NHM 372 Chapter 6, NHM 372 Chapter 7, NHM 372 Chapter 8

Multiple regression

Y = a0 + a1X{1} + a2X{2} + p + anXn

rotovirus

1-3 day, 4-8 day illness, source humans, There are six identified types of rotoviruses; three (Group A, B, C) are known to cause gastroenteritic reactions in humans. They are found in the feces of an infected person and are transmitted to others because of poor hygiene by one person, which results in the contamina-tion of food for another. The most commonly reported cases have been in nursing facilities and day care centers. Ready-to-eat products such as salads, sandwiches, and desserts are common carriers as these products are not cooked after being contaminated.

Portion control results from these principles

1. Foods should be purchased according to detailed and accurate specifications to assure that the food purchased will yield the expected number of servings. Often, products are or-dered by count or number, with a definite size indicated. As an example, the food buyer may order 150 4-ounce portions of round steak for a Swiss steak recipe. An alternate way of controlling portion size is buying products in individual serving sizes. Examples are individual boxes of cereal, butter and margarine pats, packaged crackers, and condiment packets. 2. Standardized recipes should be used. A standardized recipe will include information on total number and size of portions to be produced from the recipe. Following recipe pro-cedures carefully during prepreparation, production, and service ensures that the correct number of portions will result. For example, cooking a roast at too high a temperature will result in excess moisture loss and decreased yield. 3. Managers and employees should know the size and yield of all pans, dishers, and ladles. The pans and serving utensils should be selected in the standardized recipe. Many portion control utensils, such as dishers, "spoodles," and ladles, are on the market to help food-service employees accurately and consistently portion foods. The approximate yield and typical uses for various sizes of dishers are given in Table 6-12. A number is commonly used to indicate the size of these utensils, which specifies the number of servings per quart when leveled off. For example, a level measure of a number 8 disher yields eight servings per quart, each portion measuring about 1/2 cup. Dishers are used during production to ensure consistent size for such menu items as meatballs, drop cookies, and muffins and during service to ensure correct serving size. Spoodles combine the ease of serving with a spoon and the portion control of a ladle into one handy utensil. Vollrath has developed a color-coding system to help employees choose the right size (Figure 6-18). The handles come in 11 different colors; for example, a 1 oz utensil has a black handle, 2 oz a blue handle, 3 oz a pink handle, 6 oz a turquoise handle, and 8 oz an orange handle. If the menu calls for 2 ounces of corn, the manager can tell the employee to use a blue spoodle, or for 1/2 cup of ice cream to use a gray disher. The approximate weight and measure for various sizes of ladles are given in Table 6-13.

Hep A

10-50 days, 1-2 week illness, source humans and water, Hepatitis is a common disease that affects the liver, causing inflammation. The liver does not function normally and jaundice, yellowing of the skin, results. Hepatitis A, B, and C are the three main types of viral hepatitis. Type A, or infectious hepatitis, is one of the most conta-gious types and often occurs in children and young adults. It is caused by: • Drinking polluted water • Eating food cooked or washed in polluted water • Eating food contaminated by individuals infected with the Hepatitis virus • Touching a contaminated cup or eating utensil and then putting hands in the mouth or touching a cut or open sore • Eating shellfish, clams, mussels, and oysters that live in polluted waters Consuming even a small quantity of the virus can infect a person. Although infected individuals may not show symptoms for several weeks, they can be very infectious to others prior to show-ing symptoms themselves.

broilers

A broiler has its heat source above the rack that holds the food, usually meat, poul-try, and seafood. The food is placed 3 to 6 inches from the heat, depending on the type and intensity of the heat (Spears, 1999). The temperature required depends on the amount of fat, tenderness, or thickness of the food item. Juices and fat from the cooking food drop to a drip pan below the food, reducing the likelihood of fires during cooking. Charbroiling has become popular in many foodservice operations, especially in steak houses and quick-service hamburger establishments. A charbroiler, as shown in Figure 6-12, can be heated with gas, electricity, char-coal, or wood. Gas and electric models have a bed of ceramic briquettes above the heat source and below the grid that holds the food. Because the heat source is from below, it technically is a grilling and not a broiling method. Because juices and fat from the cooking food drop onto the heat source, flames and smoke often occur during cooking, which can cause safety concerns. The salamander and cheesemelter are specialty broilers that are much smaller and often are mounted above a range. The two units differ in that the cheesemelter has a much lower heat out-put and is used for finishing (such as melting cheese) rather than cooking foods.

