Neuroscience P346 Unit 3

What does lesions of the amygdala do?

"flattens" emotions, reduces fear and also affect aggression and memory

What is the Crossed-Extensor Reflex?

Activation of extensor muscles and inhibition of flexors on opposite side

Where is insulin released?

Beta cells of the pancreas

What happens during catabolism?

Between meals the glycogen and triglycerides are broken down (catabolized) for fuel

What are diffuse modulatory systems?

Each system has a small core of neurons (only a few thousand) Most of the cores are found in the central core of the brain and brain stem. Each neuron from the core can influence more than 100,000 postsynaptic neurons spread all over the brain

What was the name of Gage's physician?

John Harlow, who established the connection between Gage's focal brain damage and his behavioral and cognitive changes

What does LH and FSH do in males?

LH stimulates testosterone production from Leydig cells FSH promotes spermatogenesis

What part of the brain supports wanting?

Lateral hypothalamus

What are the two major major pathways of the DESCENDING spinal tracts?

Lateral pathway: axons in the lateral column; voluntary movements of distalmusculature; under direct cortical control Ventromedial pathways: axons in the ventromedial column of the spinal cord;control posture and locomotion; under brain stem control

How does the hypothalamus respond to DECREASED leptin?

NPY/AgRP (Orexigenic peptides) stimulates the lateral hypothalamic area, and inhibits the periventricular nucleus

What kind of aggression does the medial hypothalamus control?

affective projects to the periaqueductal gray matter (PAG) via the dorsal longitudinal fasciculus

What are Extrafusal fibers (work) innervated by?

alpha motorneurons

What is REM sleep atonia?

also known as sleep paralysis (active hallucinating brain)

How do marine animals sleep without drowning?

alternating brain hemispheres as they sleep

What did the reconstruction of Phineas Gage's skull show?

he had sustained extensive damage to his limbic system and parts of frontal cortex

What is Cholecystokinin (CKK)?

hormone present in the lining of the intestines, works synergistically with gastric distension

What is the Kinsey Institute?

hotbed of active research on human sexuality, located at IU

What is the hypophysis?

pituitary gland, greek for "lying under"

What causes Huntington's disease?

polyglutamine (CAG) expansion on exon 1 of chromosome 4 - ≥ 36 CAG repeats will result in disease onset - likely causes dysfunctional corticostriatal activity Symptoms usually manifest around mid-life (35-45 years of age)

What kind of aggression does the lateral hypothalamus control?

predatory projects to the ventral tegmental area (VTA) via the medial forebrain bundle

What is the Sexually dimorphic nucleus (SDN)?

preoptic area of the anterior hypothalamus clustered near the 3rd ventricle, very distinct in animals like rats involved with reproductive behaviors

What is the Interstitial nuclei (INAH)?

preoptic-anterior hypothalamic area that influences gonadotropin typically larger in males, but not always the case

What is Intracranial Self-Stimulation (ICSS)?

procedure where animals learn to push a lever for stimulation stimulates Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA), which releases Dopamine to the Nucleus Accumbens (NAc), known as the Mesolimbic Pathway

What is epilepsy characterized by?

recurrent seizures

What NT causes stress eating?

reduced serotonin levels, also commonly caused by depression

What does Hypocretin (orexin) do?

regulates arousal, wakefulness, and appetite Excites NE, DA, 5-HT, Cholinergic, &histaminergic

What does insulin do?

regulates blood glucose levels Highest during Substrate phase

What does Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) do?

releases luteinizing hormone (LH) and Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) from the anterior pituitary which act directly on the gonads

Why do we think we sleep?

restoration & preservation

What is an example of an androgen?

testosterone

What areas of the brain are associated with the activation of appropriate motor neuron pools?

the brain stem and spinal cord

What do most motor actions require?

the integration of sensory and motor functions

What is liking vs wanting?

the pleasure of sensory experience (hedonic) vs motivation to seek out the experience

What is the "default mode" network?

when the brain is at rest/self reflection

How can we guess which hemisphere regulates language in someone?

which ever hemisphere is opposite of their dominant hand

What are the EEG frequency ranges?

