfaces of comets

Seiches can be generated by ________. (Select all that apply.)

✅ winds ✅ earthquakes ⬜️ landslides ⬜️ tides

True or false: A tsunami passing a ship on the open ocean may go unnoticed by those on board.

➕ True

True or false: Ancient slide surfaces tend to be reused over time, with multiple slides occurring along the same slip surface.

➕ True

True or false: Global temperatures today exceed that of any time in the past 1,000 years, including the Medieval Maximum.

➕ True

True or false: Jet streams have significant influence on where air masses move.

➕ True

True or false: Landslides don't have to occur on land. They are also common on the seafloor.

➕ True

True or false: Magma at great depths does not contain gas bubbles.

➕ True

True or false: Some of the earthquakes in the San Francisco Bay area seem to occur in pairs.

➕ True

The 1988 Yellowstone fires were a tragedy that permanently destroyed many unique habitats.

➖ False

True or false: A Plinian eruption is followed by a Vulcanian eruption rather than the other way around.

➖ False

True or false: A particularly cold winter in a region represents a change in climate.

➖ False

True or false: All locations experience two high tides and two low tides every day.

➖ False

True or false: All volcanism is associated with tectonic plate boundaries.

➖ False

True or false: Flash floods are smaller than regional floods and therefore result in fewer fatalities and less economic loss.

➖ False

True or false: Flood forecasting has been an important factor in reducing the economic impact of large floods.

➖ False

True or false: Low-frequency seismic waves tend to die out first, at shorter distances from the hypocenter.

➖ False

True or false: Monitoring seismic waves and ground deformation are surefire methods for predicting impending volcanic eruptions.

➖ False

True or false: People on the coast will always feel an earthquake before a tsunami hits.

➖ False

True or false: Sandbagging is an extremely effective way of preventing a flood.

➖ False

True or false: Slow-moving mass movements are responsible for more deaths than fast-moving ones.

➖ False

True or false: Thanks to the popular National Flood Insurance Program, the economic impact of the 1997 Red River of the North flood was greatly reduced.

➖ False

True or false: The Earth formed its compositional layers (core, mantle, crust, atmosphere) by accretion in stages: first iron-rich materials, followed by rocky materials, and finally by ices.

➖ False

True or false: The best fit of the continents to form Pangaea occurs when you match the shorelines.

➖ False

True or false: The flood control measures in place on the San Diego River will be able to handle floods as large as measured in 1916 at 72,000 ft3/sec.

➖ False

True or false: The most likely scenario for a warming climate will result in less precipitation for all geographic areas.

➖ False

Which of these are ways in which a building can be designed to eliminate the occurrence of resonance? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ Add mass to the upper floors ✅ Change the height of the building ✅ Change the degree of attachment to the foundation ⬜️ Change the total weight of the building ✅ Change the type of building materials

Which of the following would result in an increase of water density? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ An increase in the temperature of the water ✅ An increase in the amount of dissolved salts ✅ The evaporation of some surface water ✅ A decrease in the temperature of the water

Which of these statements describe the fault shown here? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ Reverse ✅ Right-lateral ⬜️ Left-lateral ✅ Strike-slip ⬜️ Dip-slip ⬜️ Normal

Which plate tectonic settings are not associated with volcanic activity? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ Spreading centers ✅ Continental collision zones ⬜️ Subduction zones ✅ Transform faults ⬜️ Continental rifts

According to graded-stream theory, which of the following are true? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ Streams are more likely to have meanders in the their upstream portions than braided sections. ✅ Streams are more likely to have braided sections in their upstream portions than meandering sections. ⬜️ The worldwide similarity of longitudinal stream profiles indicates the underlying geology does not determine a stream's path. ✅ All streams operate in a state of delicate equilibrium by constantly changing the grade of the stream bottom.

Which of the following describe atmospheric circulation in the Polar cells? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ Surface-level winds from around the world meet at poles and are forced upward, creating a zone of low pressure. ✅ Cold, dense air flows from the polar regions toward lower latitudes. ⬜️ The surface winds in the polar regions blow toward the equator and meet the trade winds at 30° latitude. ✅ The Polar cell is driven by rising air near 60° latitude as low-level winds from the Polar and Ferrel cells meet.

Examine this map, which shows the plate configuration 65 million years ago. Which of the following statements are true? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ The Atlantic Ocean had separated North America from Europe by 65 million years ago. ✅ The Mediterranean Sea had begun to form by 65 million years ago. ✅ India was still separated from Asia 65 million years ago. ✅ Australia was connected to Antarctica 65 millions years ago. ⬜️ North and South America were connected by a land bridge 65 million years ago.

Which of the following accurately describe the tectonic boundaries of the Pacific plate? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ The Pacific plate is created and spreads out from Hawaii and other hot spots in the central Pacific. ✅ Slide-past motions dominate in the northeast Pacific and along its eastern border with California. ✅ Smaller earthquakes occur at its spreading centers. ✅ The Pacific Plate subducts along its northern and western edges.

Which of the following statements are true with regard to the latent heat absorbed or released during phase changes of water? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ The amount of energy released when water freezes is the same amount released when water vapor condenses. ✅ The amount of energy input needed to turn ice directly into vapor is equal to the combined amount needed to melt water first and then evaporate it. ✅ The energy stored as the latent heat of vaporization equals the energy stored as latent heat of condensation. ⬜️ The energy stored as the latent heat of fusion is greater than the energy released as the latent heat of condensation.

Which of the following statements explain why spreading centers are the ideal locations for volcanism? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ The asthenosphere below spreading centers has a high water content. ⬜️ Spreading centers are associated with high-temperature hot spots. ✅ Spreading centers lie above the high-temperature asthenosphere. ⬜️ The asthenosphere below spreading centers has a very low viscosity. ✅ The upward motion of the asthenosphere below spreading centers causes a decrease in pressure.

Which of the following are true about floods in Florence, Italy? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ The flood of 1966 was caused by a tsunami pushing water upstream. ✅ The flood of November 1333 was the biggest flood on record for 633 years. ⬜️ The long history of floods in Florence has given scientists enough confidence that to say that the 1966 flood is the largest possible flood. ✅ Floods in Florence leave behind thick deposits of mud and other debris.

Which of the following describe circulation in the Ferrel cells? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ There is a powerful and well-defined vertical column of upward moving air near 60° latitude where surface-level winds meet. ✅ Surface-level winds move toward higher latitude and form the winds known as the westerlies. ✅ Upper-level airflows in the Ferrel cells are not well-defined. ⬜️ The heat in the Ferrel cells drives the circulation in it and the other two cells (Polar and Hadley).

Select all of the true statements regarding the tornado event that occurred on May 22, 2011, in Joplin, Missouri.

⬜️ There was no official tornado warning before the tornado struck Joplin. ✅ It killed over 100 people and ranked as one the deadliest in U.S. history. ✅ The tornado was large, powerful, and traveled along the ground for many kilometers. ⬜️ High winds associated with the tornado caused people to die from hypothermia.

Which of the following are accurate about the naming of hurricanes in the North Atlantic basin? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ They are named after the nearest town when they first become hurricanes. ✅ If more than 21 named storms occur in a year, the rest are named after letters in the Greek alphabet. ⬜️ Hurricanes were first named in 1883. ✅ Hurricanes are currently named using both typically male and typically female names. ✅ When a hurricane is particularly deadly or destructive, the name is never used again.

Which of the following accurately describe the structure of hurricanes? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ They are single, uniform convective storms. ✅ They are composed of numerous thunderstorm bands that move in rotating spirals around a center. ⬜️ They have a general surface-wind flow pattern of air moving out from a center of high pressure. ✅ They have convergent wind flow at low levels, rising convective clouds, and divergent winds at upper levels. ⬜️ Rainfall is evenly distributed across hurricanes.

Which of the following accurately describe the Hadley cells? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ They are the least energetic of the three convection cells. ✅ They are located between the equator and around 30ο latitude in each hemisphere. ✅ The rising limb of each Hadley cell is located near the equator. ⬜️ Descending air near 30ο latitude in each latitude brings heavy rain to those regions.

Which of the following accurately describe derechos? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ They mostly are caused by individual air-mass thunderstorms. ✅ They commonly extend along a line of at least 400 km (250 mi) long. ✅ In the United States, they mostly occur in middle and eastern states. ⬜️ In the United States, they are most common during a two-week period around the winter solstice.

Which of these descriptions distinguishes a caldera from a crater? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ Topographic depression ⬜️ Formed by outward explosion ✅ Greater than 2 km in diameter ✅ Formed by inward collapse ⬜️ Less than 2 km in diameter

Which of the following accurately describe surface circulation in the North Atlantic Ocean? (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ Warm waters are moved up the east side of the Atlantic ocean from Africa towards western Europe. ✅ Surface waters are blown westward from Africa toward the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico. ✅ North America blocks the western flow of warm water, causing it to move poleward along its southeast coast in the Gulf Stream. ⬜️ The large-scale rotation of surface water in the Atlantic is counterclockwise.

Love waves are a type of surface wave. They are similar to S waves in that they ____________. (Select all that apply.)

⬜️ travel with a push-pull motion parallel to their direction of advance ✅ cannot travel through fluids but can travel through solid material ✅ travel with a shearing motion at right angles to their direction of advance ⬜️ can travel through both fluids and solids ⬜️ are extremely fast-moving

According to this graph, a flood that has a 5-year recurrence interval in a rural area would have a ______-year recurrence interval in a highly urbanized area.

🔘 0.4 ⚪️ 22 ⚪️ 2 ⚪️ 4

The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo led to lowering of mean global temperatures by ______.

🔘 0.5oC ⚪️ 0.1oC ⚪️ 5.0oC ⚪️ 1.2oC

How much did global temperature rise in the 20th century?

🔘 0.6oC (+/- 0.2oC) ⚪️ 0.1oC (+/- 0.1oC) ⚪️ 1.3oC (+/- 0.5oC) ⚪️ 2.0oC (+/- 0.6oC)

In low-lying areas of the Gulf and Atlantic coasts, how much sea level rise is needed to move the ocean front 1,000 ft inland?

🔘 1 ft ⚪️ 10 ft ⚪️ 1000 ft ⚪️ 100 ft

Geologic studies suggest that the outer layers of Earth were active in the process of plate tectonics by at least _____ billion years ago.

🔘 1.5 ⚪️ 4.6 ⚪️ 3.5 ⚪️ 2.5

Based upon observational evidence of the Moon's surface, it is estimated that a major impact occurs somewhere on the surface about every ______ years.

🔘 110 million ⚪️ 10 million ⚪️ 10,000 ⚪️ 1,000

According to the flood frequency curve for the Navasota River, a flood event with a discharge of 60,000 cubic feet per second has a recurrence interval of approximately ______ years.

🔘 20 ⚪️ 60 ⚪️ 8 ⚪️ 100

The last glacial maximum occurred ________ years ago.

🔘 20,000 ⚪️ 1,000,000 ⚪️ 300,000

Approximately how many of the buildings in Goma, Zaire, were destroyed by a lava flow in January 2002?

🔘 25% ⚪️ 5% ⚪️ 60% ⚪️ 85%

The typical "life span" of a species, from its appearance to its extinction, is about ______ years.

🔘 4 million ⚪️ 1 million ⚪️ 100 million ⚪️ 400,000

According to the flood recurrence interval equation, a flood that occurs in 2014, after 149 years of record keeping, and is the third largest ever recorded has a recurrence interval of _______ years.

🔘 50 ⚪️ 120 ⚪️ 45 ⚪️ 78

The 1872 Owens Valley earthquake had an estimated magnitude of ______.

🔘 7.4 ⚪️ 9.0 ⚪️ 8.1 ⚪️ 6.5

So much stress was released in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake that it took approximately ______ years until large earthquakes occurred there again.

🔘 70 ⚪️ 125 ⚪️ 35

At the close of the Permian period, about ______ percent or more of marine animal species went extinct, making it the worst mass extinction in geologic history.

🔘 80 ⚪️ 70 ⚪️ 60 ⚪️ 50 ⚪️ 90

Based upon the size of the felt area, the New Madrid earthquakes appear to have been about ______ magnitude in size. However, size of the fault-rupture lengths suggests that the actual size of the earthquakes was about ______ magnitude.

🔘 8; 7 ⚪️ 7; 8 ⚪️ 7; 5 ⚪️ 6; 7

What caused the large tsunami that struck Indonesia on 26 December 2004?

🔘 A long (1,500 km) fault rupture at a convergent plate boundary where a plate is being subducted ⚪️ An sudden increase in the tectonic spreading rate at a nearby spreading center ⚪️ A volcanic eruption triggered by a small earthquake ⚪️ An earthquake that ruptured along a nearby transform fault

Which of the following occurred first in the eruptive sequence of Mount St. Helens in 1980?

🔘 A magnitude 5.1 earthquake occurred. ⚪️ A newly-formed bulge slide away in a massive landslide. ⚪️ A lateral blast of pyroclastic material occurred. ⚪️ A vertical blast of pyroclastic material occurred.

How do streams respond to an increase in sediment load?

🔘 A negative feedback is triggered as sediment is deposited on the stream bottom, thereby increasing the gradient and velocity. ⚪️ A positive feedback is triggered as stream banks fall into the river and further increase the sediment load. ⚪️ A negative feedback is triggered as base level is lowered and the slope of the stream increases. ⚪️ A positive feedback is triggered as velocity is decreased as load increases, thereby further decreasing the sediment-carrying capacity of the stream.

Which of the following best describes a cinder cone?

🔘 A relatively small cone constructed of pyroclastic debris piled up next to a central vent ⚪️ A large, broad, gently sloping volcano constructed of solidified lava flows ⚪️ A large cone composed of alternating layers of pyroclastic fragments and solidified lava flows

If high pressure exists on land and low pressure exists over a neighboring ocean, which way will the wind most likely blow?

🔘 Out toward the ocean ⚪️ In toward the land ⚪️ Up over the land and down over the ocean ⚪️ Down over the land and up over the ocean

How does the inward drop in air pressure cause heat to be added to a hurricane that is over the ocean?

🔘 Air flowing inward cools adiabatically, allowing it to bring up additional heat from the warm ocean below. ⚪️ Air flowing inward warms adiabatically, causing additional heat to be added to the storm. ⚪️ It raises the energy input need to cause evaporation, thereby causing the storage of more latent heat. ⚪️ More sunlight is able to pass through the air when it is under lower pressure, allowing more heating of the ocean's surface.

What tenet of elastic-rebound theory do scientists now think is no longer true?

🔘 All of the elastic strain in rocks is removed following a big earthquake. ⚪️ Friction prevents rock from constantly moving in response to the buildup of stress. ⚪️ Applied stresses slowly accumulate over time until they overcome frictional forces, generating an earthquake.

What do the end-Permian, end-Cretaceous, and late Quaternary extinctions have in common?

🔘 All three were caused by a combination of factors. ⚪️ All three were the result of an asteroid or comet impact. ⚪️ A coral reef "gap" exists following each of the mass extinctions. ⚪️ They all occurred during a period of time when Earth's magnetic field was weakened.

Since hurricane deaths in the United States are down due to improvements in providing advance warnings, why are economic damages up?

🔘 Americans are building larger and more expensive homes and buildings near the coast. ⚪️ Hurricanes are producing more inland rain than ever before. ⚪️ A sting of bad luck has resulted in the last dozen hurricanes making landfall at high tide. ⚪️ Those who choose to rebuild after hurricane damage must now pay into a national storm damage relief fund.

Whereas ______ asteroids have orbits that pass near Earth, ______ asteroids have orbits that intersect Earth's orbit.

🔘 Amor; Apollo ⚪️ Apollo; Amor ⚪️ iron; stony

Which of the following earthquake predictions is least reliable?

🔘 An amateur geophysicist has warned residents of San Diego to evacuate their homes before an earthquake hits the city later this week. ⚪️ Scientists have estimated that there is a 30% chance of an earthquake occurring near Mojave, California, by 2032. ⚪️ It has been estimated that there is a 7 to 10% chance of a magnitude 7 earthquake occurring along the New Madrid fault.

Why are earthquakes hazards so high in South Carolina?

🔘 An ancient, buried fault is located there. ⚪️ This is a subduction zone. ⚪️ This is the location of the New Madrid fault system.

What triggered the 1964 lateral spread slide in Turnagain Heights, Anchorage, Alaska?

🔘 An earthquake ⚪️ Heavy rain ⚪️ Construction ⚪️ A gas explosion

What happens when the stored potential energy in a fault is suddenly released after building up for many years?

🔘 An earthquake occurs. ⚪️ The fault disappears. ⚪️ The fault reverses orientation. ⚪️ Seismic waves travel outward horizontally but not vertically from the fault.

In a house lacking a cellar or basement, which is the safest place from a tornado given that it is usually the last to be destroyed?

🔘 An inside room ⚪️ Next to windows ⚪️ On the second floor ⚪️ In the southeast corner

What hypothesis did Luis Alvarez propose to explain the iridium-rich clay layer located at the Cretaceous-Teritary boundary?

🔘 An iridium-rich asteroid struck Earth. ⚪️ Earth passed through a region of space that contained large amounts of cometary debris, resulting in a large meteor shower event. ⚪️ A volcanic eruption brought iridium-rich magma to Earth's surface.

What contributed to the 12 deaths in the 1997 flash flood of Antelope Canyon in Arizona?

🔘 Antelope Canyon is a slot canyon. Hikers could not escape the flash flood. ⚪️ People tried to drive away from the flood waters, and their cars were swept away. ⚪️ Flood waters rose over several days and eroded the banks of the river, causing an apartment block to collapse. ⚪️ Extremely heavy rain reduced visibility, and people accidentally drove into the flood waters.

The uplift of the Caucasus and Zagros mountain ranges and earthquakes in their vicinity are being caused by the collision between the ______ and Eurasian tectonic plates.

🔘 Arabian ⚪️ African ⚪️ Indo-Australian

What is the evidence for a massive volcanic eruption in 1809 that made the years 1810 and 1811 unusually cold?

🔘 Ash in ice layers from Greenland and Antarctica ⚪️ A giant caldera on the island of Sumatra ⚪️ Stories from around the world of a huge booming sound ⚪️ Remains of animals in a region over 500 kilometers in diameter

Where in the oceans would the layer of sediment covering the seafloor generally be thinnest?

🔘 At the midocean ridges ⚪️ At the edges of the ocean basins ⚪️ In the deep sea trenches ⚪️ Where the seafloor rocks are oldest

What country has bushfires that are fueled by highly flammable eucalyptus tree?