deep fat fryers

A deep-fat fryer has a frying kettle or frying bin of oil heated by gas, electric, or infrared burners into which foods are immersed in a fryer basket to be cooked (Figure 6-14). Improvement in deep fat frying equipment include precise thermostatic control, fast recovery of fat temperature (permitting foodservice operations to produce consistent-quality fried food rapidly), and the automatic filtering of the oil to remove food particles and extend the useful life of the cooking oil. The frying kettle is divided into two zones, the cooking zone, which is above the heating elements, and the cold zone, which is the space below the cooking element where crumbs and debris fall. Because this space is cooler than the cooking oil, these particles are less likely to burn. Heat recovery time, the time it takes for the oil to return to the optimal cooking temperature after food has been added, will greatly impact the total cooking time in a fryer.

hygiene 2

A foodservice employee personal hygiene program should include three major compo-nents: maintaining personal cleanliness, wearing proper work attire, and following hygienic hand practices (NRA Education Foundation, 2013). Personal cleanliness involves proper bath-ing and hair washing. Proper work attire includes using proper hair restraints, having clean and appropriate clothing, wearing proper shoes (closed toed, nonskid soles), removing aprons when leaving work areas, and removing jewelry. Because the most critical aspect of personal cleanli-ness is frequent and thorough handwashing, proper methods should be emphasized in training programs. Although regulations vary in local areas, most indicate that fingernails should be short and clean, false fingernails and nail polish cannot be used, and cuts or wounds on hands need to be covered with clean bandages and finger cots or gloves. Using gloves can give a false sense of security because the food handler might not change the gloves after handling a contaminated product, resulting in cross-contamination of other products. Many local regulations stipulate that ready-to-eat foods cannot be handled with bare hands, requiring use of serving utensils or gloved hands. Because saliva can contain pathogens, employees should not be allowed to eat, drink, smoke, or chew gum or tobacco when preparing or serving food or cleaning work areas or equipment. Managers need to conduct daily inspections of all employees to ensure that proper sanitation practices are being followed.

pre rec

According to the ISU HACCP Information Center, the basis of a strong HACCP program is having the necessary prerequisite programs in place. Those prerequisite programs include: • Sanitation standard operating procedures • Quality management • Employee education and training • Personal hygiene • Safe food-handling and storage practices • Temperature monitoring • Specifications and suppliers • Food recalls and disaster plans • Equipment monitoring and calibration • Preventative maintenance programs • Integrated pest management

Accident Prevention

A foodservice operation should have an accident prevention program that seeks to elim-inate all accidents, not just those resulting in personal injury. Accidents are expensive and can result in increased insurance premiums, lost productivity, wasted time, overtime expenses, work-ers' compensation claims, potential lawsuits, and human suffering. Accidents can also result in a fine or legal action if provisions of the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) are violated. Many aspects of safety are related to construction and maintenance of the structure and equipment. For example, floors and wiring should be in good repair, and adequate lighting should be provided in work areas, corridors, and outside the facility. Exits should be clearly marked, nonslip flooring materials used, and all equipment supplied with necessary safety de-vices. Also, fire extinguishers of the appropriate type should be readily available throughout the foodservice facility. The basic traffic flow should be designed to avoid collisions.

internal

A foodservice organization should have its own program of self-inspection as a means of maintaining standards of sanitation. In organizations with a TQM program, an audit of sanitation practices should be one of its major components. Employees can be an important part of an internal audit when they are empowered to take corrective action if a critical control point is violating the code. A voluntary food safety program of self-inspection will as-sure the government and the public that the foodservice operation is protecting the safety of food in each step of production.

biosecurity

A number of organizations have developed food biosecurity guidelines for foodservice operations. The National Restaurant Association (NRA Education Foundation, 2014) encour-ages foodservice managers to have a food defense program that addresses points in the operation where food is at risk for tampering. The FDA Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition developed food security preventive measures guidance for food processors and retailers (see www.foodsafety.gov). The guidance documents, based on the acronym A.L.E.R.T., identifies measures that can be taken by foodservice operators to minimize the risk of food being subjected to tampering or criminal or terrorist actions as Assure products received are from safe sources, Look (monitor) the security of productions in the operation, Employees know who should or should not be in the area, Report and keep information related to food defense accessible and Threat, and identify what you will do and who you will contact if there is suspicious activity.