γ Gamma: 30-90 Hz ("cognitive" frequency band; active and attentive cortex) β Beta: 15-30 Hz (activated cortex) α Alpha: 8-13 Hz (quiet waking state) θ Theta: 4-7 Hz (sleep stages and waking stages - in between stage) δ Delta: less than 4 Hz (sleep stages, especially "deep sleep")

What is the phenotype of Parkinson's?

• Bradykinesia- Slowness in initiation and execution of voluntary movements • Rigidity - Increase muscle tone and increase resistance to movement (arms and legs stiff) • Tremor - Usually tremor at rest (arms and legs shake) • Postural Instability - abnormal fixation of posture (stoop when standing) • Gait Disturbance - Shuffling Feet • Hypokinetic (reduced) movement

What is the internal mentation hypothesis?

- supports thinking & remembering - daydreaming - just processing past & future events

What are the three nuclei of the amygdala?

1. Corticomedial nuclei 2. Basolateral nuclei 3. Central nucleus

What are symptoms of Klüver-Bucy syndrome?

1. Good vision, but poor visual recognition (psychic blindness) 2. Oral fixation / oral tendencies 3. Inappropriate sexual behavior 4. Decreased fear and aggression

How much of your life is spent sleeping?

1/3

What are the stages of language acquisition?

6 months: Babbling 18 months: 150 words; speaks ~50 3 year old: 100s words; full sentences Adult: Tens of thousands of word

What is sexual dimorphism?

A sex-related difference in structure or behavior

What are the two long-term ways of regulating eating behavior?

ANABOLISM during the prandial state CATABOLISM during the postabsorptive state

What happens during anabolism?

After a meal, excess energy is stored as glycogen and triglycerides

How does the amygdala learn?

Amygdala neurons can learn to respond to neutral stimuli that predict painful stimuli and then evoke a fearful response

What is the Posner task?

An arrow will precede each stimulus, your job is to tell when that stimuli appears, however the arrow sometimes points the wrong way Invalid cue: hurts performance, slowest reaction Neutral: no arrow, serves as baseline Valid cue: helps performance, fastest reaction

What allows testosterone to become estradiol?

Aromatase (estradiol cannot pass the BBB)

What does the Serotonergic (5-HT) system regulate?

Arousal / waking / pain located in the Raphe Nuclei

What does the Noradrenergic (NE) system regulate?

Attention / arousal / waking / learning / anxiety / pain / mood / metabolism located in the Locus coeruleus

What does the Cholinergic (ACh) system regulate?

Attention / learning / sensory processing located in Basal forebrain & Brain stem

What does LH and FSH do in females?

BOTH LH and FSH stimulate excretion of estrogen from the ovaries FSH stimulates follicular development and ovulation

What are the contemporary theories of emotion?

Basic Emotions (hard wired areas) & Dimensional Emotion (lvls of arousal and strength)

What is the lipostatic hypothesis?

Body regulates the amount of energy stored in fat cells. Too little fat? Release ghrelin to increase hunger. Too much fat? Release leptin to increase satiety.

What are the two forms of attention?

Bottom-up/Exogenous: world grabs our attention Top-down/Endogenous: direct our attention to the world

What is the Tectospinal tract responsible for?

Brings information from the visual system (retina) Map of the world Useful for orientation responses

What are the two language areas of the brain and where are they located?

Broca's area (1861) found in the left frontal lobe Wernicke's area (1874) found in the superior surface of dominant temporal lobe

What are the three phases of short-term regulation of feeding behavior?

Cephalic phase Gastric Phase Substrate (Intestinal) Phase

Which diffuse neuromodulatory system is involved in falling asleep and the non-REM state?

Cholinergic system (Midbrain, Pons, PMT)

What are the two kinds of tracts found in the LATERAL pathways?

Corticospinal tract Rubrospinal tract (Control of distal muscles: mainly flexors of the hands and feet)

How does dopamine (DA) modulate the BG INDIRECT pathway?