🔘 Australia ⚪️ Egypt ⚪️ Japan ⚪️ Norway

______ is the process whereby a river abandons its old channel and forms a new one.

🔘 Avulsion ⚪️ Redirection ⚪️ Abandonment ⚪️ Switching

Which section of the Wasatch Front fault system is most likely to be the next to experience a major earthquake?

🔘 Brigham City ⚪️ Ogden ⚪️ Provo ⚪️ Nephi ⚪️ Salt Lake City

The first Great Shakeout Event was held in ______ to help prepare residents for the next large earthquake.

🔘 California ⚪️ Alaska ⚪️ Australia ⚪️ Mexico

Which of these is an island location in the Atlantic Ocean that is believed to be susceptible to flank collapse and could therefore generate a large tsunami that would impact the east coast of the United States?

🔘 Canary Islands ⚪️ Bahamas ⚪️ Falkland Islands ⚪️ Hawaii

Which of these is an example of a volcanic continental arc formed when an oceanic plate is subducted beneath a continental plate?

🔘 Cascade Range ⚪️ Aleutian Islands ⚪️ Hawaiian Islands ⚪️ Himalaya Range ⚪️ Yellowstone caldera

The three largest asteroids, ______, ______, and ______, make up about one-half the combined total mass of all asteroids in the asteroid belt.

🔘 Ceres; Vesta; Pallas ⚪️ Charon; Pallas; Deimos ⚪️ Callisto; Io; Ganymede ⚪️ Eris; Sedna; Orcus ⚪️ Klaatu; Barada; Nikto

According to Milankovitch theory, what causes the cyclical variation in solar radiation received at high latitudes?

🔘 Changes in Earth's orbit and axial tilt ⚪️ Regular periods of low- and high-intensity sunspot activity ⚪️ Changes in the direction and intensity of solar winds ⚪️ Expansion and contraction of the Sun in response to the gravitational pull of Jupiter

What is believed to have caused the extremely rapid changes in global temperatures over the past 30,000 years?

🔘 Changes in North Atlantic ocean-circulation patterns ⚪️ Melting of methane hydrates when exposed by sea-level fall ⚪️ Periods of low and high levels of volcanic activity ⚪️ Changes in the configuration of the continents

Which of the following is the only factor listed that does not affect the intensity of an earthquake?

🔘 Climate ⚪️ Magnitude ⚪️ Distance from epicenter ⚪️ Building type

Where do high-frequency seismic waves cause the most damage?

🔘 Close to the epicenter ⚪️ Far from the epicenter ⚪️ Anywhere that the bedrock is particularly solid ⚪️ Close to bodies of water

Which of the following statements best describes the shape of most comet's orbits?

🔘 Comets have a very eccentric orbit that takes them near the Sun at perihelion and then out beyond the outermost planets at aphelion. ⚪️ Comets' orbits are nearly circular in shape. ⚪️ The shape of a comet's orbit changes drastically after each successive approach it makes toward the Sun.

The riverbed of the Yellow River is currently 20 meters above the floodplain, which would normally cause it to change course. What allowed the river to reach this condition?

🔘 Construction of levees ⚪️ Tectonic uplift of the Yellow River plain ⚪️ Construction of the Yellow River aqueduct ⚪️ Erosion of the floodplain because of poor farming practices

How does DNA analysis tie human evolution to the Toba eruption that occurred 74,000 years ago?

🔘 DNA analysis shows that humans experienced a major population crash about the same time as the eruption. ⚪️ DNA studies demonstrate that Neanderthals went extinct soon after the Toba event. ⚪️ Human populations quickly doubled due to favorable changes in climate caused by the Toba event.

Which of these was a contributing factor in the 1903 Turtle Mountain long-runout debris flow event?

🔘 Daylighted bedding in limestone ⚪️ Absorption of water by bentonitic clays ⚪️ Earthquake on a nearby fault ⚪️ Explosions at the local coal mine

What likely caused the Maunder Minimum?

🔘 Decreased sunspot activity ⚪️ Altered ocean circulation patterns ⚪️ Volcanic eruption ⚪️ Milankovitch cycle

Which of these is the main hazard associated with Hawaiian volcanism?

🔘 Destruction of property and infrastructure by lava flows ⚪️ Loss of life due to pyroclastic bombs and blocks ⚪️ Failure of airplane jet engines due to interaction with ash plumes ⚪️ Tsunamis caused by slope failure events at the shore

The USGS has developed a program called ______ that encourages people to report shaking experiences to better measure Mercalli intensity of earthquakes.

🔘 Did You Feel It? ⚪️ What Was That? ⚪️ ShakeMaps ⚪️ Everyday Seismologist

What kind of winds are shown in this figure?

🔘 Downslope winds ⚪️ Valley winds ⚪️ Onshore winds ⚪️ Upslope winds

What caused the spectacular seiche event at Lake Hebgen, Montana, on 17 August 1959?

🔘 Downward motion on two normal faults that run across the northern end of the lake ⚪️ A particularly strong spring storm that brought gale-force winds to the area ⚪️ A landslide at the northern end of the lake that dumped over 10 km3 of rock material into the lake ⚪️ A failure of Hebgen Lake Dam that forced a huge amount of water into the narrow lake

The 1982 eruption of _______ in Mexico led to a lowering of world temperature by 0.2oC.

🔘 El Chichón ⚪️ Mount Pinatubo ⚪️ Tambora ⚪️ Laki

How does cold lead to hypothermia?

🔘 Exposure to cold can lower core body temperature to the point where hypothermia sets in. ⚪️ Cold weather prevents evaporation of sweat at the skin and robs the body of a major source of heat by doing so. ⚪️ Cold weather directly slows the rate at which fuel stored in our cells can be converted to heat. ⚪️ Cold causes infrared radiation at wavelengths just shorter than visible light, which then causes rapid cooling and hypothermia.

Why are ice ages more likely to occur when large landmasses are located near the North or South Pole?

🔘 Falling snow can easily accumulate on cold poleward landmasses, leading to the creation of massive ice sheets. ⚪️ Poleward landmasses alter ocean circulation, leading to colder climates. ⚪️ Poleward landmasses reflect larger amounts of sunlight, lowering solar insolation and reducing global temperatures. ⚪️ Rates of weathering are lower for poleward landmasses, which locks carbon dioxide in rocks and reduces the greenhouse effect.

What is the most common indirect effect that volcanic activity can have on humans?

🔘 Famine ⚪️ Psychological distress ⚪️ Illness from poisonous gases ⚪️ Illness from contaminated water

What kind of eruption was the 1783 Laki eruption, which produced the most lava by volume of any volcano in recorded history?

🔘 Fissure eruption ⚪️ Plinian eruption ⚪️ Strombolian eruption ⚪️ Subglacial eruption

What hazard might develop as a result of a blizzard?

🔘 Flooding in the following days if rapid warming develops. ⚪️ Rapid global warming as the average surface albedo is lowered. ⚪️ Tornadoes become more common as friction between the wind and surface of the Earth is reduced with snow and ice cover. ⚪️ Earthquakes may occur as the weight of snow causes subsidence and tectonic settling.

______ become the floor of streams outside of the channels when streams overflow their banks.

🔘 Floodplains ⚪️ Benthos ⚪️ Thalwegs ⚪️ Tributaries

Which of these major evolutionary changes occurred with plants during the Cretaceous?

🔘 Flowering plants appeared, and gymnosperm diversity decreased. ⚪️ Plants first colonized land. ⚪️ Large coal swamps quickly dominated North America and Europe. ⚪️ Heavily forested regions gave way to expansive grasslands and savannahs.

How do scientists know that the Blackhawk sturzstrom event occurred 17,000 years ago?

🔘 Fossils found in pond sediments on top of the deposit ⚪️ Oral histories of local tribes ⚪️ Witness accounts recorded in the local newspaper ⚪️ The shape of the deposit, which evolves over time

This image shows that the orbital motions of water particles become more elliptical in shape as waves approach the shore. Why is this?

🔘 Friction from the shallow seafloor interferes with the orbital motion. ⚪️ In order to fit the same number of particle orbits, they must be shorter. ⚪️ Waves washing back from the beach drag the orbitals outward in a horizontal direction. ⚪️ Wave heights increase, which stretches the orbitals in the vertical direction.

Which form of atmospheric lifting is most likely to cause a line of severe thunderstorms?

🔘 Frontal lifting ⚪️ Convectional lifting ⚪️ Orographic lifting

Extensional forces occurring in the ______ region have resulted in north-south oriented, back-tilted mountain ranges that have made the area susceptible to many earthquakes.

🔘 Great Basin ⚪️ Intermountain seismic belt ⚪️ Reelfoot rift ⚪️ Rio Grande rift

An event called the ______, started in California, is now used in many states and countries to help prepare residents for potential earthquakes.

🔘 Great Shakeout ⚪️ Earthquake Prep Plan ⚪️ Parkfield Experiment ⚪️ Shake, Rattle, Rollout

The delta of the Mississippi River is made of sediments carried and then deposited by the river in the ______.

🔘 Gulf of Mexico ⚪️ Great Lakes ⚪️ Atlantic seaboard ⚪️ Salton Sea

This eruption at Surtsey, an island off the coast of Iceland, is typical of a _____ eruption.

🔘 Hawaiian-type ⚪️ Plinian-type ⚪️ Strombolian-type ⚪️ Flood basalt

What led James Hutton to propose the the Earth must be extremely old?

🔘 He noted that natural processes, such as erosion, were very slow. ⚪️ He believed that the Earth was 6,000 years old. ⚪️ He noticed that evolution of new species is a very slow process. ⚪️ He developed a method to date rocks and found them to be millions of years old.

Which of the following contributes to the large number of fatalities caused by earthquakes in Haiti?

🔘 Heavy horizontal floor slabs and poorly built concrete buildings are common. ⚪️ the French colonials required that buildings be made out of wood. ⚪️ The earthquakes are among the most powerful in the world. ⚪️ The offshore topography is ideal for tsunami formation.

What triggered both the 1995 and 2005 mass movements in La Conchita, California?

🔘 Heavy rain ⚪️ Earthquake ⚪️ Construction ⚪️ Overirrigation

The ______ earthquake in 1959 was initiated by two separate movements along parallel faults that occurred within seconds of one another.

🔘 Hebgen Lake ⚪️ Puget Sound ⚪️ Borah Peak ⚪️ Charleston

Which of these is not a factor controlling the impact of a volcanic eruption on global climate?

🔘 Height of the volcano ⚪️ Latitude of the volcano ⚪️ Types of gases emitted ⚪️ Size of eruption ⚪️ Height of the eruption column

Which of the following hypotheses offers the most plausible explanation for the great abundance of carnivore fossils found in the La Brea Tar Pits?

🔘 Herbivores trapped in the tar pits attracted many carnivores that also became trapped. ⚪️ Carnivores tend to hunt in packs and thus also became trapped together in the pits. ⚪️ Most herbivores lack sufficient hard parts to become preserved as fossils. ⚪️ Carnivores are not as smart as herbivores and were more easily trapped in the tar pits.

Which of the following animals was the last to appear in the Mesozoic era?

🔘 Herding dinosaurs ⚪️ Birds ⚪️ Bivalves ⚪️ Snails ⚪️ Bony fish

The death toll for the 1883 tsunami caused by the collapse of Krakatau was 36,000. The death toll for the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami was approximately 245,000. Why was the death toll so much higher in 2004?

🔘 Human population has quadrupled since 1883. ⚪️ The 1883 tsunami event was rather small and very localized. ⚪️ There was a better tsunami alert system in place in 1883 due to strong maritime trade. ⚪️ The eruption of Krakatau killed more people than the tsunami it generated.

What is the difference between humidity and relative humidity?

🔘 Humidity is the absolute of amount of water vapor in the air, and the relative humidity is the ratio of the absolute humidity to saturation humidity. ⚪️ Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air at a specific location, and relative humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air worldwide. ⚪️ Humidity is a measure of spacing of water vapor molecules in the air, and relative humidity is the degree to which they are absorbing solar energy.

Tornado deaths in the United States have been dropping over the last eight decades. In addition to some improvements in building codes, what accounts for this decline?

🔘 Improvements in forecasts and warning times before tornadoes hit allow people time to take safety actions. ⚪️ Global warming has limited the formation of tornadoes and their strengths. ⚪️ Rapid-reaction radars have been employed that can help to dissipate the energy in tornadoes. ⚪️ There are fewer people living in Tornado Alley today.

Where along the coast of the Burin Peninsula were tsunami wave heights the greatest?

🔘 In long, narrow bays ⚪️ Along broad, gently sloping beaches ⚪️ In areas with high cliffs ⚪️ At the very tip of the peninsula

The drastic decrease in P wave velocity and the disappearance of S waves at the depth shown with an arrow on this graph marks the top of which layer of the Earth's interior?

🔘 Outer core ⚪️ Inner core ⚪️ Asthenosphere ⚪️ Mantle ⚪️ Lithosphere

How do tidal bores form?

🔘 Incoming tidal water is pushed into a narrowing feature, such as a river. The mass of water builds up into a wave. ⚪️ Strong rip currents converge just offshore, creating a swirling gyre of choppy water. ⚪️ Sandbars commonly form across bay mouths and block incoming tides. A tidal bore forms when the water cuts through the sandbar. ⚪️ When the tide goes out, the rush of water away from shore causes a large wave to build up.

Global sea level during the mid-Cretaceous was over 200 m higher than today, reducing total land size and increasing the rate of extinction of land-animal species. What caused this increase in sea level?

🔘 Increased rates of seafloor spreading ⚪️ Decreased seafloor spreading ⚪️ Increased amounts of precipitation due to climate change ⚪️ Subsidence of continental crust that lowered land elevations

If the rate of seafloor spreading were to increase, what would happen to sea level and why?

🔘 Increased seafloor spreading raises the elevation of the oceanic crust, displacing more water and raising sea level. ⚪️ Increased seafloor spreading thins out oceanic crust, displacing less water and lowering sea level. ⚪️ Increased seafloor spreading increases the total surface area of the seafloor, increasing total ocean volume and lowering sea level.

The largest coordinated effort to evaluate the risk of human-induced climate change is the ______.

🔘 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ⚪️ Kyoto Protocol ⚪️ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ⚪️ Global Warming Action Committee

Earthquakes originating in Utah, Wyoming, Idaho, and Montana are associated with the ______.

🔘 Intermountain seismic belt ⚪️ Rio Grande rift ⚪️ Reelfoot rift ⚪️ New Madrid seismic zone

______ has been proposed as the trigger mechanism for earthquakes along the Reelfoot rift.

🔘 Isostatic rebound ⚪️ Underground fluid pumping ⚪️ Dam construction ⚪️ Extensional forces

When did the most recent Ice Age come to an end?

🔘 It didn't. We are still in the most recent Ice Age. ⚪️ Approximately 10,000 years ago, when ice retreated from North America. ⚪️ After the Middle Ages, when warming improved farming conditions in northern Europe. ⚪️ Shortly after the Industrial Revolution, when the burning of fossil fuels led to the buildup of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

What feature of the 1982 eruption of El Chichón caused it to have such a strong effect on global climate?

🔘 It emitted a huge volume of sulfur dioxide. ⚪️ It injected large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. ⚪️ It spewed out massive volumes of basaltic lava. ⚪️ It was the largest eruption in recent history.

Why can water absorb a lot of heat relative to other substances?

🔘 It has a high heat capacity and a high specific heat. ⚪️ Electromagnetic waves pass though it without being absorbed. ⚪️ Water can convert absorbed heat into new water molecules and store the heat in their nucleolus. ⚪️ It converts heat to electrical energy, which is dissipated among the other molecules in the water.

Which of the following is true about the tectonic interaction between India and Asia?

🔘 It is a collision zone between two continental plates but was a subduction zone in the past when India's oceanic crust subducted below Asia. ⚪️ It is an oceanic collision zone between two young plates, which is resulting in mountain building rather than subduction. ⚪️ India and Asia are sliding past one another in a horizontal motion. ⚪️ India is pulling away from Asia by moving to the southeast, and the motion is forming a rift zone in front of the mountains.

Which of the following correctly describes the Coriolis effect?

🔘 It is an apparent force resulting from Earth's rotation that deflects objects from what would otherwise be their path. ⚪️ It is an opposing force that is generated by an interaction of the force of friction and the pressure gradient force. ⚪️ It is a force that changes the path of objects if they are observed. ⚪️ It is weak force generated by the balance between the gravitational force and the pressure gradient force at different altitudes.

Why is Japan subjected to powerful earthquakes?

🔘 It is located at a subduction zone. ⚪️ It is located at a transform plate boundary. ⚪️ It is located at a divergent plate boundary. ⚪️ It is slowly sinking into the crust beneath as it is moved away from its hotspot.

Which of the following statements accurately characterizes the earthquake activity in the Salton Trough?

🔘 It is one of the most earthquake-active areas in the United States. ⚪️ It is one of the least earthquake-active areas in North America. ⚪️ Although earthquakes regularly occurred there until 1975, there have effectively been no earthquakes since. ⚪️ It is the site of the most powerful earthquakes known to occur in North America.

What happens at wind speeds of about 119 km/hr (74 mph) that makes that speed the minimum for hurricane classification?

🔘 It is the speed at which the winds coming into the hurricane fail to reach the center of the storm, resulting in a calmer and clearer eye. ⚪️ It is the speed at which the rate of evaporation exceeds the rate of precipitation at the ocean-atmosphere interface. ⚪️ It is the speed at which the doppler radar signature of a hurricane first includes the color red. ⚪️ Winds blowing faster than 119 km/hr (74) are no longer affected by the Coriolis effect.

What does the greenhouse effect do to the average surface temperature of Earth?

🔘 It keeps it warmer than it would be otherwise. ⚪️ It has no long-term effect. ⚪️ It keeps Earth's surface cooler than it would be otherwise.

What does the word slip refer to when used to describe earthquakes?

🔘 It means movement has occurred along a fault. ⚪️ It means movement has occurred along a fault without producing an earthquake. ⚪️ It refers to the direction of motion along a fault. ⚪️ It refers to the frequency at which vibrations propagate outward from a fault.

Why is there usually a time lag between rainfall and peak flooding?

🔘 It takes time for surface runoff to reach the river channel. ⚪️ It takes time for enough rain to fall from the sky to cause flooding. ⚪️ Most rainfall soaks into the ground and thus never makes it into the river channel. ⚪️ Urban storm drains divert most of the rainfall away from the river.