role of others

A number of other organizations are active in upgrading and maintaining the sanitary quality of various food products and establishing standards for foodservice operations. For example, many trade and professional organizations serving various segments of the food industry have established sanitary standards for food processing operations. The Educational Foundation of the National Restaurant Association (NRA) has exerted aggressive leadership in developing standards and promoting training in foodservice sanitation. It has developed a crisis management program, identified as ServSafe®, that concentrates on three areas of potential risk: food safety, responsible alcohol service, and customer safety (NRA Educational Foundation, 1995). ServSafe® courses focus on the manager's role in assessing risks, establishing policies, and training employees. ServSafe® programs include a textbook and employee training materials for each subject, such as study guides, videos, and an employer's kit with a leader's guide and other teaching aids. Anyone who completes the course and satis-factorily completes a certification examination administered by the Education Foundation is eligible for an Educational Foundation ServSafe® certificate. Many state and local health au-thorities require that managers, or persons in charge in a foodservice operation, hold some form of sanitation certification.

sanitation

A properly designed foodservice facility is basic to maintain a high standard of sanitation. The first requirement for a sanitary design is cleanability, which means the facility has been arranged so that it can be cleaned easily. Equipment and fixtures should be arranged and designed to comply with sanitation standards, and trash and garbage isolated to avoid contaminating food and attracting pests. For a facility to be clean is not enough; it must also be sanitary. Although the two words are often used synonymously, clean means free of physical soil and organic matter (Fraser & Pascal, 2010). These objects may look clean on the surface but may harbor disease agents or harmful chemicals. Sanitary means "the application of cumulative heat or chemicals on cleaned food contact surfaces that, when evaluated for efficacy, is sufficient to yield a reduction of 5 logs, which is equal to a 99.999% reduction, of representative disease microorganisms of pub-lic health importance" (Food Code, 2013). Cleaning and sanitizing are both issues of concern in the maintenance of foodservice facilities and equipment, and together they form the basis for good housekeeping in foodservice operations. Any surface (counters, utensils, equipment) in a foodservice operation that touches food must be cleaned, rinsed, sanitized, and allowed to air dry.

types of ovens

A range oven is part of a stove and is located under the cooking surface. It is primarily used in small operations. • A deck oven (Figure 6-15a) has traditionally been the standby of hot-air ovens. It is so named because pans of food usually are placed directly on a ceramic or stainless steel deck (bottom of the oven) of an oven that is either 8 or 12 inches high. Typically several deck oven units are stacked on top of each other. Deck ovens typically have separate tem-perature controls for heating units in the top and bottom of the oven, allowing for more controlled baking of bakery items such as breads, rolls, and desserts. • A convection oven (Figure 6-15b) has a fan on the back or side wall that creates currents of air within the cooking chamber. It has more space and holds two to three times as much food, reduces cooking time by 30%, and cooks at 25°F to 35°F lower temperatures, thus conserving energy. • A conveyor oven often is called a pizza oven in quick-service operations. Food travels on a moving conveyor belt through the oven, cooking as it moves through the oven. The impinger (Figure 6-15c) is a conveyorized oven that blasts high-velocity, heated air into the oven cavity, allowing food to cook much more quickly than in other ovens. Heat sources include infrared, quartz, gas, and electric, which can produce oven temperatures of 600°F. • A microwave oven (Figure 6-15d) is used more for heating prepared foods for service than for cooking foods. Microwaves are generated by an electromagnetic tube that pro-duces microwaves that penetrate partway into the food and agitate water and/or fat mole-cules in the food. It is this agitation of molecules that actually cooks the food. • A smoker oven (Figure 6-15e) is an electric, compact-size oven with racks to smoke up to 100 pounds of meat at a time. It uses wood chips to produce smoke, and the meat is rubbed with spices and barbecue sauce to give it a piquant flavor. • A low-temp cooking and holding oven (Figure 6-15f) has cooking temperatures from 142°F to 325°F and holding temperatures from 60°F to 200°F. Yield of meats can be in-creased up to 25% and energy consumption reduced by 30 to 50% when cooked in these ovens. • A rotisserie oven contains rows of metal spits or baskets on which food is placed. The spits or baskets are rotated and the food slow cooked in the oven's warm, usually moist, cavity. The cooking source can be gas, electricity, wood, or charcoal. These ovens were popularized by Boston Market and now often are found in grocery stores as well. • A wood-fired oven burns wood in a well-insulated cavity to heat stone or brick blocks on which the food items are cooked. Wood burned in the ovens usually is chosen based on the smoky flavor it will impart to the food items cooked in the oven, how easy it is to light, and its moisture content (Katsigris & Thomas, 1999). A Flash Bake oven uses a combination of intense light and infrared energy to cook foods quickly. Products such as pizza, chicken breasts, and french fries can be cooked in much less time (2 minutes for a chicken breast, 1 minute for french fries).