DA INHIBITS striatopallidal neurons via D2 receptor activation (K+ exiting the cell), which decreases the activity of striatopallidal neurons (GABA) inhibiting the GPe hence, more glut is released fromthalamus to the cortex

How does dopamine (DA) modulate the BG DIRECT pathway?

DA from the SNc ACTIVATES/FACILITATES striatonigral neurons via D1 receptor activation (Na+ entry into the cell) hence, more glut is released from the thalamus to the cortex

What does the 'basic' BG DIRECT/striatonigral pathway do?

DECREASES inhibition of SNr/GPi (GABA) to the thalamus, further further activating cortex creating a 'positive feedback loop' Cortex (↑ glut+) --> Striatum (↑ GABA-) --> SNr/GPi (↓ GABA-) --> Thalamus (↑ glut+) --> Cortex

What causes masculinization in the brain?

Estradiol, which activates receptors mainly found in the hypothalamus and pituitary

What bodily functions does the parasympathetic nervous system regulate?

Everything outside the SNS, "rest & digest" Ex: digestions, growth, immune response, energy storage

What is the flexor withdrawal reflex an example of?

Excitatory Spinal Input

What allows us to consciously process FACES?

FFA (fusiform face area)

What are examples of neural bases for emotions?

Fear and anxiety Anger and aggression Reinforcement and Reward

What are the two patterns of communication?

Focused and Broad (diffused)

What are the two kinds of seizures?

Generalized and Partial

What are the three basal ganglion neurotransmitters?

Glutamate - excitatory (+) GABA - inhibitory (-) Dopamine - modulatory

What are the three homeostasis responses controlled by the hypothalamus?

Humoral response Visceromotor response Somatic motor response

What is Huntington's disease phenotype?

Hyperkinetic movement (Chorea) Abnormal gait Bradykinesia Rigidity Cognitive deficits (Executive function & Procedural memory)

What does the BG hyperdirect pathway do?

INCREASES activation of the STN (glut+), decreasing cortical activation Cortex (↑ glut+) --> STN (↑ glut+) --> SNr/GPi (↑ GABA-) --> Thalamus (↓glut+) --> Cortex

What does the 'basic' BG INDIRECT/striatopallidal pathway do?

INCREASES inhibition of SNr/GPi (GABA-) to the thalamus, decreasing cortical activation creating a 'negative feedback loop' Cortex (↑ glut+) --> Striatum (↑ GABA-) --> GPe (↓ GABA-) --> STN (↑ glut+) --> SNr/GPi (↑ GABA-) --> Thalamus (↓glut+) --> Cortex

How does lesions of the VENTROMEDIAL hypothalamus affect body weight?

it causes obesity

What is the Wada procedure?

Inject anesthetic or barbiturate into left carotid artery. Then, chat with patient and listen for a reduction in language abilities a reduction indicates a left hemisphere language dominance

What is Anorexia Nervosa?

Intense fear if gaining weight

How does lesions of the LATERAL hypothalamus affect body weight?

it causes starvation

What parts of the brain are primarily involved with emotion?

Limbic structures, including cortex

How does Huntington's disease affect the BG pathway?

Loss of negative feedback to striatonigral neurons decreases inhibition ("disinhibition") of SNr/GPi (GABA) to the thalamus hence, excessive glut is released from thethalamus to the cortex

How does the kidney communicate with the brain?

Low blood volume and pressure → kidneys secrete renin → production of angiotensin II→ 1) affects blood vessels to increase blood pressure; 2) activates subfornical organ → - activates cells in lateral hypothalamus - activates ADH production, thirst

Which kinds of brain waves are strongly synchronized?

Lower frequencies; high amplitude

How does the hypothalamus respond to ELEVATED leptin?

MSH/CART (Anorectic peptides) inhibits the lateral hypothalamic area, and stimulates the periventricular nucleus (stimulates ACTH release of the anterior pituitary) inhibits feeding behavior

Where are oxytocin and vasopressin/ADH released?