How did the 18 November 1929 earthquake cause the Newfoundland tsunami that devastated the Burin Peninsula?

🔘 It triggered a submarine landslide. ⚪️ It caused substantial vertical motion of the seafloor. ⚪️ It caused water to slosh back and forth as a seiche in Burin Bay. ⚪️ It destabilized a nearby volcano, causing a flank collapse.

The Tunguska event did not leave an impact crater. What does that suggest about the identity of the impactor?

🔘 It was likely the fragment of a comet or a large stony meteorite. ⚪️ It was probably the remnants of a metallic meteorite. ⚪️ It the object was possibly a miniature black hole. ⚪️ It was probably a "shower" of small metallic or stony meteorites.

How would the formation of sea ice affect the density of the remaining water?

🔘 It would increase because salts are excluded from the forming ice, driving up the salinity of the remaining water. ⚪️ It would decrease because salts in the water are preferentially removed as they serve as nucleation sites for ice formation. ⚪️ The formation of the sea ice itself would not cause a density shift in the remaining water.

Mars has a very thin atmosphere, and yet its surface temperatures are higher than would be expected, given its distance from the Sun. Why?

🔘 Its atmosphere is rich in carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. ⚪️ Its atmosphere is very dense, due to high concentrations of water. ⚪️ The thick clouds of dust that surround the planet help prevent surface heat from radiating out to space. ⚪️ Mars experiences intense plate tectonic activity, which releases large amounts of internal heat to the atmosphere.

What feature of water gives it the ability to absorb and release tremendous amounts of heat?

🔘 Its high heat capacity ⚪️ Its bipolar nature ⚪️ Its incompressibility ⚪️ Its low specific heat

The warmest decade on record is ______.

🔘 January 2000 through December 2009 ⚪️ January 1970 through December 1979 ⚪️ January 1990 through December 1999 ⚪️ January 1980 through December 1989

The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami killed over 100,000 people in Indonesia, whereas the 2011 Japanese tsunami killed only around 19,000 people. Why is this?

🔘 Japan has a sophisticated tsunami warning system. ⚪️ The Indian Ocean tsunami was much bigger. ⚪️ Japan has coastal barriers. ⚪️ The Indonesian tsunami was caused by an earthquake; the Japanese tsunami by a landslide.

What type of coastal-control structure is shown here?

🔘 Jetties ⚪️ Groins ⚪️ Seawalls ⚪️ Breakwater

Scientists believe that the next tsunami-generating flank collapse in Hawaii is likely to occur on the slopes of ______.

🔘 Kilauea, on the island of Hawaii ⚪️ Haleakala, on the island of Maui ⚪️ Diamond Head, on the island of Oahu ⚪️ Loihi, off the southeast coast of Hawaii

Which of the following is not a line of evidence used to support the Alvarez hypothesis for the origins of the Cretaceous-Tertiary clay layer?

🔘 Kilometer-long fragments of nickel-iron meteorite discovered beneath the Chicxulub crater ⚪️ The iridium clay layer is found on the continents, so its composition cannot be due to changes in ocean chemistry. ⚪️ Shocked quartz grains are observed in the clay layer. ⚪️ Sand-sized mineral spherules, suggestive of melting and resolidification, are present.

Ancient mass movements can continue to pose a hazard. In 1995 and 2005, the community of _____, was hit by earthflows and debris flows sourced from an ancient slump.

🔘 La Conchita, California ⚪️ Nevados Huascarán, Peru ⚪️ Yosemite, California ⚪️ Turnagain Heights, Alaska

Due to its shallow water and elongate shape, ______ is particularly prone to wind-generated seiches.

🔘 Lake Erie ⚪️ Lake Tahoe ⚪️ Hebgen Lake ⚪️ Crater Lake

Why did the St. Francis dam fail in 1928, only two years after it was built, causing the death of about 420 people?

🔘 Lake water dissolved the cement that held together the rocks below the base of the dam, causing them to fail. ⚪️ An earthquake on the San Andreas fault liquefied the sediments that formed the base of the dam. ⚪️ A landslide into the lake caused a tsunami that crashed into the dam with terrific force. ⚪️ The dam was built using inferior materials that easily absorbed lake water.

An Icelandic farmer wrote the following about the death of some of his livestock: "The animals that wandered around the fields got yellow-colored feet with open wounds, and yellow dots were seen on the skin of the newly shorn sheep, which had died." The farmer was the describing the effects of which volcanic eruption?

🔘 Laki ⚪️ Heimaey ⚪️ Eyjafjallajökull ⚪️ Surtsey

Terrestrial organisms such as dinosaurs are far less likely to be fossilized than marine organisms such as brachiopods or corals. Which of the following statements best explains this discrepancy between terrestrial and marine animal fossilization?

🔘 Land environments have less potential for rapid burial events compared to marine environments. ⚪️ Marine organisms are generally composed of hard parts, whereas terrestrial organisms are mostly soft tissue. ⚪️ Marine organisms live in low-oxygen environments, which aids in preservation. ⚪️ Scavengers are more abundant in terrestrial environments, and they quickly destroy the remains of organisms.

Which of the following statements best describes the trend in large-bodied animal extinctions over the past 100,000 years?

🔘 Large animals were decimated in the Americas and Australia but fared rather well in Africa. ⚪️ Large animals were nearly eradicated in Africa but largely unaffected in the Americas. ⚪️ The extinctions occurred at approximately the same time and same rate across the globe. ⚪️ Extinctions of large animals occurred over a protracted period of time, with no obvious cause.

Which of the following accurately summarizes the earthquake history in the San Francisco Bay region since the 19th century?

🔘 Large earthquakes occurred once a decade on average until the 1906 earthquake. ⚪️ After the 1906 earthquake, large earthquakes became more frequent. ⚪️ Large earthquakes in the region have occurred at least once every 8 to 12 years since the early 19th century. ⚪️ There have been no discernible patterns in the history of large earthquakes in the San Francisco Bay region.

Of the 0.6oC in warming during the 20th century, how much is considered to be due to the actions of humans?

🔘 Two thirds ⚪️ One half ⚪️ All of it ⚪️ A quarter

The 1997 Red River flood was considered a 200-year flood. Why is it now only considered to be a 65-year flood?

🔘 Large floods in 2007 and 2010 changed the flood recurrence curve. ⚪️ Newly discovered historic records showed that larger floods had occurred earlier in the 20th century. ⚪️ Climate change has been factored into flood recurrence calculations for all rivers. ⚪️ Construction of new dams on the Red River have reduced the likelihood of a major flood event.

An ice age is most likely to occur when which of the following conditions are satisfied?

🔘 Large landmasses are located near the poles. ⚪️ Large landmasses are concentrated near the equator. ⚪️ Rates of seafloor spreading are high. ⚪️ Rates of seafloor spreading are low. ⚪️ Volcanic activity is at a minimum.

Select that statement below that accurately describes how latent heat affects atmospheric processes.

🔘 Latent heat stored during evaporation is released during condensation, which further strengths storms. ⚪️ The freezing of water at Earth's surface requires an input of heat, which further cools the atmosphere. ⚪️ The latent heat released during evaporation drives additional evaporation, which provides clouds with the moisture they need. ⚪️ The formation of snowflakes in the atmosphere causes the surrounding air to cool as heat is absorbed in the process.

Observe the accompanying diagram of two different vertical sequences of sedimentary rock taken from two different locations. Using the fossil species present, which of the following pairs of rock layers are most likely to be of the same age?

🔘 Layers A and E ⚪️ Layers B and F ⚪️ Layers D and F ⚪️ Layers C and G ⚪️ Layers A and H

A study by Robert Criss and Everett Shock showed that peak floodwater heights in the past 150 years have increased by 2 to 4 meters for the same water volume in the upper Mississippi River. What do they say is to blame for this?

🔘 Levees ⚪️ Climate change ⚪️ Urbanization ⚪️ Dams

What should you do if you get caught in quicksand?

🔘 Lie back and spread your arms. ⚪️ Kick your feet to stay afloat. ⚪️ Wave your arms and yell. ⚪️ Sink to the bottom and then push off with your feet.

What does this diagram show?

🔘 Magnetic stripes recorded on the ocean floor ⚪️ The changing composition of the seafloor as you move away from the ridge axis ⚪️ The destruction of seafloor at a subduction zone ⚪️ The changing magnetic polarity of a stacked sequence of lavas

Hurricane ______ started as a tropical depression on 22 October 1998 and grew to become one of the strongest category 5 hurricanes on record. It caused a lot of destruction in Honduras and Nicaragua by the ______ it brought.

🔘 Mitch; heavy rains ⚪️ Casey; storm surge ⚪️ Marco; high winds ⚪️ John; tornadoes

Why is it difficult to find ancient rocks that represent early Earth history?

🔘 Most ancient rocks have been recycled through different processes. ⚪️ There were no rocks on Earth prior to 2 billion years ago. ⚪️ These ancient rocks only exist in Antarctica under miles of ice and snow.

The Mississippi River embayment served as the hypocenter for the ______ earthquake(s).

🔘 New Madrid ⚪️ Charleston ⚪️ Charlevoix ⚪️ Reelfoot

Reelfoot Lake and Lake St. Francis are two examples of the permanent topographic changes wrought by the ______ earthquake(s).

🔘 New Madrid ⚪️ Reelfoot ⚪️ Charleston ⚪️ Puget Sound

From 1811 to 1812, the ______ earthquakes occurred in quick succession and numbered in the many thousands, with several measuring 7-plus in magnitude.

🔘 New Madrid ⚪️ Reelfoot ⚪️ Rio Grande ⚪️ Owens Valley

______ has a global warming potential of 310 and is responsible for 5% of modern greenhouse gas warming.

🔘 Nitrous oxide ⚪️ Ozone ⚪️ Carbon dioxide ⚪️ Sulfur dioxide

All global climate models forecast increasing volumes of greenhouse gases and increasing Earth surface temperatures. Where is warming expected to be greatest?

🔘 Northern lands in high latitudes ⚪️ Continental interiors near the equator ⚪️ Over Antarctica ⚪️ The desert belts at 30o north and south of the equator

How did the La Brea Tar Pits form?

🔘 Oil from underground reservoirs seeped through rock fractures to reach Earth's surface. ⚪️ An underlying magma body heated petroleum-rich rocks, causing the oil to ooze onto Earth's surface. ⚪️ An unusually high water table created a sinkhole, exposing the oil at Earth's surface.

How does the formation of an easterly wave lead to the development of a Cape Verde-type hurricane?

🔘 On the eastern side of the wave axis, low pressure can cause the formation of a tropical disturbance that grows as it moves west. ⚪️ As the easterly wave is moved to higher latitudes, the Coriolis effect starts to spin the axis of the wave until a hurricane is formed. ⚪️ The easterly wave halts the upwelling of cold water, allowing surface waters to become warm enough to form hurricanes. ⚪️ The rate of thunderstorm formation increases on the western side of the wave axis, allowing a collection of them to form into a tropical depression.

The accompanying figure shows an extinction-frequency curve. Using the curve of best fit (purple), estimate how often an end-Permian-like extinction occurs (i.e., an extinction where 80 percent of species are extinct)?

🔘 Once every 1 billion (109) years ⚪️ Once every 100 million (108) years ⚪️ Once every 250 million years ⚪️ Once every million (106) years

Which of these is a requirement for a major Ice Age to occur?

🔘 One or more continental landmasses near the poles ⚪️ An increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide ⚪️ Strong east-west ocean circulation ⚪️ Stronger-than-usual sunspot activity

Which supercell thunderstorm is most likely to produce tornadoes?

🔘 One with strong midlevel rotation of clouds around a central updraft (a mesocyclone) ⚪️ One with a strong downdraft created by hail and rain ⚪️ One with a path of motion that moves nearly east to west as to limit the Coriolis effect ⚪️ One with a dry adiabatic lapse rate that is lower than the wet adiabatic lapse rate

What caused the pull-apart basins in the Red Sea fault zone that filled with water to create the Dead Sea and the Sea of Galilee?

🔘 Overlaps (steps) in the north--south trending transform (slide-past) fault ⚪️ The development of a new spreading center on land ⚪️ A collision between the Arabian plate and the Eurasia plate ⚪️ The formation of a new subduction zone in the eastern Mediterranean

What major physical change was necessary to allow multicellular life-forms of appear and flourish about 635 million years ago?

🔘 Oxygen built up in sufficient volume in the atmosphere to begin creating a protective ozone layer. ⚪️ Photosynthesizing bacteria began releasing oxygen into the atmosphere. ⚪️ The formation of the supercontinent Pangaea ⚪️ A mass extinction event that opened up new ecological niches for multicellular life to thrive

This figure demonstrates how ______ waves move through material.

🔘 P ⚪️ S ⚪️ Love ⚪️ Rayleigh

The breakup of Gondwanaland likely led to the end of the Late ______ Ice Age.

🔘 Paleozoic ⚪️ Precambrian ⚪️ Mesozoic ⚪️ Cenozoic

The three major eras of the Phanerozoic eon are the ______.

🔘 Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic ⚪️ Hadean, Archean, and Proterozoic ⚪️ Cambrian, Ordovician, and Silurian ⚪️ Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous

How did the formation of Pangaea lead to massive die-offs of shallow marine organisms?

🔘 Pangaea's formation closed off the equatorial sea, eliminating a large amount of shallow marine habitat. ⚪️ The formation of Pangaea increased weathering rates on land, dumping large amounts of sediment into the oceans that smothered organisms. ⚪️ The formation of Pangaea elevated the continental plates well above sea level, eliminating shallow marine habitat along the coastlines. ⚪️ The formation of Pangaea dramatically altered ocean circulation, leading to anoxic bottom water conditions.

Why does peak flooding happen faster and with higher water levels in urban areas?

🔘 Paving and storm-sewer systems allow runoff to reach the river more rapidly. ⚪️ River channels tend to be narrower in urban areas than they are in rural areas. ⚪️ Storm-sewer systems tend to divert rainwater runoff away from the river very efficiently. ⚪️ Urban areas tend to be protected by dams, but during heavy rainfall, water is released to protect the dams from failure.

Among the five major mass extinction events, only one resulted in the extinction of more than 60% of genera. During which geologic period did this extinction occur?

🔘 Permian ⚪️ Ordovician ⚪️ Triassic ⚪️ Devonian ⚪️ Cretaceous

What factor led to the greatest loss of life in the 1994 Northridge earthquake, despite the lessons learned from the 1971 San Fernando Valley earthquake?

🔘 Poor design of buildings and bridges ⚪️ Distance from the epicenter ⚪️ Short duration of shaking ⚪️ Lack of an emergency plan

What factor led to the greatest loss of life in the 1971 San Fernando Valley earthquake?

🔘 Poorly designed buildings, bridges, and dams ⚪️ Large-magnitude earthquake ⚪️ Close proximity to the epicenter ⚪️ Soft sediments as foundation materials

What caused the 1881 Elm sturzstrom event?

🔘 Quarrying of slate, which undercut the slope ⚪️ Unusually heavy winter snows that added weight to the top of the slope ⚪️ A weak clay layer that absorbed rain water and expanded ⚪️ A large earthquake on a previously unknown fault

How are the absolute ages of recent volcanic eruptions measured?

🔘 Radiocarbon dating is performed on trees or other debris trapped in volcanic ash or lahars. ⚪️ Radiocarbon dating is performed on mineral crystals formed in lava flows. ⚪️ The rate of chemical weathering in volcanic ash beds is measured.

Why do supercontinents such as Pangaea tend to have large interior areas occupied by harsh desert climates?

🔘 Reduced shoreline area means that a greater percentage of the landmass is located far away from climate-moderating effects of the ocean. ⚪️ Taller mountain chains create a more pronounced rain shadow effect. ⚪️ Precipitation-rich weather systems rarely penetrate deep into supercontinent interiors, leading to drier, hotter climates.

Warm climatic intervals in Earth's history are sometimes the result of increased greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Where did the greenhouse gases come from?

🔘 Release of greenhouse gases as a result of flood basalts ⚪️ Increased weathering rates due to the breakup of supercontinents ⚪️ Gases are delivered to Earth via comet or asteroid impacts. ⚪️ Biological decay of organisms following mass extinctions

What strange event took place in four villages near Lake Nyos, Cameroon, on 21 August 1986?

🔘 Residents were asphyxiated from a gaseous cloud, causing about 1,700 deaths. ⚪️ The villages disappeared overnight, swallowed up by a newly initiated rift. ⚪️ A cinder cone volcano suddenly appeared, forcing evacuation of the villages. ⚪️ Recent rainfall formed a lahar from 1,000-year-old volcanic ash, burying the villages.

Why should you always swim parallel to the shore if caught in a rip current?

🔘 Rip currents are generally quite narrow, so you don't have to swim far to get out of one. ⚪️ Rip currents are shallower near the shore. ⚪️ The waves aren't as choppy inside the rip current. ⚪️ The interior of a rip current flows out to sea. At the outer edges of the rip current, equally strong flows move toward the coast.

In the future, New York City may need to build massive storm barriers to protect the city from flooding. What factor is driving the need for increased flood protection in New York City?

🔘 Rising sea levels due to climate change ⚪️ Subsidence of New York City below current sea level ⚪️ Increased frequency of hurricanes ⚪️ Population growth the impinges on the coast

Barometric pressure, wind speed, storm surge, and storm damage are all used to classify hurricanes on the ______ scale.

🔘 Saffir-Simpson ⚪️ modified Fujita ⚪️ latent transport ⚪️ Hartnell-Baker

This image shows a situation in which homes are built along an eroding shoreline. What type of structure is often built to protect development from coastal erosion?

🔘 Seawall ⚪️ Jetty ⚪️ Lagoon ⚪️ Sandbar

Why does building on filled-in wetlands increase earthquake-related hazards?

🔘 Shaking is amplified, and deformation or liquefaction of the ground supporting the buildings can occur. ⚪️ Water in the sediment is forced out and up into homes, causing flooding in lowest floors. ⚪️ Wetlands stop surface waves but not if they are filled in. This filling-in allows waves to reach more buildings than they would have otherwise. ⚪️ Filled wetlands combine S and P waves into the more hazardous T waves.

Which of the following best explains why silica (SiO2) increases the viscosity of a magma?

🔘 Silicon and oxygen bond to form silicon-oxygen tetrahedra, which bond to each other, making flow more difficult. ⚪️ Silicon and oxygen prevent the formation of bubbles, thus increasing the fluidity of the magma. ⚪️ Silicon and oxygen atoms are very large, which decreases the fluidity of the magma. ⚪️ Silicon and oxygen are nonreactive elements and thus prevent the formation of crystals, which increases viscosity.