recipes

A recipe is a formula by which weighed and measured ingredients are combined in a specific pro-cedure to meet predetermined standards. The recipe is actually a written communication tool that passes information from the foodservice manager to the ingredient room and production employees. In addition, the recipe is an excellent quality-and quantity-control tool, constituting a standard for each item on the menu that meets customer and management approval. Cost for each recipe can be easily computed because the ingredients and the amount will be the same each time the recipe is used. Recipes should have a format that is easily understood by the personnel who are respon-sible for the production and presentation of menu items to customers. Once a recipe has been tested repeatedly and accepted by management and customers, it becomes a standardized recipe and always gives the same results.

historical records

Adequate historical records constitute the basis for most forecasting processes. Often, past customer counts, number of menu items prepared, or sales records are used to determine the number of each menu items to prepare. These records must be accurate and complete, or they cannot be extended into the future with any reliability.

natural toxins

Biological contamination can occur from the microorganisms themselves or by the toxins produced from these microorganisms. Fish, shellfish, and mushroom toxins are examples. These toxins cannot be killed by freezing, cooking, or curing; thus, they are passed on to the humans consuming them. Fish toxins include histamine, ciguatoxin, saxioxin, bretoxin, and domoic acid.

frequent diners

A restaurant in Virginia Beach has created a TLC (The Local Customer) program. Locals qualify as frequent diners by eating at the restaurant 10 times during off-season, which runs from September through February. They become card-bearing regulars, which qualifies them to re-serve a table during peak season, when reservations are not accepted. They also receive bonuses including a complimentary special, such as an appetizer or a glass of wine. The secret of getting customers to return is to make them feel special. Staff in many operations are being trained to be more sensitive to solo diners. Dining room designers have come up with ideas to make these customers comfortable. Booths are de-sired by many of these customers, who usually come prepared with a book or magazine and appreciate more space. Another design idea that gives flexibility to single diners is a banquette, which is an upholstered sofa that runs along a wall and forms a long seating space. Small tables for one to four customers are placed in front of the banquette. Tables for one are no longer be-ing placed in corners or outside the kitchen door, but are being distributed throughout the area. Single-dining areas that cater to travelers and local singles are being incorporated into some main dining rooms. Also, place settings often are laid out at the bar, especially at lunchtime, for businesspeople dining alone.

Developed

A standardized recipe is one that has been developed for use by a given foodservice operation and has been found to produce consistent results and yield each time it is prepared. The terms quantity recipe and standardized recipe often are confused. Any recipe that produces 25 servings or more is termed a quantity recipe. Quantity recipes are not standardized, how-ever, until they have been adapted to an individual operation. Gregoire and Henroid (2002) described the recipe standardization process as a cycle of three phases: recipe verification, product evaluation, and quantity adjustment (see Figure 6-9). All recipes start in the recipe verification phase and then move through the product evaluation and quantity adjustment phases. These three phases are repeated until a recipe is standardized (i.e., produces a consistent product).

table top drill

A technique referred to as a table top drill is used to help train managers for emergency situations. In such a drill, an emergency scenario is slowly revealed and managers are asked to respond to their strategies for responding to the situation. Often these drills involve many departments within the organization.

Emergencies

A variety of events (weather, natural disasters, terrorist attacks, and pandemic illness) have prompted more detailed emergency preparedness planning by foodservice managers. An emergency prepared-ness plan typically details plans for food preparation in times when the organization is operating in an emergency situation. The plans might include for example what menu and which pieces of equipment might be used if there is no electricity or no gas in the kitchen. Other emergency situations might in-volve disruption to a safe water supply. Many foodservice operations hold multiple days of food and paper supplies in stock in preparation for emergency use. Others have a stock of bottled water and MREs (Meals, Ready to Eat) that can meet food needs for several meals. Pre-arranged agreements with vendors to supply food, water, and refrigerated or freezer trucks for the foodservice use also are common. Many hospital foodservice departments have emergency plans to be able to feed patients, staff, and visitors for 3 to 5 days with on hand food and supplies.

food safety programs

A well-designed food safety program monitors all food production activities for errors in handling and eliminates those errors. Critical control points (CCPs) must be identified, standard operating procedure put in place, and a Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) model selected. Although the FDA publishes the Food Code as a guideline for food safety practices, indi-vidual health departments set the sanitation policies and procedures for their jurisdiction.