Magnocellular neurosecretory cells in the Posterior Pituitary Lobe

What does vasopressin/ADH do?

Mediates stress response and stimulates thirst when blood salt & pressure levels are off stands for antidiuretic hormone

What does the Dopaminergic (DA) system regulate?

Movement initiation / reward processing located in Substantia Nigra & Ventral Tegmental area

What happens to the length of REM as you sleep?

it gets increasingly longer

Is dyslexia genetic?

No, but it has a strong genetic link. commonly found with high amounts of KIAA0319, a neuronal migration gene

What are the four modulatory systems found in the CNS?

Noradrenergic (NE) system (Locus coeruleus) Serotonergic (5-HT) system (Raphe Nuclei) Dopaminergic (DA) system (Substantia Nigra & Ventral Tegmental area) Cholinergic (ACh) system (Basal forebrain & Brain stem)

What two diffuse neuromodulatory systems are involved in wakefulness and awakening?

Norepinephrinergic system (locus coeruleus) and Serotoninergic system (raphe nucleus)

What allows us to consciously process PLACES?

PPA (parahippocampal place area)

What does dyslexia impair?

language processing

Where are Corticotropin and gonadotropin-releasing hormone released?

Parvocellular neurosecretory cells involved in Ovulation, Sperm prod., cortisol secretion, growth, protein synthesis, milk secretion

What brain areas are involved in the default mode network?

Posterior cingulate cortex (Feeling of being an "agent") Medial prefrontal cortex (Top down control) Medial temporal lobes (Memory)

What kind of neurosecretory cells does each pituitary lobe contain?

Posterior contains Magnocellular Anterior contains Parvocellular

How does focused and broad communication differ?

Precise point-to-point connectivity VS Effects many downstream targets

What neurotransmitters act in the PNS?

Preganglionic: ACh Postganglionic: ACh

What neurotransmitters act in the SNS?

Preganglionic: ACh Postganglionic: Noradrenaline

What are the frontal eye fields (FEF), what do they do?

Premotor area that can direct looking behavior, input from many visual areas Stimulation improves stimulus detection

What are the two brain circuits of visual attention?

Pulvinar nucleus (visual relay) Frontal eye fields (FEF) (orientation)

What is the neuropathology of Huntington's?

Reduced brain weight Enlarge ventricles Striatal and cortical atrophy - Loss of Medium Spiny Neurons(MSNs) - Loss of cortical projection neurons(CPNs) Impaired corticostriatal connectivity and information processing

How is the adrenal gland regulated?

Release of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) by periventricular hypothalamic neurons (anterior pituitary) in response to stress. CRH stimulates the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) into the bloodstream. ACTH triggers release of cortisol (steroid hormone) from adrenal glands (adrenal cortex). Cortisol binds to neurons throughout the CNS

What is the sensorimotor system?

Sensory information used by all levels of the motor system

What are the two theories of the default mode network?

Sentinel hypothesis Internal mentation hypothesis

What composes the somatic nervous system?

Skeletal muscles & skin sensations

What happens to speech in Broca's aphasia?

Speech is nonfluent, agrammatical Okay with nouns (oar, bee) but not function words (or, be)

What does oxytocin do?

Starts uterine contractions and simulates milk release & production known as the "love" neurohormone

What is gastric distension?

Stretching of the stomach --> mechanosensory axons --> inhibits feeding behavior

What is the benefit of having brain rhythms?

Synchronize populations of neurons representing the same stimulus, temporarily organizing neural activity

What does the pulvinar nucleus do?

Thalamic relay: connects visual areas in the occipital, parietal (where path), and temporal (what path) lobes in other words, directs attention shifts

What is the somatic motor response?

lateral hypothalamus incites a somatic motor behavioral response

What is paradoxical sleep?

The body's condition during REM sleep when the muscles are relaxed but other systems are active

What is affective neuroscience?

The study of the neuronal basis of mood and emotion, as well as affective disorders (Ex: depression, bipolar)

How do alpha and gamma motor neurons work together?