Why is the popular hypothesis of long-runout debris flows riding on a cushion of air thought to be unlikely?

🔘 Similar events occur on the Moon and Mars, where no or very little air is available. ⚪️ Air is an incompressible fluid and would not support a flow of that size. ⚪️ No pockets of trapped air are found at the base of the debris deposits. ⚪️ The effects of a cushion of air cannot be modeled.

Which of the following statements is true with regard to tornadoes and big cities?

🔘 Since big cities take up less land space than rural areas, they are hit by tornadoes less frequently than other areas. ⚪️ The heat island effect in big cities effectively creates an invisible dome over them, which keeps tornadoes out. ⚪️ Big cities have been built where tornadoes are known to be rare. ⚪️ The tall buildings in cites act like magnets for wind and attract tornadoes from far and wide.

In addition to drowning people, how can waves kill?

🔘 Since water is nearly incompressible, being hit by a wave is like being hit by a heavy solid mass. ⚪️ The dissolved salts in the water interrupt the biochemical signals sent from the brain. ⚪️ Hail dropped into the ocean from the thunderstorms is projected like cannonballs out of the front of the waves and collides with people. ⚪️ Once the human body is surrounded by a wave, the compression from the water squeezes it too much to withstand.

At the time the Alvarez hypothesis was presented to explain the clay layer, no impact crater dating to 65 million years ago was known. Some scientists were unsure if the actual impact crater could be found. Why?

🔘 Sixty-five million years had passed since the impact, and the active geology of Earth may have destroyed the crater during that time. ⚪️ Nobody in the scientific community believed that the Alvarez hypothesis was correct; therefore, no one bothered to look for a crater. ⚪️ An asteroid of the size expected would have exploded in Earth's atmosphere and would not have left any traces of an impact site.

______ is determined by measuring vertical and horizontal movement along active faults and the length of time needed to accumulate enough stress to trigger a rupture or slip along a fault.

🔘 Slip rate ⚪️ Subduction angle ⚪️ Seismic gap

Which of the following statements regarding near-Earth objects (NEOs) is most accurate?

🔘 Small NEOs pass close by Earth up to 50 times a day, but Earth's atmosphere can easily break up such objects, minimizing their threat. ⚪️ Small NEOs pass close by Earth up to 50 times a day, and their small size makes them difficult to spot until its too late to prevent their impact. ⚪️ The frequency and threat of NEOs are about the same for both large and small objects, with about 50 total passing close to Earth each day.

Which of the following statements best describes asteroids?

🔘 Small, rocky, metallic, and/or icy masses mostly located between the inner and outer planets ⚪️ Small, rocky masses that are closely spaced together near the Sun ⚪️ Large masses composed of gases surrounding a rocky core ⚪️ Icy, rocky masses located in the Oort cloud

______ energy drives the hydrologic cycle by providing the energy input that drives evaporation from the ocean. The water vapor rises due to its low density and then cools. The cooling causes condensation to occur, which forms precipitation. The water falling to Earth's surface is then pulled back into the ocean by ______.

🔘 Solar; gravity ⚪️ Potential; osmosis ⚪️ Tidal; centripetal force ⚪️ Geothermal; hydrostatic attraction

Which of the following statements regarding extinction is most accurate?

🔘 Species are always going extinct as part of a background level of extinction. ⚪️ Species rarely go extinct, except during periods when mass extinction events occur. ⚪️ The extinction rate has steadily increased over geologic time as a result of competition between species.

How does gambler's ruin relate to species extinction?

🔘 Species's populations follow a random walk, increasing or decreasing but eventually reaching zero (extinction). ⚪️ Evolutionary changes to an existing species are not guaranteed to be beneficial; therefore, they are always a gamble. ⚪️ At any point in time events may "double down" on a species, causing a massive die-off that reduces its population to zero (extinction).

How concerned should we be about the risk of a large meteorite impact?

🔘 Statistically speaking, the chances of an individual being killed by a comet or asteroid are greater than that of winning the lottery. ⚪️ Based upon the rate of meteoroid impacts, we are currently long overdue for a major impact event. ⚪️ Several asteroids have already been identified by astronomers as having a more than 50% probability of hitting Earth within the next century.

Which of the following accurately summarizes the earthquake hazard in Turkey?

🔘 Strong earthquakes and poorly constructed buildings built on top of soft sediment combine to make earthquakes in Turkey extremely hazardous. ⚪️ A strong cultural desire to build with bamboo and the limited power of the earthquakes in the regions make Turkey's earthquake hazard very low. ⚪️ A history of extremely powerful earthquakes has taught the people to only use earthquake-resistant building design and materials.

What is the cause of the powerful earthquakes and the resulting large tsunamis that occur in the area of Indonesia?

🔘 Subduction of an oceanic plate ⚪️ The collision of two continental plates ⚪️ Transform faulting between two oceanic plates ⚪️ Transform faulting between two continental plates

What mechanism is responsible for the occurrence of earthquakes within the Juan de Fuca plate?

🔘 Subduction of the plate causes minerals to become more dense and sink, building up pressure within the plate. ⚪️ Friction between the Juan de Fuca plate and the overriding North American plate leads to the accumulation of strain. ⚪️ Heating of the subducting Juan de Fuca plate leads to the expansion of rock, which literally pulls the plate apart.

Normal faults form in response to which type of stress?

🔘 Tension ⚪️ Compression ⚪️ Shear ⚪️ Compound

Which of the following statements best describes how the Chicxulub impactor hit Earth?

🔘 The asteroid hit Earth at a low angle (20 to 30 degrees) coming from the southeast. ⚪️ The asteroid hit Earth at a high angle (45 and 60 degrees) coming from the southeast. ⚪️ The asteroid grazed Earth, gouging out a long, asymmetrical crater. ⚪️ The asteroid hit Earth perpendicular to the planet's surface (90 degrees).

Friends are considering moving to St. Louis but are concerned about the potential of a large, New Madrid-like earthquake occurring near there. What should you tell them?

🔘 The chance of a magnitude 7 or greater earthquake occurring within their lifetime is very low. ⚪️ The friends might want to stay home, since the chances of a major earthquake occurring here within their lifetime is rather high. ⚪️ It's impossible to predict when another earthquake might occur, so it's best not to think about it.

The formation of glaciers in North America and Europe between 3.0 and 2.7 million years ago coincided with the formation of the Isthmus of Panama. Why?

🔘 The connection of South America to North America deflected warm ocean currents to the north, increasing snowfall in the Northern Hemisphere. ⚪️ The volcanic activity that built up Central America thrust tons of ash up into the stratosphere, blocking sunlight. ⚪️ The uplift of the Isthmus of Panama caused major storms to move north over North America, depositing snow over the continent. ⚪️ The formation of the Isthmus of Panama increased the total land surface area, which increased the Earth's albedo.

Despite not having active plate tectonics, the eastern United States still experiences earthquakes. Why?

🔘 The eastern United States had a tectonically active past, and sometimes ancient faults are reactivated. ⚪️ The energy from large earthquakes occurring along the west coast sometimes travels through bedrock to the east. ⚪️ Earthquakes felt in the eastern United States are usually generated by human activities.

Computer models suggest that Arctic sea ice may disappear by 2030. What is the likely consequence of this?

🔘 The exposure of dark ocean water, which has a lower albedo, would lead to further warming. ⚪️ Cold, dense water would be able to sink, increasing the vigor of ocean circulation. ⚪️ Sea level would rise by over 50 meters (165 feet). ⚪️ Atmospheric circulation would change, with warm air flowing away from the poles and toward the equator.

Why did carbon dioxide build up to such lethal levels in Lake Nyos?

🔘 The gas, produced by volcanic outgassing, accumulated in the lower layers of the stratified lake until it reached critical levels. ⚪️ The gas was rapidly extruded by an underwater volcanic eruption of the Nyos crater. ⚪️ Volcanic heating of Lake Nyos increased the solubility of the gas, allowing it to build up to lethal levels.

Heat energy radiated from Earth back into space does not interact with the atmosphere in the same way that incoming solar radiation does. Why?

🔘 The heat energy from Earth has a different wavelength. ⚪️ The amount of heat energy from Earth is tiny compared to the incoming solar radiation. ⚪️ Clouds in the troposphere reflect all of the heat energy back to the surface. ⚪️ The heat energy from Earth is traveling at a slower speed.

What causes wind?

🔘 The horizontal movement of air flowing from high pressure to low pressure ⚪️ The vertical movement of air caused by density differences ⚪️ The horizontal movement of air caused by the Coriolis effect ⚪️ The vertical movement of air caused by temperature differences in air masses

Why are comets significant to understanding the origins of life on Earth?

🔘 The icy surfaces of comets contain elements that are the building blocks of life. ⚪️ Living organisms may have been transplanted to Earth from another planet via comets. ⚪️ The gaseous vapors in a comet's tail are similar to the atmosphere of early Earth.

Why is lightning more common over the land than it is over the ocean?

🔘 The land warms up faster than the ocean, causing more heating and thunderstorm-producing convection upwelling. ⚪️ The greater fiction between the air and surface on land produces more atmospheric instability. ⚪️ Electrical currents at the surface of the ocean prevent the buildup of charge imbalances in the atmosphere. ⚪️ Power lines and other electrical structures on land cause the separation of protons and electrons needed to cause lightning.

Despite early warnings in Crescent City, California, 12 people were killed by the 1964 Good Friday tsunami. What feature of the tsunami led to their deaths?

🔘 The largest wave was the fifth, and many people returned home after the fourth wave. ⚪️ The wave swept much farther inland than expected, catching those who hadn't evacuated far enough. ⚪️ The tsunami arrived much earlier than had been predicted, catching many people unawares. ⚪️ The tsunami began with a massive drawback of the ocean water, dragging boats out to sea before smashing them on the shore.

Why is the moist adiabatic lapse rate lower than the dry adiabatic lapse rate?

🔘 The latent heat released during condensation in a saturated air mass slows the rate of adiabatic cooling. ⚪️ Both lapse rates are universal constants, and the moist adiabatic rate just happens to be lower. ⚪️ The latent heat is stored as air descends and warms, increasing the wet adiabatic lapse rate to the dry adiabatic lapse rate. ⚪️ Moisture-laden air is heavier than dry air, and so it rises more slowly, allowing more time for energy exchange.

Why is chaparral one of the most flammable plant groups?

🔘 The leaves of the shrubs contain aromatic oils that protect them from insects. ⚪️ Chaparral shrubs don't have many leaves, leaving woody bark exposed to fire. ⚪️ The roots of chaparral shrubs don't extend deep into the soil where more moisture would be available. ⚪️ Chaparral shrubs grow far apart, allowing flames to jump long distances quickly.

In 1938, the Yellow River flooded, leading to the death of a million people. What caused this flood?

🔘 The levees were dynamited during the war with Japan. ⚪️ A storm system moved into the area and dumped record amounts of rain. ⚪️ The river shifted to a new channel that did not have the same flood-control structures as the original channel. ⚪️ A major dam, built in the early 20th century, failed catastrophically.

What is the intertropical convergenze zone (ITCZ)?

🔘 The location where surface levels winds (trade winds) in each Hadley cell meet in the tropics ⚪️ The location where high-altitude winds in the Hadley and Ferrel cells meet before descending. ⚪️ It is another name for the equator. ⚪️ It is the location where winds flowing toward the equator are no longer deflected by the Coriolis effect.

When the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami hit Sri Lanka, it affected almost the entire shoreline of the island. Why is this?

🔘 The long wavelength of the tsunami allowed it to bend around the island. ⚪️ The tsunami approached the island from both the east and the west. ⚪️ The shape of the Sri Lankan shoreline caused water to flow lengthwise around the island. ⚪️ The height of the wave was so great, it was able to flow across the entire island from one side to the other.

The sinking of warm, salty water to the ocean bottom was the cause of what natural disaster approximately 56 million years ago?

🔘 The mass extinction of up to 50% of unicellular deep-sea animal species ⚪️ A global Ice Age, referred to as Snowball Earth ⚪️ The extinction of the dinosaurs and most mammals ⚪️ A massive tsunami that impacted all of the continents

Why do hurricanes cause so much flooding inland?

🔘 The massive amount of water vapor that fuels hurricanes provides the moisture needed to form heavy rains. ⚪️ The hurricane winds pick up water from inland rivers and lakes and blow it around until the winds die down. ⚪️ Hurricane winds knock out natural and human-made dams, causing flooding to occur downstream. ⚪️ They cause tidal bores in rivers to travel hundreds of miles inland until they spill over natural levees.

The accompanying ShakeMap shows the relative susceptibility various ground surfaces have to shaking by earthquakes. Red indicates the greatest amount of potential shaking, and blue indicates the least. Based upon this map, what can you infer about the geologic materials that the city of Newhall is built upon?

🔘 The materials are likely unconsolidated, such as sand or silt. ⚪️ The materials are likely hard bedrock, such as granite. ⚪️ Shaking intensity cannot be directly correlated to the underlying geologic materials.

What is saturation humidity?

🔘 The maximum amount of water vapor that can exist in an air mass at a given temperature. ⚪️ The temperature at which the rate of evaporation is greater than the rate of condensation. ⚪️ The total volume of water vapor and liquid water in air at a given temperature. ⚪️ The amount of energy required to convert all of the water vapor in an air mass into water droplets.

What sequence of events is hypothesized to produce a tornado when warm and cold air masses meet?

🔘 The meeting creates a horizontal tube of air that rotates parallel to the ground before rising air tilts it upward and then stretches it out. ⚪️ The cold air mass cools the warm air mass, creating a strong downdraft that is forced by the Coriolis effect to rotate in a tight spiral. ⚪️ The warm and cold air masses start to rotate around each other in an ever-tightening spiral until a central vortex develops and drops to the ground. ⚪️ The warm air mass causes water droplets in the cold air mass to evaporate. This releases heat and creates a compact updraft of spiraling air.

Why are aftershocks common after a large earthquake?

🔘 The movement along the fault increases stress on adjacent sections of that fault. ⚪️ It takes a while for the seismic waves to reverberate around Earth. ⚪️ It takes many small earthquakes to equal the energy released by a large, mainshock earthquake. ⚪️ The energy of a large earthquake is too great to release in one burst and so is released in smaller, sequential bursts.

How are earthquakes named?

🔘 The name is taken from the most prominent geographic feature near the epicenter. ⚪️ A committee produces a list of names each year that are sequentially used as earthquakes occur. ⚪️ The scientist to first record seismic waves from the earthquake is given the right to name the event. ⚪️ Earthquakes are named after the town the farthest away from the epicenter to experience ground movements.

Which of the following is the century-long trend in the United States related to hurricane destruction?

🔘 The number of deaths have been decreasing, and the economic damages have been increasing. ⚪️ The economic damages have been decreasing, but the human toll has been increasing. ⚪️ The economic costs and death tolls have been rising. ⚪️ The economic costs and death tolls have been dropping.

What is the overall effect of the oceans on Earth's climate?

🔘 The oceans moderate Earth's climate by absorbing heat in the summer and releasing heat in the winter. ⚪️ The oceans tend to make the climate more extreme since they absorb so much heat. ⚪️ The oceans have little effect on climate since water has a high heat capacity. ⚪️ The oceans moderate climate at low latitude but make climate more extreme at high latitude since the albedo of the water depends on the Sun's angle.

Why do S waves disappear at the core-mantle boundary?

🔘 The outer core is liquid, and S waves cannot travel through a liquid. ⚪️ S waves are more likely to be reflected at a boundary between materials of significantly different density. ⚪️ S waves lose velocity as they travel into the Earth and generally come to a stop before reaching the great depth of the core-mantle boundary. ⚪️ When they reach the outer core, P waves and S waves combine to form a different type of seismic wave, called an L wave.

Why is the wind blowing the way it is in the diagram?

🔘 The path is the balance between the pressure gradient force, friction with Earth's surface, and the Coriolis effect. ⚪️ It is traveling in the path purely in response to the pressure gradient force. ⚪️ It is traveling in a path purely in response to the Coriolis effect and the pressure gradient force.

According to global climate models, rapid economic growth on a global scale will lead to _______.

🔘 a continued rise in global temperatures ⚪️ an initial rise in global temperatures, followed by a fall after the Greenland ice sheet melts ⚪️ a gradual cooling as we implement new energy technologies ⚪️ the climate staying warm but not getting much warmer

When meteorites are recovered at Earth's surface, their interiors often appear well preserved even though their exteriors show evidence of melting. Why is this?

🔘 The removal of melted surface materials also removes heat, which protects the interior from melting. ⚪️ Meteorites fall to Earth too quickly for frictional heating to affect their interiors. ⚪️ The interiors of meteorites are composed of minerals that have much high melting points than the minerals composing their exteriors.

A geologist is investigating an unusual rock formation in the western United States. The geologist discovers multiple specimens of the mineral stishovite. What can the geologist conclude about this rock formation?

🔘 The rock formation experienced high-pressure deformation at some point in its history. ⚪️ The rock formation experienced extremely high temperatures at some point in its history. ⚪️ The rock formation was deposited within an ocean basin.

What surprised scientists about the 1992 Landers earthquake along the San Andreas fault system?

🔘 The rupture progressively moved across pull-apart zones. ⚪️ It lasted for 5 minutes. ⚪️ It was much deeper than others had previously been. ⚪️ Even though it had a small magnitude, its intensity was high.

Which of the following statements accurately relates the radius of circulation in a storm to its rate of rotation?

🔘 The smaller the axis of rotation, the higher the velocity of the wind. ⚪️ The larger the axis of rotation, the higher the velocity of the wind. ⚪️ Intermediate-sized axises of rotation produce the highest wind velocities.

How does the storage of heat by water and water vapor help limit the range of climate extremes on Earth?

🔘 The solar energy absorbed and stored as latent heat is transported to higher latitudes, where it is released as water cools and changes phase. ⚪️ The energy stored as latent heat is removed from the climate system and stored in hydrous minerals, preventing the atmosphere from overheating. ⚪️ The latent heat moved to high latitudes magnifies the greenhouse effect there, which keeps the polar regions warmer than they otherwise would be.

How can a supercell thunderstorm generate tornadoes, rain, hail, and lightning all at the same time?

🔘 The supercell is tilted by complex internal movements of air, allowing different processes to occur side-by-side. ⚪️ The supercell generates products (e.g., rain, hail) in rapidly repeating cycles, making them appear to be generated at the same time. ⚪️ Supercells are able to carry tornadoes, lightning, and other products aloft and combine them later when the energy is released. ⚪️ Supercells can generate many atmospheric conditions at the same time only by absorbing air-mass thunderstorms.