Ingredient room staffing

According to Dougherty (1984a), in an operation without an ingredient room, production em-ployees spend about one-third of their time determining needs, obtaining supplies, and weighing higher-level skill tasks, which allows management to reassign less-skilled employees from production to the ingredient room. In smaller operations in which a full-time employee is not needed for ingredient assembly, schedules of production employees can be arranged to permit them to weigh and assemble ingredients. As Dougherty (1984b) indicated, the more activities are centralized, the greater will be the realized benefits.

four patterns of customer service

According to Martin (2002), achieving quality customer service requires excellence in both the procedural and personal dimensions of customer service. His model of quality service describes four basic patterns of customer service: • Freezer. A pattern of service in which there is poor procedural and personal service; it conveys the message, "We don't really care about you." • Factory. A pattern of service that is skewed toward procedural efficiency; service may be timely and efficient but employees are cold and impersonal, leaving customers with the impression, "You are a number. We are here to process you as efficiently as we can." • Friendly zoo. A pattern of service in which employees are very friendly, genuine, and car-ing, but service is slow, inconsistent, and disorganized; it sends a message to the customer that "We are trying hard, but we don't really know what we are doing." • Quality customer service. A pattern of service in which both personal and procedural dimensions are handled well; it conveys the message, "We care about you, and we deliver."

EPA

According to the EPA (www.epa.gov), about 100 billion pounds of food waste is pro-duced each year. Food waste accounts for 11.7% of total municipal solid waste; only 2.7% is recovered. The EPA encourages source reduction/prevention, feeding people, feeding animals, industrial uses, composting and anaerobic digestion as ways to reduce the amount of food waste that is going to the landfill. Source Reduction/Prevention involves the careful produc-tion planning and service monitoring by managers in order to prevent or reduce the amount of food that is discarded. Donation of leftover foods that are still considered safe to eat but will not be reserved in the foodservice operation is another method of waste reduction. Food dona-tion can be brought directly to local shelters or food banks or through food rescue programs. The Bill Emerson Good Samaritan Food Donation Act of 1996 promotes the donation of food by foodservice operations to nonprofit organizations by protecting foodservice donors from civil and criminal liability should the product donated in good faith cause harm to a consumer. Donating leftover food to local ranchers for use as animal feed helps reduce the amount of food waste in the landfill and provides nourishment for animals. Industrial uses such as such redendering of fats, oils, and grease in soaps and other products or converting them into bio-diesel are examples of diverting waste.

control points

After determining the critical control points, methods have to be established to avoid break-downs in those problematic areas. Monitoring must be in place to make sure the controls are work-ing successfully. Detailed recordkeeping, such as temperature checks, also is part of the HACCP, as is verification of cleanliness (e.g., conducting laboratory tests for bacteria). The HACCP pro-gram requires a lot of recordkeeping, which may present challenges for small operations. HACCP implementation does not eliminate the risk of foodborne illness. Contamination problems may be reduced, but the possibility of mishandling food remains real throughout the food chain. By charting the flow of food through the operation, points can be identified where con-tamination or growth of microorganisms can occur. Often similar food items (like cold meat sandwiches or cream soups) can be grouped together under one HACCP plan as they will fol-low the same flow through the operation and have the same CCPs. Implementation of HACCP

Production

After procurement, production is the next major subsystem in the transformation el-ement of the foodservice system; it is highlighted in Figure 6-1. Because of the increased use of partially processed foods, such as peeled and sliced apples, often prepreparation will be done in the production unit. Production in the generic sense is the process by which products are created. In the context of foodservice, production is the managerial function of converting food purchased in various stages of preparation into menu items that are served to customers. In foodservice operations today, production is no longer considered merely cooking in the kitchen. It involves planning and controlling ingredients, production methods, food quality, labor productivity, and energy consumption. In essence, foodservice managers re-sponsible for production are resource managers, and they may be designated as such in some organizations.

total quality service

Albrecht (1993, 1995) and Albrecht and Zemke (2001) suggest that organizations need to focus on creating a total quality service (TQS) model. The emphasis then is to take the long view and focus on the reason the organization exists, which is to serve. The TQS philosophy emphasizes that all quality standards and measures should be customer referenced and should help people guide the organization to deliver outstanding value to its customers. Quality standards should be a means to an end but not ends in themselves.