They have have opposite effects on Ia output • Alpha motor neurons --> decreases Ia activity • Gamma motor neurons --> increases Ia activity

How do we perceive things we put our attention in?

We respond faster & more accurately to parts of the world we focus on

What is the Mesolimbic Pathway?

VTA --> ventral striatum (NAc) - Major integrative center for converting motivation to action - Mediates rewarding effects of drug abuse,eating, sex, etc

What part of the brain supports liking?

Ventral palladium (VP)

What are the four kinds of tracts found in the VENTROMEDIAL pathways?

Vestibulospinal tract Tectospinal tract Pontine reticulospinal tract Medullary reticulospinal tract (Control proximal and axial muscles, posture and locomotion, under brain stem control)

What are the two major functional brain states in s

Waking & Sleep

How have we found implications of unconscious emotion?

While showing a subject either a neutral or angry face, an image of a neutral face would very briefly be preceded by an angry one. Though they had not consciously recognized recognized it, there was still activation found in the amygdala.

What is a Satiety signal?

a factor that reduces the drive to eat Ex: leptin

What are some ideas of why our brain has rhythms?

a.) to "disconnect" the brain from acute inputs during sleep b.) to coordinate neurons in different parts of the brain c.) no function, just by-products of an inherent tendency

How many lobotomies were conducted in the US?

about 50,000 (mostly in the 40s & 50s) allowed Egaz Moniz to win Nobel in 1949

What is parabiosis?

anatomical joining of two individuals

What are the six "basic" emotions?

anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, surprise

What kind of drug can treat bulimia nervosa?

anti-depressants

What happens in the substrate (intestinal) phase?

as the stomach fills, the partially digested food move into the intestine and nutrients begin to be absorbed into the bloodstream

What areas of the brain are associated with motor planning?

association areas of the neocortex and basal ganglia

What is the sentinel hypothesis?

at rest we using peripheral vision to monitor environment for danger - simultagnosia

What is predatory and affective aggression?

attacking for food vs attacking to "impress"

What is the neurophysiology of attention?

attention increases metabolism of the relevant brain areas

What is modulation or "scaling" of the basal ganglia?

balancing of motor movements

What is the difference between prairie and montane voles?

basically nothing, other than that prairie voles are social and monogamous, while montane voles are not

Which amygdala nucleus creates the emotional experience?

basolateral nuclei

What do the lateral and medial zones of the hypothalamus regulate?

behaviors such as feeding, etc.

Which amygdala nucleus creates the behavioral reaction/autonomic response?

central nucleus

What does the periventricular zone of the hypothalamus regulate?

communicates with the pituitary and regulates hormonal signaling

What two ways can motivation take form?

concrete (physical) and abstract (goals)

What is the PING model?

constantly active excitatory input excites an excitatory (E) cell, which then activates an inhibitory (I) cell this is the basis for neuronal wavelengths

What does the posterior pituitary lobe do?

contains magnocellular neurosecretory cells communicates the kidney and brain

What does the anterior pituitary lobe do?

contains parvocellular neurosecretory cells regulates the adrenal gland

What is reciprocal inhibition?

contraction of one set of muscle is accompanied by the relaxation of the antagonist muscle Ex. Stretch reflex

What does the Electroencephalogram (EEG) measure?

current flow due to synaptic activity on dendrites of pyramidal neurons

What are convulsants?

drugs that cause seizures

What are the specific traits of living things?

eating, breathing, growing, and reproducing

How does serotonin affect aggression?

elevated serotonin decreases aggression

How does serotonin affect hunger?

elevates serotonin suppresses appetite

What is the James-Lange theory?

emotion is experienced in response to physiological changes in body

What is the Canon-Bard Theory?

emotions occur independent of emotional expression—no correlation with physiological state

What are examples of an estrogen?

estradiol & progesterone

What are cognitive examples of sexual dimorphism?

females typically have better verbal reasoning males typically have better map and mathematical reasoning

What are the four "F's" of the sympathetic nervous system?