What is the effect when cool downdrafts start to overwhelm the updrafts in a thunderstorm?

🔘 The thunderstorm starts a self-extinguishing stage as the source of fuel (i.e., updrafts) is cut off. ⚪️ The thunderstorm becomes even more powerful as latent heat is absorbed. ⚪️ The thunderstorm becomes self-sustaining as downdrafts start to recharge the power behind the updrafts. ⚪️ Condensation starts to occur, and the first droplets of water or ice crystals start to form.

Why does the advancement of the leading edge of a warm air mass on a cold air mass often lead to the development of widespread clouds and rain?

🔘 The warm air is forced up over a gentle slope of cold air and is cooled while doing so, leading to cloud formation and rain. ⚪️ The cold air in front of the the warm front is warmed, which releases latent heat and causes the evaporation of additional water. ⚪️ Preexisting rain and clouds in the cold air mass are spread out by the addition of kinetic energy from the warm air masses. ⚪️ The advancing warm air pushes under the cold air mass, and that causes compression and the development of rain and clouds in the compressed air.

Which of the following accurately compares the yearly number of hurricanes in the eastern Pacific to those in the North Atlantic/Caribbean Sea/Gulf of Mexico basin?

🔘 There are about 25% more hurricanes in the eastern Pacific. ⚪️ There are about 50% fewer hurricanes in the eastern Pacific. ⚪️ Over the long-term, they have roughly the same number of hurricanes per year.

NASA identifies a new near-Earth object (NEO) and rates it a 3 on the Torino scale. What does this rating tell you about the NEO?

🔘 There is a greater than 1% chance of the NEO causing local destruction. ⚪️ A collision is extremely unlikely. ⚪️ There is a significant threat of regional devastation. ⚪️ A collision is certain with localized destruction.

Which of the following accurately describes the distribution and impact of tornadoes in the United States during the year 2011?

🔘 There were 1,706 confirmed tornadoes that caused 553 deaths and about $25 billion in damages, with the Southeast (e.g., Alabama) hit the hardest. ⚪️ There were only five deaths reported and the lowest number (31) of tornadoes ever recorded. These storms mostly occurred in Florida and Georgia. ⚪️ There were 204 confirmed tornadoes that caused 43 deaths and about $2 billion in damages, with most occurring along the West Coast. ⚪️ There were just under a record 16,000 storms, but higher building standards kept the death toll to 23 and limited damages to under $10 million.

If Earth did not rotate, what would be the most likely form of global atmospheric circulation?

🔘 There would be one large convection cell in each hemisphere with rising air near the equator and sinking air at the pole. ⚪️ There would be one large convection cell on Earth with rising air at the North Pole and sinking air at the South Pole. ⚪️ There would be twice as many circulation cells per hemisphere (6) as there are now (3). ⚪️ There would little atmospheric circulation since all areas would be equally heated.

What are tornado safe rooms like?

🔘 They are small rooms built in the interior of houses that have thick concrete walls and steel doors. ⚪️ They are detachable rooms built on the exterior of houses that are designed to roll in tornadoes but protect its occupants. ⚪️ They are rooms made of strong, fine-grained wire mesh that allows winds to pass though while protecting occupants from impacts.

Why are the interiors of subducting slabs the only places on the slab where powerful earthquakes can occur at great depth?

🔘 They are the only places left on the descending slabs still cold enough to resist the pressures before breaking in a rigid manner. ⚪️ They are the only places on the slabs with enough heat to provide the energy needed to power a large earthquake. ⚪️ The interiors are the only parts of the slabs that descend beyond the first 100 km as the rest melts away.

Which of the following statements is true about hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons?

🔘 They are the same basic storm but are called by other names in different parts of the world. ⚪️ They are fundamentally different storms, although they are all large and powerful. ⚪️ They represent different stages of development of the same storm, with hurricanes being the most powerful and cyclones being the least powerful. ⚪️ They are all large low-pressure systems, but they are differentiated by the latitude at which they form.

Which of the following best summarize the net effect of seafloor spreading and glacier volume on sea level change?

🔘 They can cancel each other out or can combine to create either great rises or falls. ⚪️ They always work in tandem in the same direction to cause great rises. ⚪️ They always work in tandem in the same direction to cause great falls. ⚪️ They always cancel each other out to result in very little sea level change over time.

Aerosols affect the volume of clouds, their distribution, and their albedo. How do clouds affect global climate?

🔘 They can cause both warming and cooling. ⚪️ Because they reflect sunlight, clouds only lead to cooling. ⚪️ Clouds act as a blanket and therefore only lead to warming. ⚪️ Clouds do not affect the Earth's climate.

Where do the hurricanes that effect Hawaii come from?

🔘 They come from the south and follow a right-hooking path to get there. ⚪️ They form just offshore in the warm pool of water. ⚪️ They form south of Alaska where the global thermohaline circulation brings warm water to the surface. ⚪️ They form from the remains of typhoons that spin off of northern Japan.

Which of the following best describes the forecasting of hurricanes by the National Hurricane Center?

🔘 They have greatly improved hurricane forecasting, and that has saved thousand of lives by permitting timely evacuations. ⚪️ They have have not had much luck in forecasting the paths of storms, but recently launched satellites should improve predictions in the next decade. ⚪️ Their forecasts have proved accurate enough to stage relief workers and supplies but not good enough for evacuations to be ordered.

What path do the majority of hurricanes that form in the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean take?

🔘 They head westward out into the Pacific Ocean. ⚪️ They head inland over southern Mexico. ⚪️ They track north before moving to the east over southern California. ⚪️ Some head south, but most remain in place until they dissipate.

How did tree rings prove useful in determining the timing and occurrence of a large earthquake in the Pacific Northwest in winter of 1700?

🔘 They indicated the ground was dropped to a lower elevation, causing an influx of seawater that killed the trees. ⚪️ The tree rings that formed during that time period have wrinkles in them. ⚪️ The wide rings from that year indicate fast growth after the earthquake as nutrients were liberated from the soils. ⚪️ Rings from that year were much thinner than normal, indicating poor growing conditions.

As the population along the coastline grows, what should people do in response to the threat posed by hurricanes?

🔘 They need to take more preventive measures. ⚪️ They should identify a nearby underground tornado shelter to take cover in when the hurricane comes. ⚪️ Rely on others to physically and economically bail them out. ⚪️ Build houses that face away from the ocean or at least to the north.

What will happen to the many thousands of expensive new buildings lining the shoreline?

🔘 They will be hit and damaged by hurricanes bringing wind, storm surges, waves, and heavy rain. ⚪️ They will be protected by the seawalls being built along the coast. ⚪️ They will stand strong against hurricanes since they were built with hurricanes in mind. ⚪️ They will be abandoned, as people realize the danger of living along the coast.

What is likely to happen to the cliff-front homes shown here?

🔘 They will fall into the sea when the cliff erodes. ⚪️ They will experience flooding during large winter storms. ⚪️ They will lose value as new land builds up in front of them due to wave deposition of sediments. ⚪️ They will be demolished to make way for upscale development.

The flood of the Gilgamesh Epic and possibly the flood described in Genesis may have occurred at or near the ________.

🔘 Tigris and Euphrates Rivers ⚪️ Nile River valley ⚪️ Mediterranean Sea ⚪️ Yellow River basin

Why have degassing pipes been installed in Lake Nyos in Cameroon?

🔘 To allow high-pressure gas to escape, preventing the CO2 from building to dangerous levels ⚪️ To allow for the collection of methane to be used for home heating ⚪️ To allow for the capture of CO2 in an attempt to control global warming

How far away were tektites spread from the impact event depicted in this image?

🔘 To the Gulf of Mexico ⚪️ Just in the debris layer shown ⚪️ Around the world

Why is the passage of high- and low-pressure air masses much more common in the midlatitudes?

🔘 Tropical and polar air masses transfer energy back and forth across the midlatitudes. ⚪️ The Coriolis effect is the largest in the midlatitudes and that blows the rotation in high- and low-pressure systems. ⚪️ The topography of Earth in the middle latitudes is best suited for the development of air masses. ⚪️ The orientation of the pressure gradient force is optimal for the formation of high- and low-pressure systems in the middle latitudes.

Calculated tsunami velocities are typically faster than measured tsunami velocities. Why is this?

🔘 Tsunami affect the entire water column and therefore drag along the ocean floor, which reduces the wave velocity. ⚪️ The tsunami velocity equation does not take wind speeds into account. ⚪️ Tsunami velocities are so high they cannot be measured by our instruments. ⚪️ Tsunami interact with regular ocean waves and the different wave periods cause interference, which slows down the tsunami.

What is the tectonic setting of Haiti?

🔘 Two parallel, east-west trending transform faults pass through Haiti where it sits at the northern edge of the Caribbean plate. ⚪️ A spreading center runs north-south through Haiti that is creating an new ocean basin. ⚪️ A large subduction zone fault runs just south of Haiti as the Caribbean plate subducts under the Cocos plate. ⚪️ Haiti is being pushed upward as two small continental landmasses are being pushed together by nearby spreading centers.

During the June 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines, secondary lahars may not have formed if it had not been for ______.

🔘 Typhoon Yunya, which dumped heavy rains on the area over the erupting volcano ⚪️ unusually voluminous snow pack at the volcano's peak due to a harsh winter ⚪️ the presence of numerous springs that provided the necessary volume of water

Which statement below best explains the cause of atmospheric circulation on Earth?

🔘 Unequal solar heating heats results in the rising, falling, and horizontal movement of air masses, which are deflected by Earth's rotation. ⚪️ Rotation friction generated between space and the top of Earth's atmosphere is passed downward through the atmosphere, causing wind. ⚪️ The tilt of Earth's axis causes gravity to pull obliquely relative to Earth's surface on atmospheric gases, causing endless motion. ⚪️ The release of carbon dioxide by photosynthetic organisms on land pushes existing atmospheric molecules toward the oceans.

When the estimated 100-year flood for Tucson, Arizona, was recalculated based only on post-1960 flows, it was found to be three times as large as previously calculated. What factor accounts for this increase in flood potential?

🔘 Urbanization of the Tucson area ⚪️ Climate change ⚪️ Channel avulsion ⚪️ Channel erosion since 1960

Which of the following best describes flood basalts?

🔘 Vast outpourings of basaltic lava from fissures that do not build a central volcano ⚪️ HIghly explosive eruptions of basaltic magma that cover the land in pumice and ash ⚪️ Broad, gently sloping volcanoes made up of thin basaltic lava flows

Which of the following climates faces the greatest threat from fire hazards?

🔘 Very wet winters and very dry summers ⚪️ Year-round dry conditions ⚪️ Mild winters and moderately wet summers ⚪️ Extremely cold and dry

The San Andreas fault is described as "locked" in the area of San Francisco. What does this mean for the fault?

🔘 Virtually all the tectonic stress is stored as elastic strain that will only be reduced in a big earthquake when the fault finally breaks. ⚪️ It is slowly slipping a bit each year, and so large earthquakes are effectively locked out of this section of the fault for the near future. ⚪️ The fault has essentially been sealed over by magma.

How does increased volcanic activity lead to periods of global warming?

🔘 Volcanoes release large volumes of greenhouse gases, which alter Earth's heat balance. ⚪️ Volcanoes release large amounts of Earth's internal energy via lava, increasing surface temperatures. ⚪️ Volcanoes release aerosol particles into the atmosphere, which absorb large amounts of energy from the Sun.

What is the general direction of energy flow at Earth's surface for fluids (air and water) in motion?

🔘 Warmer fluids flow toward high latitudes, while colder fluids flow toward the equator. ⚪️ Warmer fluids flow toward the equator, while colder fluids flow to the east or west. ⚪️ Colder fluids flow toward the poles, while warmer fluids flow to lower latitudes. ⚪️ Colder fluids generally flow to the right and warmer fluids flow to the left.

During the end of the Permian, periodic upwelling of anoxic water killed organisms living in shallow marine environments. Where did this anoxic water come from?

🔘 Warming water temperature slowed down ocean circulation, producing stagnant water that was depleted in oxygen. ⚪️ Outpouring of oceanic flood basalts created plumes of anoxic water that migrated into shallow marine environments. ⚪️ Falling sea levels reduced dissolve oxygen concentrations in ocean water, creating pockets of anoxic water in shallow marine environments.

Why does the very shallow gradient of the riverbed of the Red River increase the likelihood of flooding?

🔘 Water tends to pool, rather than flow away. ⚪️ Shallow water is warmer and therefore doesn't freeze. ⚪️ Shallow riverbeds contain less sediment, which would slow floodwaters. ⚪️ Less water can filter into the soil on shallow slopes, which increases runoff.

What general trend is evident among reefs following mass extinctions?

🔘 When reef-builders are eliminated in mass extinctions, it takes millions of years for new reef-builders (and reefs) to appear again. ⚪️ Reefs appear to be relatively unaffected by mass extinctions, and sometimes their diversity even increases in the wake of mass extinctions. ⚪️ Reefs are always the first animal communities to recover following mass extinctions.

Which of the following statements best describes the trend in species diversity through geologic time?

🔘 While fluctuations have occurred, there is an overall increase in diversity through time. ⚪️ Diversity has fluctuated constantly and often rapidly, without a discernible long-term trend through time. ⚪️ Species diversity has undergone a steady decline since the end of the Cambrian. ⚪️ Species diversity has remained relatively unchanged since the end of the Cambrian.

All of the following are involved in the circulation of ocean surface currents. Which is the primary cause?

🔘 Wind ⚪️ Coriolis effect ⚪️ Deflection by currents

_________ brings a continuous supply of oxygen, which feeds the fire, distributes heat, and pushes flames forward.

🔘 Wind ⚪️ Rain ⚪️ Topography ⚪️ Fuel

Why do winter beaches often have less sand than summer beaches?

🔘 Winter waves are more energetic and have longer wavelengths; they drag sand offshore. ⚪️ Large storm waves push the sand further onshore, behind the beach. ⚪️ Longshore currents are much stronger, pulling the sand southward to the Southern Hemisphere. ⚪️ Rivers tend to carry less sediment to the shoreline during the winter.

Which river, sometimes called the "River of Sorrow," is believed to have killed more people than any other natural feature?

🔘 Yellow River, China ⚪️ Amazon River, Brazil ⚪️ Mississippi River, United States ⚪️ Tunguska River, Russia

Your friend is interested in visiting Mount St. Helens but wants some ideas as to what activities that they can do while visiting. What could you suggest, based upon your knowledge of the area?

🔘 Your friend could go fly fishing for trout in the nearby lakes. ⚪️ Tell your friend that the area is still a quarantined zone and no one can enter it. ⚪️ Your friend could visit the area, but there is nothing to see: the landscape is still barren from the 1980 eruption.

The Wabash Valley fault zone in Indiana is the product of ______ and appears to be connected to the New Madrid seismic zone.

🔘 a failed rift ⚪️ isostatic rebound ⚪️ sediment loading from the Mississippi River embayment ⚪️ crustal shortening

Record or near-record river levels during the spring of 2011 led to flooding throughout the Mississippi basin. In order to protect the town of Cairo, Illinois, ___________.

🔘 a levee was deliberately breached to allow water to flood farmland in Missouri ⚪️ huge temporary levees were built using debris from demolished homes ⚪️ a temporary river channel was built to divert water around the town center ⚪️ the population was evacuated and all buildings were sealed to protect them from water damage

The 2000 fire season in the United States was particularly bad due to _______.

🔘 a long, dry summer ⚪️ strong jet stream winds across the nation ⚪️ unusually high numbers of lightning strikes ⚪️ an outbreak of arson

The 2011 Japanese tsunami was caused by ______.

🔘 a magnitude 9.0 earthquake ⚪️ a massive landslide off the northeast shore of Japan ⚪️ a major eruption of Mount Fuji ⚪️ a moderate-sized meteorite impact

The 26 December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami was caused by ______.

🔘 a massive earthquake off the coast of Sumatra, Indonesia ⚪️ the eruption of Krakatau, near the Indonesian island of Java ⚪️ a massive landslide off the coast of Sumatra caused by unusually heavy rain ⚪️ the impact of a medium-sized meteorite in the center of the Indian Ocean

Climate cooling during the Younger Dryas is attributed by scientists to _________.

🔘 a massive flood of glacial meltwater into the North Atlantic Ocean ⚪️ the advance of glaciers southward into North America ⚪️ a massive volcanic eruption at an unknown location near the equator ⚪️ a period of very low sunspot activity

The 1964 Good Friday tsunami that raced through the entire Pacific Ocean was caused by _______.

🔘 a mega-thrust earthquake along the convergent plate boundary between the Pacific and North American plates ⚪️ a massive coastal landslide that was triggered by an earthquake and dumped tons of rock and dirt into the Pacific Ocean ⚪️ a major subsidence event caused by the collapse of subterranean caves underlying the coast of Alaska

A fault is ______.

🔘 a place where Earth ruptures and two sides move past each other in earthquake-generating events ⚪️ the zone between rock masses where a gap exists ⚪️ an area of weakness in a rock formation that may break due to tectonic pressures ⚪️ a type of earthquake in which seismic waves, or evidence of their passing, are visible at Earth's surface

Forty-four people, including journalists and volcanologists, were killed at Mount Unzen on 3 June 1991 from ______.

🔘 a pyroclastic flow generated from dome collapse ⚪️ volcanic bombs that were part of the pyroclastic fall ⚪️ suffocation and smothering from lahars ⚪️ being buried beneath fast-moving lava flows

A failed rift can occur when __.

🔘 a rift fails to open up enough to form a spreading center ⚪️ volcanoes form through relatively nonviolent magma eruptions versus very explosive events ⚪️ a previously active subduction zone suddenly shuts down ⚪️ rising magma mysteriously becomes trapped in the mantle and does not reach Earth's crust

Twenty-two thousand people were killed in the town of Armero during the Nevado del Ruiz volcanic eruption when ______.

🔘 a series of lahars roared down steep-walled canyons and buried the town ⚪️ pyroclastic flows raced downslope of the volcano and into town ⚪️ massive lava blocks and boulders fell from the sky, setting the town ablaze ⚪️ a cinder cone volcano suddenly appeared in the middle of town, explosively releasing ash on unsuspecting residents

One of the first signs of renewed volcanic activity of Mount St. Helens in March 1980 was ______.