Adapt home size recipes

Although good quantity recipes are readily available today, managers often prefer to develop their own formulations, rely on the expertise of cooks who may prepare an item without a written recipe, or adapt a home-size recipe to quantity production. In a residence hall or school foodservice, students may bring recipes from home and request that items be prepared. A nursing home resident might have a favorite item and share the recipe with the cook as a possible selection for the menu. Special considerations are necessary in adjusting a recipe designed for 6 to 8 servings to an appropriate quantity for 100 servings or more.

employee safety programs

Although many aspects of safety are concerned with construction and design of facilities, safe practices of employees are also a critical element in a safety program. Ergonomics is another factor of work safety. Ergonomics examines how workers interact with their work environment, including equipment, the workstation, and climate; it influences such factors as lighting and foot-wear, which in turn influence safety. Recommendations such as storing heaviest items on middle shelves to reduce back strain are an example of an ergonomic employee safety recommendation. Equipment manufacturers have developed equipment with built-in features such as safety valves on pressure steamers and guards on slicing and chopping machines (DOL Officially Declares, 1991). The Department of Labor went one step further and issued regulations to officially prohibit 16-and 17-year-olds from using power-driven food slicers in restaurants, especially quick-service operations. OSHA requires special "lock out tag out" practices and procedures to prevent employee injury from unexpected start-up of electrical equipment during service and maintenance.

Limitation

Although standardized recipes offer many advantages in a foodservice operation, the key to success is ensuring that recipes are followed carefully and consistently each time an item is produced. Because the human element can be a major variable in product quality and uniformity, employee supervision and training are critical. The use of standardized recipes has some limitations. Even when they are followed, stan-dardized recipes will not improve a product made from inferior ingredients; good specifications for quality products are essential (Mitani & Dutcher, 1992). Standardization also cannot elimi-nate the variation found in food. For example, climate, degree of maturity, growing regions, and age of products can affect the menu item. Ingredient substitutions will affect the final product; the recipe has to be standardized again before the menu item is served to customers. Recipes must be standardized for each foodservice operation. Foodservice managers should review and update previously standardized recipes to reflect changes in the organization.

energy use

America's energy crisis in the mid-1970s prompted Congress to pass legislation in 1977 that required the periodic development of energy plans. The first National Energy Plan was devel-oped in 1977 and has been updated several times since then. National energy legislation passed in 2002 created new efficiency standards to reduce electricity use and offered tax incentives for energy efficiency improvements in homes. High energy costs in 2008 renewed interest in energy efficiency. According to the US Department of Energy's Energy Information Administration (EIA), foodservice buildings account for 6% of all commercial building energy use. Electricity (50%) and natural gas (47%) are the two primary sources of energy used in foodservice operations. The Food Service Technology Center (www.fishnick.com) does equipment testing and provides valuable information on energy and water efficiency for foodservice managers.

Employee safety

An accident is frequently defined as an event that is unexpected or the cause of which was unforeseen, resulting in injury, loss, or damage. An accident is also an unplanned event that interrupts an activity or function. Although they may or may not be the result of negligence, many accidents can be prevented. Safety is every employer's responsibility. Accidents do not just happen—something causes them, and the majority are controllable (Somerville, 1992). Ac-cording to Goetsch (2010), the most common causes of workplace accidents are overexertion (employees working beyond their physical limits), impact accidents (employee being struck by or against an object), and falls. Filiaggi and Courtney (2003) indicated that the most common injuries in restaurants were sprain/strains (34%), cuts/punctures (18%), burns (10%), bruises (10%), fractures (7%), and all other types of injuries (21%). Schweitzer (2010) encouraged inclusion of the following major components in a best-practices foodservice safety program:

centralized trayline

An example of a centralized trayline assembly unit is shown in Figure 7-2. The layout uses mobile equipment, which has been widely accepted because of its flexibility and the ease of fa-cility maintenance that it provides. This setup can be readily rearranged or moved for cleaning. A tray slide is an integral component of a centralized trayline assembly operation. Meal trays are moved along the tray slide, allowing the placement of food products on the tray at stations positioned along the tray slide. The tray slide could involve manually pushing trays along a tray slide; having skate wheels or rollers on the tray slide to facilitate the movement of trays; or, more commonly, the use of a motorized belt made of fabric, metal slats, or rubber bandvayors. Motor-ized belts have been designed as straight line or circular.

Historical records example

An example of a historical record for a catered party at a retirement reception is shown in Figure 6-2. This seasonal menu also could be used for other types of receptions. Caterers, both social and employed by an organization, must keep accurate records of the amount of food for each event to prevent underproduction or overproduction of menu items on the next similar occasion. Catering is a profit enterprise, and reliable past records are essential because events are not repetitive; elaborate forecasting methods generally are not feasible. Although production unit records reveal the vital information on menu items served to customers, production is by no means the only organizational unit that should keep records.