flight, fright, fight, and sex

What causes Klüver-Bucy syndrome?

follows temporal lobe/amygdala damage Ex: after bilateral removal of the temporal lobes in rhesus monkeys

How is serotonin made?

from the amino acid tryptophan present in food, mainly carbs

What are Intrafusal fibers (muscle spindles) innervated by?

gamma motorneurons

What is Huntington's disease?

genetic autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disease characterized by cognitive, psychiatric, and motor deficits

What hormone stimulates hunger?

ghrelin

What are distal muscles responsible for?

hands, feet, digits (fingers and toes) movement

What is known as the body brain bridge?

hypothalamus

How is vasopressin related to marriage?

in men, low vasopressin gene --> less satisfaction in marriage

What is anomia?

inability to find the right word, symptom of Broca's aphasia

What are the three zones of the hypothalamus?

lateral, medial, and periventricular

Which hemisphere is dominant for language?

left hemisphere

What do EEG rhythms correlate with?

level of attentiveness, sleeping, waking, seizures, coma

What is Parkinson's caused by?

loss of Dopaminergic neurons in the Substantia Nigra (SNc) D1 (↓ GABA-) in direct D2 (↑ GABA-) in indirect

What is anorexia?

loss of appetite

What areas of the brain are associated with motor sequencing?

motor cortex and cerebellum

What does the golgi tendon organ sense?

muscle tension, or force of contraction

What is the visceromotor response?

neurons in the hypothalamus adjust the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system

What is the humoral response?

neurons in the hypothalamus release of hormones into the bloodstream

What is polyandry?

one female, multiple males

What is aphasia?

partial or complete loss of language abilities following brain damage, often WITHOUT loss of cognitive or motor function

What are seizures?

pathological states of synchronized brain activity, often indicative of brain injury or pathology

How does ghrelin work?

peptide secreted from the stomach that stimulates appetite by activating orexigenic (NPY/AgRP-containing) neurons found in the arcuate nucleus in the hypothalamus

What part of the hypothalamus controls the autonomic nervous system (ANS)?

periventricular area

What happens in the gastric phase?

physiological responses increase when you start chewing, swallowing, and filling your stomach

What did we learn from S.M.?

selective damage to the amygdala caused a deficit in recognizing fear in faces, but not happiness

What do the gonads release?

sex hormones (testosterone and estrodiol)

What are proximal muscles responsible for?

shoulder, elbow, pelvis, knee movement

What happens during the cephalic phase?

sight and smell --> physiological processes - Secretion of saliva, digestive juices into your stomach - PNS is involved

What differentiates a coma and sleep?

sleep is readily reversible

What is Bradykinesia?

slowness of INITIATING movement

Why type of cells does the ANS act upon?

smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and gland cells

What does the hypothalamus integrate?

somatic and visceral responses in accordance with the needs of the brain (homeostasis)

What is a materialist?

someone who believes consciousness arises from physical processes, and CAN be understood by studying structure and function of the nervous system

What is a dualist?

someone who believes mind and body are different things; consciousness CANNOT be fully explained by physical processes

Which sleep stage contains sleep spindles and K complexes?

stage 2 NREM

What did W.R. Hess win the Nobel prize for?

stimulating different areas of the hypothalamus in cats to test different types of aggression

What is the SNc?

substantia nigra pars compacta (source of the modulatory dopamine pathway)

What is the SNr?

substantia nigra pars reticulata

What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system?

sympathetic and parasympathetic

What is the Vestibulospinal tract responsible for?

to keep the head balanced on the shoulders as the body moves, brings information from the vestibular apparatus responsible for balance

What MIGHT narcolepsy be caused by?

too few hypocretin neurons

What are axial muscles responsible for?

trunk movement

What kind of waves does dreaming occur in?

typically theta (higher frequency; lower amplitude)

What is the gene FOXP2 involved with?

verbal dyspraxia; specific language impairment (SLI)

What are the two basic ways of generating synchronicity in the brain?

via pacemaker or mutual coordination