🔘 a series of magnitude 3 earthquakes ⚪️ a large column of billowing black smoke ⚪️ melting of glacier ice near at the volcano's peak, creating lahars ⚪️ a sudden blast of lava that killed several nearby hikers

Southern California is protected from Pacific Ocean tsunami by ________.

🔘 a series of parallel offshore ridges and islands ⚪️ a series of human-made marine barriers ⚪️ its many deep inlets and bays ⚪️ very deep water close to shore

A series of earthquakes that occurred in the Dallas-Fort Worth area from 2008 to 2009 were traced to ______.

🔘 a single well used for wastewater disposal ⚪️ a previously unknown rift that spontaneously reactivated ⚪️ magma migration from a newly discovered midcontinental hot spot

A scarp is ______.

🔘 a steep slope created by the movement of faults ⚪️ a long, linear section of a stream caused by fault offset ⚪️ the observed offset of sediment layers due to earthquakes

An example of an indirect cause of a tsunami is _______.

🔘 a submarine landslide triggered by an earthquake ⚪️ a volcanic eruption that dumps pyroclastic material into the ocean ⚪️ a large earthquake along a subduction zone ⚪️ a meteorite impact into a shallow sea

Potentially hazardous asteroids are ______.

🔘 a subset of near-Earth asteroids whose orbits bring them closer to Earth and whose size would cause regional-scale damage ⚪️ another term used to describe near-Earth objects (NEOs) ⚪️ asteroids that are assigned a score of 1 or greater on the Torino scale

Iceland's origins are very apparent when observing its geography, since ______.

🔘 a third of its surface is covered in volcanoes ⚪️ most of its major rock formations are composed of sedimentary material ⚪️ the major peaks and mountains are built of metamorphosed rock

Benjamin Franklin suggested that cold weather in Europe during 1783-84 was caused by ______.

🔘 a volcanic eruption in Iceland ⚪️ a thick blanket of smog from factories ⚪️ changes in the Atlantic Ocean circulation pattern ⚪️ changes in the tilt of Earth's axis

An 18-hour volcanic eruption was started by the 1975 earthquake in Hawaii. The earthquake triggered the eruption by ______.

🔘 causing gases to escape from subsurface magma ⚪️ weakening the cap rock overlying the magma chamber ⚪️ giving magma a conduit to the surface through offset of the fault

A decade ago, the Long Valley caldera was releasing 1,000 tons of carbon dioxide a day. Today, it is only releasing 300 tons a day. This suggests that ______.

🔘 a volcanic eruption is less likely ⚪️ magma has moved closer to the surface, making an eruption more likely ⚪️ the volcano is "dying" and probably will never erupt again ⚪️ the SiO2 content of the magma is increasing

Greenhouse gases work to warm Earth's surface by ______.

🔘 absorbing terrestrial radiation and warming the atmosphere ⚪️ reflecting terrestrial radiation back to the surface ⚪️ reducing Earth's albedo

Beach sand is an effective protection from coastal erosion because it ________.

🔘 absorbs the energy of the waves ⚪️ is constantly moving along the shoreline ⚪️ tends to build up where coastal erosion is greatest ⚪️ piles up on beaches during the winter, when waves are the most energetic

Acceleration during an earthquake is usually measured relative to _______.

🔘 acceleration due to gravity ⚪️ the force of compression ⚪️ the velocity of ground movement ⚪️ the frequency of seismic waves

Scientists believe that long-runout debris flows are able to travel long distances because the jostling back and forth of fragments in the flow creates sound waves that propagate through the material, making it behave like a fluid. This process is known as _______.

🔘 acoustic fluidization ⚪️ seismic attenuation ⚪️ liquefaction ⚪️ the sturzstrom sound effect

If a mass undergoes a temperature change without the input or removal of heat from the surrounding environment, the process is known as ______.

🔘 adiabatic ⚪️ lapsing ⚪️ endothermic ⚪️ exothermic

The percentage of solar radiation absorbed versus the relative amount reflected by a surface is known as the surface's ______.

🔘 albedo ⚪️ spectrum ⚪️ wave index ⚪️ radiance

The lifting condensation level is the ______.

🔘 altitude where 100% humidity is reached and water vapor condenses to form clouds ⚪️ amount of energy that needs to be obtained from the Sun before condensation can occur ⚪️ altitude where the moist adiabatic lapse rate equals the dry adiabatic lapse rate ⚪️ amount of latent heat that must be released to lift an air mass over a mountain blocking its horizontal motion

The Atlantic Multidecadal Variability (AMV) is ______.

🔘 an alternating pattern of colder and warmer sea-surface temperatures in the North Atlantic ⚪️ the clockwise movement of the Bermuda High around the Atlantic basin over a 12- to 14-year period ⚪️ a pattern of hurricane tracks in the Atlantic Ocean that tends to repeat over the course of 12 to 15 years ⚪️ the decades-long back-and-forth movement of a warm pool of water between the western Atlantic Ocean and the mouth of the Mediterranean Sea

The tectonic activity in Charlevoix, Quebec, is the result of ______.

🔘 an ancient meteorite impact that created faults in the underlying bedrock ⚪️ intensive fracking taking place in nearby Quebec City ⚪️ isostatic rebound associated with the retreat of glaciers ⚪️ reactivation of ancient rifts

A rubble pile asteroid is formed when ______.

🔘 an asteroid is broken during a collision, and the pieces are held together in a collection ⚪️ random pieces of space debris clump together after they collide ⚪️ water is shot out of a giant geyser into space, forming pieces of ice that clump together

The block slide event in 1920 near Point Fermin, California, is believed to have been primarily caused by _______.

🔘 an excess of water from landscape irrigation ⚪️ a moderate-sized earthquake located just offshore ⚪️ removal of vegetation from the slopes ⚪️ rapid development of the area adding mass to the top of the slope

The 1985 Nevado del Ruiz eruption was made particularly deadly due to the presence of ______, since the eruption itself was rather minor.

🔘 an ice cap at the volcano's peak ⚪️ the nearby town of Armero ⚪️ heavy thunderstorms during the volcanic eruption ⚪️ narrow canyons that channelized lava flows

The La Brea Tar Pits concentrated so many animal fossils because ______.

🔘 animals became easily trapped in the asphalt once they stepped into it ⚪️ it was positioned along an ancient animal migration route ⚪️ tectonic activity folded the layers of tar in such a way that fossil abundances are higher than average

During several geologic periods of warmer climate—such as the Late Devonian, the Permian, and the Cretaceous—bottom-dwelling marine organisms were pushed to extinction as a result of ______.

🔘 anoxic bottom waters ⚪️ evolution of new predators ⚪️ ocean acidification ⚪️ decreases in sea level

What is the difference between single-cell (air-mass) thunderstorms and supercell thunderstorms? Single-cell thunderstorms ______.

🔘 are dominated by vertical updrafts, whereas supercells have their updrafts tilted due to wind shear ⚪️ are caused by updrafts, whereas super cells are caused by downdrafts ⚪️ produce rain but no hail, whereas supercells produce hail ⚪️ are powered by low pressure, whereas supercells are powered by high pressure

The narrow shape of Taylor's Bay allowed the Newfoundland 1929 tsunami to ______.

🔘 build in height ⚪️ lose energy quickly ⚪️ disappear

Most of the fatalities in earthquakes are caused by ______.

🔘 buildings and homes collapsing ⚪️ people falling into chasms ⚪️ brain injuries suffered while being shaken by the ground ⚪️ heart attacks related to the sudden shock of the event

Through a combination of direct outgassing and metamorphism of sedimentary rocks, the end-Permian Siberian flood basalt released massive amounts of ______ that dramatically altered Earth's climate.

🔘 carbon dioxide ⚪️ aerosols ⚪️ molecular oxygen ⚪️ elemental sulfur

The deadly gas that killed 1,700 people and 3,000 livestock near Lake Nyos, Cameroon, in 1986 was later identified as ______.

🔘 carbon dioxide ⚪️ hydrogen sulfide ⚪️ sulfur dioxide ⚪️ hydrogen fluoride

When carbon dioxide dissolves in water, it creates ______.

🔘 carbonic acid ⚪️ bubbles ⚪️ dense water currents ⚪️ carbonate particles

Lava domes can produce pyroclastic flows when ______.

🔘 chunks of the dome break off and flow downslope ⚪️ the internal pressure of the dome builds up until it explodes ⚪️ they plug the volcanic crater, causing magma and hot water to spill over the sides

The minerals most commonly associated with slope failures are the _________.

🔘 clays ⚪️ feldspars ⚪️ silicates ⚪️ carbonates ⚪️ sulfides

65 million years ago, North America was ______ Eurasia and Antarctic and Australia were ______.

🔘 closer to; connected ⚪️ farther from; connected ⚪️ closer to; disconnected ⚪️ farther from; disconnected

A genome is a _______.

🔘 common pool of genetic material shared by all members of the same species ⚪️ specific set of environmental conditions for which a species is adapted ⚪️ reproductively isolated population of organisms ⚪️ unique individual in a population that arises due to genetic mutation

Another name for a stratovolcano is a _________.

🔘 composite volcano ⚪️ shield ⚪️ cinder cone ⚪️ volcanic dome

P waves are ______ and can travel through air, just like sound waves do, and hence are audible.

🔘 compressional ⚪️ transverse ⚪️ slow ⚪️ fast

Angular momentum is thought to play an important role in tornado formation because as the diameter of rotating air is reduced, the wind speeds increase as angular momentum is ______.

🔘 conserved ⚪️ multiplied ⚪️ lost ⚪️ decreased

Numerous earthquakes occurred at Lake Mead in 1935 because ______.

🔘 construction of a dam created downwarping of the land surface ⚪️ reverse faults in the bedrock were reactivated due to isostatic rebound ⚪️ subsurface magma movement triggered the seismic activity

The process of the continents moving, splitting, and recombining is known as _______.

🔘 continental drift ⚪️ subduction ⚪️ isostatic adjustment ⚪️ Pangaea

The lateral movement of the tectonic plates occurs as they ride along on top of ______ in the mantle.

🔘 convection cells ⚪️ hot spots ⚪️ lithosphere ⚪️ subduction zones

Earth's largest (strongest) earthquakes occur at ______.

🔘 convergent boundaries ⚪️ divergent boundaries ⚪️ transform faults ⚪️ interplate locations

To the east of a ridge in the North Hemisphere's polar jet stream, there is a region of ______ air aloft that sinks in a high-pressure zone, and to the east of a trough, there is a region of ______ air aloft coming out of the top of a low-pressure system.

🔘 converging; diverging ⚪️ diverging; converging ⚪️ fast; slow ⚪️ slow; fast

Rock layers that dip at angles less than that of a hillslope will be exposed on the slope surface. These layers, known as _______, are unstable because there is no support at their ends that will hold them back from sliding.

🔘 daylighted bedding ⚪️ truncated spurs ⚪️ orphan strata ⚪️ outcropping beds

This mass movement event that occurred on Interstate 40 in North Carolina is an example of a ______. This is clear from the large slabs of broken hard rock that are lying on top of the layer of softer sedimentary rock.

🔘 debris slide ⚪️ earthflow ⚪️ rotational slide ⚪️ rock fall

Chaparral has evolved so that fire has taken the place of _________ organisms.

🔘 decomposer ⚪️ pollinating ⚪️ seed-dispersing ⚪️ herbivorous

Increasing the temperature of a lava will tend to ______ its viscosity.

🔘 decrease ⚪️ increase ⚪️ have no effect on

When waves slow down in shallow water, their wavelengths ______ and their wave heights ______.

🔘 decrease; increase ⚪️ increase; increase ⚪️ decrease; decrease ⚪️ increase; decrease

As a descending slab in a subduction zone is heated from the outside to the inside as it descends, its ability to produce large earthquakes ______ because the rocks' rigidity ______.

🔘 decreases; decreases ⚪️ decreases; increases ⚪️ increases; decreases ⚪️ increases; increases

The supercontinent Pangaea had widespread ______ in its interior, due to its elevation above sea level and distance from climate-moderating shorelines.

🔘 deserts ⚪️ tropical rain forests ⚪️ boreal forests ⚪️ coal forests and swamps

Following a major flood in 1927, New Orleans ________.

🔘 developed a hypothetical maximum probable flood in order to design flood controls ⚪️ was relocated 15 km to the north, where the land was at a higher elevation above sea level ⚪️ declared bankruptcy because of the extreme cost of repair to damaged buildings and roadways ⚪️ diverted the channel of the Mississippi River so that it no longer flowed through the city

Throughout the 20th century, average annual acreage of burned U.S. wildlands varied greatly due to ___________.

🔘 differences in fire suppression policy ⚪️ climate shift ⚪️ economic shifts ⚪️ increased human use of natural areas

Scientists has classified the San Andreas fault as having random movements, so earthquakes there are ______ to predict in any time frame.

🔘 difficult ⚪️ easy

The accompanying diagram shows a pyroclastic flow forming from a(n) ______.

🔘 direct blast ⚪️ eruption column collapse ⚪️ overspilling crater rim ⚪️ dome collapse

Colloquially known as "great dyings," mass extinctions differ from natural disasters because ______.

🔘 disasters involve the death of many individuals of one species, while extinctions involve the death of entire species ⚪️ disasters occur rapidly, but extinctions can take millions of years ⚪️ disasters kill hundreds or thousands of individuals of a species, while extinctions kill millions or billions of individuals of a species

When a number of earthquakes occur in a relatively short amount of time, the sequence of events is called a(n) ______.

🔘 earthquake cluster ⚪️ tectonic batch ⚪️ seismic array ⚪️ fault-set

One of the major adaptations found among terrestrial animals following the end-Permian extinction was ______.

🔘 efficient respiratory systems and warm-bloodedness ⚪️ bipedalism (locomotion on two legs) ⚪️ smaller body size ⚪️ live birth

A rift that starts to rip a continent apart but then stops before the continent splits is a(n) __.

🔘 failed rift ⚪️ bad crack ⚪️ buried breach ⚪️ acrimonious split

Fire burns ________ up a slope.

🔘 faster ⚪️ slower ⚪️ evenly

In 1998, the U.S. Congress authorized NASA to begin a program that would ______.

🔘 find 90 percent of near-Earth asteroids greater than 1 km in diameter by 2008 ⚪️ develop the necessary technology to deflect or destroy potential hazardous near-Earth objects ⚪️ create a human colony on Mars for "insurance" against a civilization-ending impact event on Earth

Volcanic activity created the _____ that is important to the economy of the village of Vestmannaeyjar on the island of Heimaey, near Iceland.

🔘 fishing port ⚪️ hot springs ⚪️ mineral ores ⚪️ volcanic peaks

Maria are the dark-colored areas on the Moon that were formed by ______.

🔘 flood basalts ⚪️ asteroid impacts ⚪️ earthquakes ⚪️ the Apollo moon landings

Vast outpourings of basaltic lava from fissures that cover very large areas of the Earth's surface are called ____________.

🔘 flood basalts ⚪️ shield volcanoes ⚪️ pillow basalts ⚪️ blanket basalts

Veins of valuable ores are common along faults because ______.

🔘 fluids containing dissolved metals can more easily flow through fault zones ⚪️ rainwater can move down through a fault zone and concentrate metals ⚪️ the rocks in fault zones are broken and thus more easily mined out ⚪️ magmas tend to flow upward through faults and magmas contain metals

Detailed study of the 2007 Witch Creek fire in southern California revealed that ______ is(are) a great threat that is under appreciated.

🔘 flying embers ⚪️ walls of fire ⚪️ fire tornadoes ⚪️ glowing combustion

To extract the maximum amount of oil and natural gas from underground, a process called ______ is utilized in which high-pressure liquid is pumped underground to crack open rocks.

🔘 fracking ⚪️ shelling ⚪️ injection ⚪️ intrusion

Pyroclasts are ______.

🔘 fragmented pieces of magma released during volcanic eruptions that create falls, flows, and surges ⚪️ an explosive mix of cold groundwater and hot magma that initiates an volcanic eruption ⚪️ a type of mudflow composed of water and volcanic ash ⚪️ a set of highly volatile gases released during the Plinian eruption phase

When forestry departments use bulldozers to remove vegetation, they are removing _______ in order to combat or reduce the intensity of wildfires.

🔘 fuel ⚪️ heat ⚪️ oxygen ⚪️ carbon dioxide

About 2,400 major impacts have affected Earth in the last 3.2 billion years. However, most of the impact scars are not found because ______.

🔘 geologic processes (tectonics, weathering, etc.) have destroyed or obscured most of them ⚪️ scientists do not have enough resources to locate them all ⚪️ changing sea level has concealed many craters at the bottom of the ocean

In recent years, global positioning system (GPS) stations and satellites have been used to closely monitor ______ for signs of volcanic activity.

🔘 ground deformation ⚪️ seismic waves ⚪️ volcanic gases

The extension and faulting of the Rio Grande rift is due to ______.

🔘 heating from below the crust ⚪️ the interaction between the Juan de Fuca and North American plates ⚪️ isostatic rebound

Short rupture lengths produce mostly ______ seismic waves.

🔘 high-frequency ⚪️ low-frequency ⚪️ moderate-frequency

Similar to sound waves passing through a trombone, the shorter the rupture length along a fault, the ______ the frequency of the seismic waves that are generated.

🔘 higher ⚪️ lower ⚪️ shorter ⚪️ longer

Pyroclastic flows that formed on Mont Pelée, Martinique, in 1902 were generated by ______.

🔘 hot water and magma overspilling the rim of the volcanic crater ⚪️ dome collapse ⚪️ a direct blast ⚪️ eruption column collapse

The obvious sunspots shown is this photograph occurred in 2000, and were measured at 1,000 times ______ than the Sun; more spots results in _____ solar output and a ______ climate on Earth.

🔘 hotter; more; warmer ⚪️ colder; less; cooler

When wind energy is transferred to the water, waves form and particles of water move _______.

🔘 in a nearly circular orbit ⚪️ in the wind direction until they reach the shore ⚪️ vertically down and then up

The ocean has become 12% more acidic over the past 30 years. This ocean acidification is believed to be a result of _______.

🔘 increased carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere ⚪️ reduction in marine species diversity ⚪️ slowing of deep ocean circulation due to warming ⚪️ increasing salt content of ocean water due to evaporation

Seismographs like the one shown here record seismic waves because the heavy weight does not move with the framework of the instrument. This is due to the _____ of the weight.

🔘 inertia ⚪️ location ⚪️ motion ⚪️ size

Before a boulder or mass of debris can move downhill, the effects of _____ must be overcome.