Moving average example

An example of the moving average model is shown in Table 6-1. Data are for the num-ber of hamburgers sold over the last 10 days. A 5-day moving average is used. The first 5-day moving average is calculated by adding the number sold for each of those days and dividing by 5, giving an average of 176 hamburgers. The next moving average is calculated by adding the number sold for days 2 through 6 and dividing by 5. The procedure is repeated by dropping the earliest day's data and adding the most recent day's data for a total of 5 days.

Ingredient room 1

An ingredient room may be limited to premeasuring only dry and room-temperature ingredients, or it may be a center in which all ingredients, whether they are at room temperature, refrigerated, or frozen, are assembled, weighed, and measured. The availability of appropriate equipment, such as prepreparation equipment and low-temperature storage, will help determine the activities to be performed in an ingredient room. A freezer in or near the assembly area is required, for example, if ingredient room employees withdraw and thaw frozen products in advance. Storeroom employees generally assemble full cases and unopened cans for delivery to production. Partial amounts from cans or cartons should be weighed and measured in the central ingredient assembly area. This practice can eliminate waste in a foodservice operation by avoid-ing partially used cans or cartons of the same product in several locations. For example, canned tomato sauce may be needed by both the main production and salad units; with a central ingredi-ent room, only one partially used can would need to be stored.

anaerobic digestion

Anaerobic digestion involves use of microorganisms to break down food waste and convert it to biogas. The EPA (www.epa.gov) estimates that if 50% of the food waste produced each year was processed into biogas through anaerobic digestion, enough electricity would be generated to power 2.5 million homes for a year. The cost of trash removal from a foodservice operation may be based on weight or vol-ume of trash. Pulping provides a method for reducing the volume of trash. A pulper is a piece of equipment that chops waste (paper, disposable containers, food waste) into small pieces to reduce the volume of waste. The pulping process involves combining water with the waste and then extracting the water once the chopping process is completed.

choking

Approximately 60% of all choking incidents occur in restaurants (Herlong, 1991). Prior to 1974, when the Heimlich maneuver was introduced, about 20,000 choking fatalities occurred each year; currently about 2,000 to 3,000 occur. Laws on first-aid training requirements vary by state. Some states require only that restaurants post Heimlich maneuver instructional diagrams where all employees can see them, but others require formal training for foodservice employees as well as posting of instructions. The National Restaurant Association, the American Red Cross, and the Heimlich Institute all provide charts and instructional materials on the Heimlich maneuver.

snack machine

As markets shift and change, customer needs and preferences also change (Friedland, 1997). A study on snack vending revealed that customers wanted the following improvements: brand-name items, healthier selections, new items, and greater variety. These improvements and attractive machines are enhancing the perception of vending. Multiple-choice machines and a beverage machine often are teamed together to provide variety for the customer. Vending machines have been modified to accept credit and debit cards. Other new payment options include the use of charge cards that permit customers or a department to be billed. The use of a debit card permits the customer's balance on hand to be reduced after each transaction.

meal assembly

As shown in Figure 4-1, the process of meal assembly adds another step between produc-tion and service and greatly increases the distribution equipment options. Meal assembly may be centralized or decentralized. In a facility using centralized meal assembly, food trays are assembled for service at a cen-tral location close to the main production area. This centralized tray assembly can be done using a trayline or pod assembly process.

Pattern of behavior

As stated previously, many forecasting models depend on the assumption that behavioral patterns observed in the past will continue into the future and, even more basic, that actual occurrences follow some known pattern. These patterns, however, may be affected by random influences, which are unpredictable factors responsible for forecasting errors. Not all forecasting models work equally well for all patterns of data; therefore, the appropriate model must be selected for a particular situation.

Heat support cart meal distribution

Benefits: Foods remain heated until tray is removed for service to the patient. cons: The potential for maintenance/repair problems is high. Carts can be heavy and difficult to maneuver. No provisions are made for maintenance of cold food items at proper temperatures

Insulated components meal distribution

Benefits: Only the dinner plate and food are insulated; there are no special bases to heat. Simple in operation. No burn hazard to the attendant or customer. No special delivery cart is required. Cons: Additional service ware pieces need to be inventoried, stored, transported, and washed. Attractive insulated components are often taken home by patients as useful mementos of their hospital experience.