🔘 inertia and friction ⚪️ gravity and inertia ⚪️ gravity and magnetism ⚪️ friction and force

The inherent weaknesses of the materials making up a hillside are collectively thought of as ______ factors controlling slope stability.

🔘 internal ⚪️ external ⚪️ structural ⚪️ infinite

The Torino scale ______.

🔘 is designed to estimate the threat of comet and asteroid impacts ⚪️ measures the kinetic energy released by impact events ⚪️ is used to categorize the size and shape of impact craters

This diagram, showing global temperature changes for the past 1,000 years, is known as the hockey stick because _______.

🔘 it consists of a relatively flat line with a sharp upturn at the start of the 20th century ⚪️ it suggests that recent global warming is not as intense as previously thought ⚪️ it shows a steady increase in global temperatures since 800 years ago ⚪️ it caused intense debate back-and-forth about climate change, similar to a game of hockey

The Brigham City segment of the Wasatch Front fault system is a prime candidate for a major potential earthquake because ______.

🔘 it has not moved in the past 2,400 years ⚪️ the fault is one of the most active parts of the Wasatch fault system ⚪️ a cluster of smaller earthquakes have recently wracked the area and have scientists concerned about a larger event

Although it is situated far from the Pacific Ocean, Lake Tahoe is at risk from a tsunami because ________.

🔘 it is bounded by normal faults that could drop the lake bottom by 4 meters ⚪️ strong lake winds are capable of generating very large waves ⚪️ fault movement along the San Andreas fault could generate shaking of the lake ⚪️ it is surrounded by glaciers that could calve off large chunks of ice into its waters

Massive debris avalanches have occurred on Nevados Huascarán in Peru, killing 4,000 people in 1962 and 18,000 people in 1970. The west face of the north peak of Nevados Huacarán is prone to this type of failure because ________.

🔘 it is composed of granite that is cut by vertical joints that are roughly parallel to the face ⚪️ it is composed of thick sandstone layers that are separated by weak clay layers ⚪️ eruptions from the volcanic cone deposit thick layers of lava on the steep slope ⚪️ snowmelt in the spring erodes the more stable outer layers of rock

Mount Rainier is considered one of the most dangerous volcanoes in the United States because ______.

🔘 it is located near a major metropolitan area and is geologically unstable ⚪️ volcanologists studying the volcano say it is overdue for an eruption ⚪️ its historical eruptions were larger than those of any other active volcano in North America ⚪️ geochemical data suggests its magma is very silica-rich, which will produce highly explosive eruptions

The removal of groundwater or oil can result in subsidence because ________.

🔘 it reduces pore-fluid pressure, allowing for compaction of the sediments ⚪️ pumping tends to remove the sediments as well as the fluids ⚪️ the suction of fluids through the sediments opens up pathways and cavities that can collapse ⚪️ the heavy muds used in drilling are composed of clays that form a weak layer below the surface

Rock falls are common from cliffs made of rocks that contain _______.

🔘 joints and fractures ⚪️ pore spaces ⚪️ water ⚪️ silica cement

As cold Arctic air moves across a large body of water, it is warmed by the water and the water adds moisture to the air as it evaporates. However, once the air mass reaches the land, it will cool again and may drop lots of ______ snow.

🔘 lake-effect ⚪️ latent-induced ⚪️ evaporation-provoked ⚪️ basin-caused

One of the towns downslope of Nevados Huascará in Peru is called Ranrahirca which means "hill of many stones", suggesting that ______.

🔘 landslides have occurred there in the past ⚪️ the location is a safe place to live ⚪️ the geology of the area is well understood by the locals

The elephant bird and moa are examples of ______.

🔘 large-bodied animals that went extinct due to human predation ⚪️ how changing climate during the late Quaternary doomed many flightless bird species ⚪️ how vulnerable isolated island species are to environmental changes ⚪️ species that were doomed by the end-Cretaceous extinction

In contrast to other mass extinction events, humans likely contributed to the ______ extinctions.

🔘 late Quaternary ⚪️ end-Cretaceous ⚪️ end-Permian ⚪️ late Devonian

The 1964 mass movement in Turnagain Heights, Anchorage, Alaska, is an excellent example of a _________, because it involved the failure of weak clays at depth. These clays liquefied and flowed, causing the breakup of the overlying, more coherent layers.

🔘 lateral spread slide ⚪️ rotational slide ⚪️ block slide ⚪️ debris slide

The city of Goma, Zaire, was devastated in 2002 when _______.

🔘 lava flows spilled into the city, destroying 25% of the buildings ⚪️ pyroclastic flows carried across Lake Kivu and killed 500,000 residents ⚪️ a massive release of carbon dioxide from a nearby lake suffocated much of the city's residents

Hot stroke ______ may start a fire if it strikes kindling such as dry grass, rotten wood, or "organic dust."

🔘 lightning ⚪️ winds ⚪️ embers ⚪️ fire brands

At the end of the Cretaceous, an asteroid struck shallow, tropical seas near the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. It vaporized ______ rock, which increased atmospheric CO2 and led to a period of global-warming conditions.

🔘 limestone ⚪️ basalt ⚪️ sandstone ⚪️ shale

Air rising vertically in a thunderstorm cools as it moves to high altitudes. This cooling produces rain that causes a cool downdraft of air that limits or slows the rising air. This ______.

🔘 limits the power of, and tornado formation in, single-cell thunderstorms ⚪️ causes hail to grow to extremely large sizes as it falls ⚪️ typically causes air-mass thunderstorms to produce snow ⚪️ causes supercells to form as it creates the fronts along which they develop

Species such as horseshoe crabs, sharks, and gingkos are examples of ______.

🔘 living fossils ⚪️ marine animals eliminated by the end-Cretaceous extinction ⚪️ large-bodied animals that were eliminated after the arrival of humans during the late Quaternary

How much of the available sediment is moved by a stream as ______ is determined, in part, by the ______ (slope of the stream bottom) and the rate of the flow.

🔘 load; gradient ⚪️ discharge; sinuosity ⚪️ gradient; load ⚪️ discharge; elevation

Sea breezes, land breezes, slope winds, and valley winds are all types of ________ winds that may affect fire behavior.

🔘 local ⚪️ high-altitude ⚪️ continental ⚪️ regional

In 1991, about 400 ______ events were observed prior to the eruption of Mount Pinatubo. In hindsight, it appears the frequency of these events could have been used to predict the volcanic eruption.

🔘 long-period seismic wave ⚪️ ground deformation ⚪️ outgassing

This image shows a(n) _______ that occurred 17,000 years ago in the Mojave Desert. A large volume of rock fell from Blackhawk Mountain and then flowed out onto the valley floor for almost 10 km, forming a large lobate deposit of rock material.

🔘 long-runout debris flow ⚪️ earthflow ⚪️ lateral spread slide ⚪️ volcanic sector collapse

The construction of groins interferes with _______, which can result in erosion of beaches farther down shore.

🔘 longshore drift ⚪️ tidal deposition ⚪️ coastal straightening ⚪️ breakwater formation

The location of the epicenter and hypocenter of an earthquake can be determined by ______.

🔘 looking at the difference in arrival times of different types of seismic waves ⚪️ looking at how the intensity of shaking varies from one place to another ⚪️ measuring the amplitude of P waves and S waves and calculating the difference between them ⚪️ finding the place on the ground where the fault ruptured

The seismic-gap method of forecasting earthquakes involves ______.

🔘 looking for segments along a fault that have not moved in a long time as compared to other segments ⚪️ identifying regions along the fault in which seismic waves do not pass when earthquakes occur ⚪️ finding the locations along a fault in which large spaces are slowly opening up between two sides ⚪️ searching for areas along a fault in which the dominate rock type switches to another, less-resistant type of rock

A shifting in the Southern Oscillation occurs when _________.

🔘 low-pressure atmosphere is replaced by high-pressure atmosphere ⚪️ the trade winds change direction and blow from west to east ⚪️ warm ocean water builds up on the western side of the South Pacific ⚪️ cold, deep ocean waters rise up along the coast of Peru

Similar to a rupturing fault, when the path of sound waves through a trombone is extended the frequency is ______ and the tone is lower.

🔘 lower ⚪️ higher ⚪️ shorter ⚪️ vibrating

Harmonic tremors are generated when ______.

🔘 magma moves at shallow depths ⚪️ many different sections of a fault move simultaneously ⚪️ fluid is forcibly injected underground at high pressure

Long-period seismic waves (LP) are generated by ______, which can be used to predict volcanoes because ______.

🔘 magma moving through open conduits; they indicate that the magma chamber is being loaded prior to an eruption ⚪️ carbon dioxide being released by magma; they indicate that the magma chamber is under high pressure ⚪️ weakening of rock along a volcanic slope; it indicates that the rock is preparing to fail prior to an eruption

Sometimes extinctions provide opportunities for surviving organisms, such as when ______.

🔘 mammals underwent a major diversification after dinosaurs went extinct ⚪️ the extinction of large animals allowed humans to migrate out of Africa ⚪️ the extinction of archaeocyathid reefs allowed for the diversification of rugose corals

In contrast to recent background extinction levels of 5 to 10%, background extinction was about 50% during the Cambrian. This is because ______.

🔘 many new organisms appeared during the Cambrian, so many more species were also going extinct ⚪️ a period of global cooling led to massive die-offs of many tropical species ⚪️ over time, evolutionary processes have created more robust organisms that are resistant to extinction ⚪️ the incomplete rock record makes it appear that background extinctions were much higher in the Cambrian than recent time

Timing sometimes plays a role in the damage caused by earthquakes. During the 1949 earthquake that rocked the Tacoma-Olympia area, the number of human fatalities was likely reduced because ______.

🔘 many schools were vacant as students were on spring vacation ⚪️ a major outdoor festival was taking place, which kept many people away from damaged buildings ⚪️ it occurred early in the morning before people left for work

In the accompanying plot of diversity versus geologic time, the pronounced decreases in diversity (arrows) represent ______.

🔘 mass extinctions ⚪️ slow periods of evolutionary change ⚪️ decreased background extinction levels

It isn't always easy to classify a mass movement event because _______.

🔘 mass movements often involve combinations of different types of movement ⚪️ the deposits are so jumbled they are hard to interpret ⚪️ the deposits from the landslide bury the point of failure, making it difficult to observe ⚪️ scientists don't yet fully understand the mechanics of landslides

Scientists utilize the sedimentary rock record to estimate the magnitude of ancient earthquakes by ______.

🔘 measuring the amount of offset between layers of sedimentary rock ⚪️ searching for dramatic changes in sedimentation ⚪️ looking for specific minerals that are produced by tectonic processes

Magma in the Cascade Range is generated by ______.

🔘 melting of the mantle wedge during subduction ⚪️ a rising mantle plume (i.e., hot spot) ⚪️ melting of rising mantle material at a spreading center

During the Lassen Peak eruptions of 1914-1917, three of the four eruptions occurred during the month of May. This volcanic activity appears to be correlated to ______.

🔘 melting snow in spring ⚪️ the occurrence of major earthquakes along the San Andreas Fault ⚪️ the rate of subduction along the western coast of the United States ⚪️ flooding events in late summer

The 2009 L'Aquila earthquake in Italy was notable for its unusual aftermath, in which ______.

🔘 members of the Major Risks Committee were charged with manslaughter for deceiving the public about the earthquake threat ⚪️ the entire city of L'Aquila was permanently abandoned due to the ongoing threat of earthquakes ⚪️ residents turned the rebuilding process into a popular reality television show

Many of the tektites found in North America were formed when a ______.

🔘 meteorite struck Virginia about 35.5 million years ago ⚪️ meteorite struck north-central Arizona 50,000 years ago ⚪️ comet struck the area off the Gulf of Mexico 65 million years ago

Near-Earth objects (NEOs) are ______.

🔘 meteoroids and short-period comets that have orbits that make them a potential impact hazard ⚪️ the numerous defunct or disabled human spacecraft that act as artificial impact hazards ⚪️ meteoroids or comets that have been captured by Earth's gravity and now orbit the planet

Significant and rapid global warming could occur in the near future if ______.

🔘 methane hydrates on the seafloor were to melt ⚪️ the Greenland ice sheet were to melt ⚪️ there was a large decrease in sunspot activity ⚪️ a major volcanic eruption occurred near the equator.

The melting of methane hydrates on the seafloor can lead to a sharp rise in global temperatures because ______.

🔘 methane is a powerful greenhouse gas ⚪️ it adds to ocean volume, reducing the amount of ice ⚪️ the methane kills off ocean organisms that normally absorb CO2 from sea water ⚪️ it leads to increased volcanic activity on the seafloor, warming the oceans

The accompanying figure shows North America covered with a shallow ocean during the ______, when sea level was relatively high.

🔘 mid-Cretaceous ⚪️ early Cretaceous ⚪️ late Cretaceous

Tropical and polar air masses transfer their energy back and forth across the ______, causing this area to experience a turbulent mix of passing high- and low-pressure air masses.

🔘 mid-latitudes ⚪️ Arctic Ocean ⚪️ equator

Paleontologist Georges Cuvier demonstrated that ______, thus proving that species did indeed go extinct.

🔘 modern elephants were distinctly different from the skeletons of mammoths ⚪️ the fossil record was incomplete ⚪️ fossils represent the remains of once-living organisms ⚪️ the DNA of modern elephants is drastically different from preserved genetic material of mammoths

Which of the following statements is true with regard to the distribution of lightning? Lightning is ______.

🔘 more common over land than the ocean ⚪️ more common over the ocean than it is on land ⚪️ fairly evenly distributed over the land and oceans ⚪️ more common at lower longitudes than it is at higher longitudes

Removal of groundwater from beneath Mexico City has led to subsidence because _______.

🔘 more water is removed than is resupplied by rainwater ⚪️ it destabilizes the steep slopes that surround the city ⚪️ it has emptied underground caves, removing support and leading to their collapse ⚪️ it has drawn water from Lake Texcoco into the region, leading to flooding

At the moment of impact, an asteroid or comet is ______.

🔘 mostly converted into a superhot vapor ⚪️ quickly buried beneath the newly formed crater ⚪️ rapidly melted, covering the newly formed crater in a thick crust

The 1 April 1946 Alaskan tsunami that destroyed the lighthouse shown here was caused by ______.

🔘 movement along a subduction zone ⚪️ a large earthquake on the Denali fault, a large strike-slip fault ⚪️ the eruption of Cleveland volcano, which lies in the Aleutian island arc ⚪️ a landslide caused by a moderate-sized earthquake

A mule is the offspring of a male donkey and female horse. However, donkeys and horses are considered different species because ______.

🔘 mules are not reproductively viable offspring ⚪️ their behaviors and life habits are very distinct from one another ⚪️ they were mistakenly identified as different species by Linnaeus in the 18th century, and these original designations are still used today

In addition to the presence of soft sediments, the next earthquake to strike Seattle could cause extensive destruction due to the presence of ______.

🔘 numerous bridges and unreinforced masonry (URM) buildings ⚪️ fragile bedrock composed of fractured granite ⚪️ exceptionally tall buildings that are susceptible to harmonic shaking

The 2002 Denali earthquake is very similar in its characteristics to the hypothetical California earthquake scenario, with one major exception: the Denali earthquake ______.

🔘 occurred in a remote area, while the California earthquake will directly affect millions of people ⚪️ was several magnitudes smaller than the California earthquake ⚪️ occurred along a thrust fault, while the California earthquake will occur along the San Andreas right-lateral fault

Determining the age of recent volcanic eruptions depends upon the presence of ______ trapped in lahars, volcanic ash fall, or lava flows from previous eruptions.

🔘 organic material such as trees ⚪️ air bubbles ⚪️ quartz crystals ⚪️ fragments of pre-existing sedimentary rock

The law of ________ states that sediments deposited in water form as horizontal layers.

🔘 original horizontality ⚪️ superposition ⚪️ lateral continuity ⚪️ cross-cutting relationships

The accompanying diagram shows a pyroclastic flow forming from ______.

🔘 overspilling of the crater rim ⚪️ direct blast ⚪️ eruption column collapse ⚪️ dome collapse

The release of carbon dioxide from Lake Nyos mirrors an earlier event at Lake Monoun in 1984. Scientists think that this earlier event was probably due to ______.

🔘 overturning of lake-water layers during the rainy season ⚪️ an earthquake that generated a landslide ending in the lake ⚪️ a minor volcanic eruption ⚪️ extremely windy conditions that churned the waters

In the troposphere, ______ is a powerful greenhouse gas with a global warming potential of 2,000. In the stratosphere, it works to cool the atmosphere.

🔘 ozone ⚪️ water vapor ⚪️ methane ⚪️ nitrous oxide

The thick masses of snow that can create big avalanches accumulate because ______.

🔘 packed snowflakes will melt and refreeze, becoming cemented together ⚪️ the shape of snowflakes allows them to hold together strongly ⚪️ the snow builds up into a near-horizontal layer that is more stable than the steep slope ⚪️ trees and shrubs form a scaffold for the snow

The large felt area of the 1886 Charleston earthquake is the result of the ______.

🔘 persistence of long-period seismic waves moving through solid bedrock ⚪️ interconnectedness of faults within the Reelfoot rift seismic area ⚪️ heavy population density along the southeastern coast

Humans effect on species survival ______ the Industrial Revolution.

🔘 predate ⚪️ started during ⚪️ started after

Unlike the end-Permian and end-Cretaceous extinctions, one major factor that led to the late Quaternary extinctions was ______.

🔘 predation or environmental disturbance by humans ⚪️ an asteroid impact ⚪️ the breakup of a supercontinent ⚪️ rapid climate change

The input for complex global climate models used to ______ climate includes atmospheric composition, ocean circulation, and wind and weather patterns.

🔘 predict possible future changes in ⚪️ determine future ⚪️ build machines to manipulate Earth's

DART II sensors can detect a tsunami by recording changes in water ______.

🔘 pressure ⚪️ temperature ⚪️ turbidity ⚪️ energy

Clouds and rainfall in hurricanes are organized into ______ that move in rotating spirals around the center of a hurricane. The rainfall is the most intense near the edges of the eye of the storm.

🔘 rain bands ⚪️ shower fonts ⚪️ convection loops ⚪️ cloud trains

The 1997 flood of the Red River, which flooded Grand Fork, North Dakota, was caused by ______.

🔘 rapid melting of snow and ice after heavy snow in the winter and early spring ⚪️ the breakup of an ice dam upstream from the city ⚪️ heavy rainfall over a wide region of North Dakota that lasted for four weeks ⚪️ failure of the floodgates on the spillway of the Grand Fork dam

Examine this figure. If you measure the width of one of the magnetic stripes and you know the ages of the magnetic reversals, then you can calculate the ________.

🔘 rate of seafloor spreading ⚪️ depth of the seafloor ⚪️ polarity of the magnetic field ⚪️ intensity of the magnetic field

In the Arctic, the rate of warming is twice the global average due to ________; the melting of permafrost there could release a significant amount of greenhouse gases over the 21st century.

🔘 reduced sea-ice cover ⚪️ increased solar radiation ⚪️ atmospheric circulation ⚪️ increased albedo

Isostatic rebound occurring near the Reelfoot rift has been suggested as a possible trigger for earthquakes. The isostatic rebound is the result of ______.

🔘 removal of sediments following the retreat of glaciers ⚪️ dam removal along the Mississippi River ⚪️ continued erosion of the Appalachian Mountains

Examples of isostatic adjustment are the northeastern coast of Sweden and western Finland, which have experienced about 200 meters of uplift following __________.

🔘 removal of the ice sheets at the end of the last ice age ⚪️ collision of northern Europe with North America ⚪️ a major meteorite impact 12 million years ago ⚪️ eruption of vast amounts of basalt lava approximate 500 million years ago

As well as providing sources of drinking water, ______ are important flood control measures because they can be used to store floodwaters.

🔘 reservoirs ⚪️ levees ⚪️ spillways ⚪️ land policies

A new mass of rising magma that bows up the caldera floor following a caldera eruption is called a ________.

🔘 resurgent dome ⚪️ stratovolcano ⚪️ diapir ⚪️ volcanic highland

During heavy rains, the water table will ______, which can trigger slope failures.

🔘 rise ⚪️ fall ⚪️ fluctuate ⚪️ flow

Daylighted bedding, as shown this image, occur when ______.

🔘 rock layers dip at angles less than the hill of the slope ⚪️ rock layers dip at angles more than the hill of the slope ⚪️ there is an angled layer of groundwater beneath a hill ⚪️ there is saturated sediment at the bottom of a hill

Earth's ______ sets air and water at the surface in motion. The unequal distribution of heat causes density variations as masses of water and air warm and cool at different rates. ______ then acts on these density differences, keeping the atmosphere and oceans in motion.

🔘 rotation; Gravity ⚪️ mass; The Coriolis effect ⚪️ radiation; Latent heat ⚪️ greenhouse effect; Heat

The 1976 mass movement event in Ensenada, Baja California, that carried a long portion of Mexican Highway 1 into the Pacific Ocean, is an example of a _______.

🔘 rotational slide ⚪️ rockfall ⚪️ debris flow ⚪️ block slide

A _______ is a type of mass wasting in which the descending mass remains relatively intact and moves along a curved slip surface.

🔘 rotational slide ⚪️ translational slide ⚪️ debris avalanche ⚪️ rockfall ⚪️ debris flow

Occasionally, an asteroid may be broken into pieces during a collision, but the energy of the collision is not enough to scatter the pieces. This can result in multiple small bodies bound together by gravity, called a ______.

🔘 rubble pile ⚪️ comet ⚪️ meteoroid ⚪️ hollow body

Quick clays are very fine-grained, loosely packed sediments. Water fills the pore spaces between the grains, which are glued weakly together by ______.

🔘 sea salt ⚪️ gypsum ⚪️ calcite ⚪️ mud

The event that sent water flowing back and forth across Lake Hebgen in Montana for over 11 hours was a spectacular example of a(n) ________.

🔘 seiche ⚪️ tsunami ⚪️ neap tide ⚪️ dam failure

The continental crust was formed by _________.

🔘 separation of low-density elements from the mantle ⚪️ radioactive decay of heavy elements in the mantle ⚪️ accumulation of space dust in the oceans ⚪️ crumpling of the surface of the Earth as it cooled

The enormous movements that occur along a fault when an earthquake occurs are referred to as ______.

🔘 slips ⚪️ seiches ⚪️ moments ⚪️ clusters

Global warming is thought likely to ______ deep-water circulation in the oceans.

🔘 slow down or stop ⚪️ reverse the direction of ⚪️ speed up ⚪️ have little effect on

While some predators responsible for biological extinctions may be carnivores, they are more likely to be ______.

🔘 small organisms such as viruses ⚪️ cannibalistic members of the extinct species ⚪️ opportunistic predators that outcompete the extinct species for food resources

Small earthquakes too weak to knock over buildings or cause fatalities are most likely located at ______.

🔘 spreading centers ⚪️ subduction zones ⚪️ transform faults ⚪️ interplate faults

Short-period comets have orbits that ______. Long-period comets have orbits that ______.

🔘 take less than 200 years to complete; take more than 200 years to complete ⚪️ are nearly circular; are very eccentric ⚪️ pass very close to Earth; do not pass close to Earth

The _______ describes how the upper few hundred kilometers of Earth are recycled.

🔘 tectonic cycle ⚪️ Earth system ⚪️ topographic theory ⚪️ convection concept

Two earthquakes struck the Big Island of Hawaii in 2006. The first was the result of ______, and the second was caused by ______.

🔘 tensional forces; compressional forces ⚪️ tensional forces; subsurface magma movement ⚪️ compressional forces; tensional forces ⚪️ subsurface magma movement; a volcanic eruption

As scientists continued to gather evidence in support of the Alvarez hypothesis, all signs pointed to an impact somewhere in ______.

🔘 the Caribbean region ⚪️ the southwestern United States ⚪️ Antarctica ⚪️ northern Europe ⚪️ Russia

Major fires occurred in ______ in 1871 because of persistent high-pressure zones that prevented moisture-laden winds from the Gulf of Mexico reaching the area.

🔘 the Great Lakes region ⚪️ the southwest ⚪️ the Florida panhandle ⚪️ the mid-Atlantic coast

The greatest lava eruption in the historic record is ______.

🔘 the Laki fissure event in 1783 ⚪️ Mount St. Helens in 1980 ⚪️ Tambora in 1815 ⚪️ the Lassen Peak eruptions from 1914 to 1917

The avalanche caused by the collapse of Mount St. Helen's bulge also led to a tremendous blast of magma and groundwater when ______.

🔘 the avalanche removed lots of rock from the side of the volcano, dropping pressure enough to release the gaseous magma ⚪️ an earthquake produced by the avalanche squeezed magma from the volcano ⚪️ the force of the avalanche fractured rock along the side of the volcano, allowing magma to easily penetrate the weakened material

Foraminifera are microscopic animals commonly preserved as fossils. The change in the assemblage of foraminifera fossils between the limestone rocks above and below a 1 cm thick clay layer indicated to Luis and Walter Alvarez that ______.

🔘 the clay layer marked the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary ⚪️ an asteroid struck Earth, causing a mass extinction ⚪️ the clay layer was rich in iridium ⚪️ Earth underwent a rapid change in climate which caused the formation of the clay layer

The strongest evidence for a human cause for recent global warming is _______.

🔘 the correlation between increased greenhouse gases and the start of the Industrial Revolution ⚪️ the carbon isotope signature of atmospheric carbon dioxide and methane ⚪️ the close link between carbon dioxide levels and the seasons ⚪️ the retreat of glaciers around the world and the rise in sea level

The difference between short- and long-period comets is ______.

🔘 the duration of their orbits ⚪️ how close they pass to Earth ⚪️ their chemical composition ⚪️ their overall size

One of the reasons that the tsunami overran many coastal barriers in Japan is that _______.

🔘 the earthquake caused the coastal land to move downward, lowering the barriers ⚪️ they had been constructed over 100 years ago and were no longer strong enough to withstand the power of the tsunami ⚪️ urban sprawl over the past decade has led to the construction of many homes on the seaward side of the barrier

About half of the ash produced by Mount St. Helens came from ______, and the other half was the result of ______.

🔘 the eruption column; pyroclastic flows ⚪️ the eruption column; the bulge failure ⚪️ rapid uplift of buried ash beds; pyroclastic flows ⚪️ lava flows; pyroclastic flows

In 1816, the "year without summer," during which Lord Byron wrote the poem Darkness, was caused by ______.

🔘 the eruption of Tambora ⚪️ smog from the Industrial Revolution ⚪️ vast wildfires in the Midwest ⚪️ unusually thick cloud cover over western Europe

Most waves approach the shore at an angle. However, they bend to be nearly parallel to the shore as they approach it because _________.

🔘 the first part of the wave to touch the bottom will begin to drag and slow down while the rest of the wave continues to move at its original speed ⚪️ the wind direction will change as it gets closer to the shore, turning so that it blows directly onshore ⚪️ some waves will begin to oversteepen and break, pushing the other waves out in a fan pattern away from the breakers

The closing of the equatorial sea during late Permian time caused by ______ led to the extinction of many species that lived in warm, shallow marine waters.

🔘 the formation of Pangaea ⚪️ a decrease in sea level ⚪️ the growth of massive ice sheets ⚪️ the breakup of Pangaea

Many of the factors that led to the end-Permian mass extinction also contributed to the end-Cretaceous mass extinction, with the exception of ______.

🔘 the formation of a supercontinent ⚪️ flood basalts ⚪️ changes in sea level ⚪️ changing climate

The objects located within the asteroid belt were unable to form a cohesive planet because ______.

🔘 the gravitational acceleration of Jupiter creates asteroid velocities that are too fast to form a planet ⚪️ their combined mass is below the theoretical limit needed to form a spherical body ⚪️ they cooled too quickly after their formation to form a cohesive mass

The tides are caused by ______.

🔘 the gravitational pull of the Sun and the Moon ⚪️ convection in Earth's upper mantle ⚪️ interaction between Earth's magnetic field and that of the Moon ⚪️ variations in the mass of the oceans due to daily changes in temperature

Radiocarbon dating is useful for events that have occurred only within the past 50,000 years because ______.

🔘 the half-life of carbon-14 is short ⚪️ organic remains are not viable beyond this time frame ⚪️ the half-life of carbon-14 is not well constrained beyond this time frame

The series of earthquakes that rocked the Big Island of Hawaii in 2006 appeared to be the result of ______.

🔘 the heavy load that the island itself places on the lithosphere ⚪️ sudden subsurface movement of magma from one end of the island to the next ⚪️ migration of the mantle hot spot beneath the Big Island

If an earthquake of similar magnitude to the New Madrid earthquakes were to strike the same area today, ______.

🔘 the large local population and lack of earthquake-resistant buildings would lead to widespread destruction and death ⚪️ modern construction techniques would minimize the damage from such an earthquake ⚪️ a robust early warning system will help prevent mass casualties

During intervals of glacier retreat in an Ice Age, the emptying of freshwater glacial lakes into ocean basins often results in massive die-offs of marine organisms. This is an example of ______.

🔘 the lethality of salinity changes on marine organisms ⚪️ how rapid temperature changes can lead to anoxic bottom waters ⚪️ the importance of glaciers in maintaining sea level ⚪️ a "gambler's ruin"

Most volcanic activity is not noticed by humans because ______.

🔘 the majority of volcanic activity occurs at oceanic spreading centers ⚪️ there are no monitoring programs in place to observe volcanoes ⚪️ most volcanoes are located in very remote areas

An important feature of the 1964 Good Friday earthquake that led to the generation of such a large tsunami was _______.

🔘 the massive vertical and horizontal motion of the plate overlying the subducting Pacific plate ⚪️ the location of the hypocenter very deep below the surface and far out to sea ⚪️ the extremely long duration of shaking during the earthquake ⚪️ the closely spaced cluster of aftershocks that each produced a separate tsunami wave

A flow is distinguished from a slide in that _________.

🔘 the material in a slide remains relatively intact, whereas the material in a flow moves as a viscous fluid ⚪️ a flow moves at a much lower velocity than a slide ⚪️ the material in a slide is transported for much greater distances than in a flow ⚪️ a slide leaves behind a steep scarp and a flow does not

Earthquakes in the region of Mexico City are caused by ______.

🔘 the movements of the Cocos plate as it subducts along a downward thrust fault under the North America plate ⚪️ the opening of an ocean basin as one arm of a triple junction is ripping Mexico City apart ⚪️ movements along the southern portion of the San Andreas fault ⚪️ the migration of magma under the crust as it heads to offshore volcanoes

An earthquake cluster is ______.

🔘 the occurrence of a number of earthquakes in the same region over a relatively short amount of time ⚪️ the pattern that earthquake epicenters make when plotted on a tectonic map ⚪️ the portion of a seismic gap where earthquakes are most likely to occur next ⚪️ a type of earthquake that occurs without a rupture forming at the Earth's surface

Although millions of meteoroids collide with Earth every day, we rarely notice this bombardment because ______.

🔘 the planet's atmosphere destroys most of them before they reach the ground ⚪️ meteoroids move so quickly we don't notice them until they hit the surface ⚪️ most of them fall into the ocean or far away from human settlements

As the number of known NEOs increases, we can reliably say that ______.

🔘 the risk of a civilization-ending impact is significantly reduced compared to previous estimates ⚪️ we are long overdue for a major impact event ⚪️ the risk of a civilization-ending impact event has increased significantly compared to previous estimates ⚪️ a civilization-ending impact event will never occur on Earth again

Shield volcanoes typically have gentle slopes because _________.

🔘 they are formed from eruptions of low-viscosity basaltic lava ⚪️ they are formed from overlapping ash layers ⚪️ they are the result of the collapse of the ground into magma chambers ⚪️ they are subject to intense erosion in tropical environments

Hurricanes cannot cross the equator because ______.

🔘 they would lose their rotation as the Coriolis effect drops to zero ⚪️ gravity is pulling them toward higher latitude ⚪️ the altitude of the stratosphere drops too low over the equator ⚪️ a high-pressure zone near the equator keeps them away from it

The 1960 tsunami that crossed the Pacific from Chile to Hawaii was the ______ wave in a series generated from a single earthquake.

🔘 third ⚪️ second ⚪️ first

Caribbean-type hurricanes form by ______.

🔘 thunderstorms in the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) that grow and strengthen as they are spun by the Coriolis effect ⚪️ low-pressure systems from northern South America that are pushed northward by the northeast trade winds and strengthen over the ocean ⚪️ high-pressure systems formed over Mexico gaining strength as they move out over the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean ⚪️ the convergence of the easterlies and the trade winds causing rapid convection during the late summer

A wave that forms when incoming tidal water is forced into a narrow inlet such as a river or bay is called a _________.

🔘 tidal bore ⚪️ rogue wave ⚪️ bay tsunami ⚪️ seiche

When earthquakes occur during holidays or during the early morning hours, casualties are smaller than expected, showing that ______ of earthquakes is significant.

🔘 timing ⚪️ magnitude ⚪️ intensity ⚪️ location

Fires create unstable air which may spin off into fire ______ that can spin at speeds greater than 150 mph, and carry fire and debris miles away.

🔘 tornadoes ⚪️ haboobs ⚪️ hurricanes ⚪️ devils

The ______ nature of S waves make them apt to damage buildings.

🔘 transverse ⚪️ longitudinal ⚪️ slow ⚪️ fast

This image illustrates the negative impact of dams on our shorelines. Behind the dam, ______.

🔘 trapped sand has accumulated that would otherwise have been transported to the coast ⚪️ erosion of the valley slopes has occurred, creating excess sediment that will swamp the coastline ⚪️ the surface of the land has risen, which will slow down erosion and ultimately reduce sediment supply

The explosiveness of impact events is not only due to the size of the asteroid or comet, but also the ______.

🔘 tremendous amount of energy involved ⚪️ angle of the impact ⚪️ surface temperature of the object upon impact ⚪️ shape of the object

Without the monitoring and advance warning given for the Mount Pinatubo eruption in 1991, it is estimated that ______.

🔘 up to 20,000 people could have died, rather than 300 ⚪️ that the entire Philippines could have been rendered uninhabitable ⚪️ the eruption would have been even more violent than it was

Realistically, we can limit damages along the coast as the population there grows by ______.

🔘 using better planning and design ⚪️ requiring the use of modular buildings ⚪️ disrupting the path and power of hurricanes with cold water placed at the surface along its predicted track ⚪️ filling in nearby salt marshes in order to limit the availability of water for flooding

A gravity tractor, which works by ______, is considered to be a feasible way to deflect asteroids.

🔘 using the gravitational attraction between a heavy spacecraft and an asteroid to change its orbit ⚪️ attaching a rocket engine to an asteroid and pushing it away from Earth ⚪️ using Earth's gravity to propel a spacecraft at high speeds toward an asteroid, using the resulting collision to push the asteroid off course

The cycles of glacial advance and retreat during the most recent Ice Age were most likely caused by ________.

🔘 variations in the amount of solar energy received by Earth ⚪️ melting and refreezing of methane hydrates on the seafloor ⚪️ movement of the continents into and out of the polar circles ⚪️ periods of intense volcanic activity separated by periods of quiescence

Tsunami are commonly generated at subduction zones because the faults there have a strong component of ______ motion.

🔘 vertical ⚪️ horizontal ⚪️ strike-slip ⚪️ transform

Rapid analysis of seismic waves can be used to determine the magnitude, location, and depth of an earthquake. Perhaps most importantly for tsunami hazard assessment, it can be used to determine whether there was ________.

🔘 vertical motion on the fault ⚪️ a giant wave generated by the earthquake ⚪️ a rise in sea level following the earthquake ⚪️ a greater amount of surface wave energy

Magma viscosity is directly affected by all of the following except ______.

🔘 volume ⚪️ temperature ⚪️ silica content ⚪️ mineral crystal content

Earth's oceans during the Late Devonian, Pennsylvanian/Permian, Jurassic, and Cretaceous periods had anoxic bottom waters that were caused by ______.

🔘 warm climates that shut down ocean circulation ⚪️ cold climates that reduced solubility of oxygen in ocean water ⚪️ increases in sediment deposition that "smothered" the seafloor ⚪️ increased rates of evaporation that altered salinity and reduced oxygen availability

An important landslide mitigation technique is the reduction of the amount of _____ in a slope.

🔘 water ⚪️ sand ⚪️ friction ⚪️ gabion

The process of piping ______.

🔘 weakens a hill ⚪️ chemically erodes materials ⚪️ drains water from a hill, making it stronger

In Permian time, the majority of animal species that lived in the oceans ______.

🔘 were not mobile ⚪️ utilized photosynthesis ⚪️ were some variety of fish ⚪️ reproduced asexually

Ordinary ocean waves are created by ______.

🔘 wind ⚪️ earthquakes ⚪️ currents ⚪️ tsunami