hot and cold holding

As the time between the completion of production and the time of service increases and/or the distance between the two increases, the options for distribution practices and equip-ment also increase. Hot-and cold-holding equipment will be needed to maintain the proper temperature for various menu items as the time between production and service increases. Ad-herence to critical control points for proper serving temperatures is critical during the distri-bution process. If standards are not met, utensils and equipment must be washed, rinsed, and sanitized and the food product reheated to 165°F. Depending on the service areas, this holding equipment may be stationary or mobile. Some equipment is versatile and can be used for dis-tribution, holding, and service. In some operations, most commonly those using a commissary or base kitchen conventional production system as described in Chapter 4, heated and chilled prepared foods must be transported some distance from production to service. Adding the trans-portation process necessitates having equipment designed for maintaining temperatures during transportation. In some operations, electrically heated or cooled carts or trucks are used for this transport. Other operations use insulated carts for this transportation. Proper Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) monitoring becomes increasingly important during this pro-cess. Temperatures should be recorded before items leave the production area, after they arrive at the satellite unit, prior to the start of service, and periodically throughout service to ensure the safety of foods served.

step

At each step in the flow of food through operation, risk, which is a chance that a condi-tion in foodservice will lead to a hazard, can occur (Spears, 1999). A hazard is considered an unacceptable contamination. As risks are determined, managers need to identify critical control points, defined as a step or procedure in a foodservice process at which control can be applied and a food safety hazard can be prevented, eliminated, or reduced to acceptable levels. The ob-jective is to identify the points during the production process where food is most likely to be contaminated (Dulen, 1998). Having a HACCP program in place is required by federal agencies, accrediting bodies, or local health departments for many foodservice operations. The USDA (2005), the National Restaurant Association (2004), the Institute of Child Nutrition (2002), and the Iowa State Uni-versity (ISU) HACCP Information Center (www.extension.iastate.edu/foodsafety/HACCP) have developed manuals and materials to help foodservice managers develop HACCP plans and pro-cedures for their foodservice operations.

bacteria

Bacteria are microscopic, unicellular organisms of varying size and shape, includ-ing spherical, rod, and spiral. According to the CDC, the most commonly recognized foodborne infections are those caused by the bacteria Campylobacter, Nontyphoidal Salmonella, Staphylo-coccus aureus, and Escherichia coli O157:H7 (information from www.cdc.gov, 2010). Although requirements for growth vary among different types of bacteria, all bacterial cells pass through various phases (McSwane, Rue, Linton, & Williams, 2004). When the multi-plication of bacteria is steady, the number of cells produced over a certain period of time can be plotted.

Anaerobic

Bacteria differ in their need for oxygen for growth. Aerobic bacteria need oxygen to grow; anaerobic bacteria reproduce without oxygen. Multiplication of bacteria is affected by available moisture in food. The amount of water available to support bacterial growth is termed water activity (Aw). Bacteria need a water activity higher than 0.85 to grow (McSwane et al., 2004). Water becomes less available through the pres-ence of solutes such as salt and sugar, through freezing, or through dehydration. Various inhibitors have a pronounced effect on bacterial multiplication and death. According to Longrée and Armbruster (1996), inhibitors may be integral in the food, developed during pro-cessing as a product of the microorganism's metabolism, or added purposely by the processor. The benzoic acid in cranberries and lysozyme in egg whites, for example, are natural inhibitors of these foods. Alcohol produced in the growth and fermentation of yeast, in fruit juices, or in the produc-tion of wine is an example of an inhibitory substance that may accumulate and become toxic. Some bacteria produce toxins in food as they grow and die. The toxin often cannot be de-stroyed by heating or freezing and can cause illness or death.

bbq style

Barbecue-style meats can be cooked in conventional equipment or specialized barbecue equipment as follows (Cooking Equipment, 1986): • Basic open pit (steel or concrete wood-burning firebox under a grate, some with rotisserie spits) • Cylindrical or kettle-shaped smokers with domed lids, some with pans • Large-capacity, closed-pit, wood-burning rack or reel ovens with fireboxes to the rear • Gas or electric upright rack ovens that cook at temperatures from 175°F to 250°F (smoke is dispersed by wood-charring or a smoke-concentrate device) • Pressurized barbecue smokers that combine heat (350°F-425°F) with pressure (12-15 psi) and smoke from wood chips

Utensils

Because these utensils are subject to hard usage, they need to be good quality and NSF listed. They should be made of 18-8, Type 304 stainless steel to prevent corrosion, ensure long-lasting service, and be dishwasher safe. The handle of a disher should be one piece and extended to provide a sure grip for comfortable use. An ergonomically approved thumb tab to reduce operator fatigue should be specified for natural hand movement. Spoodles need handles that are designed for hours of comfortable use and should remain cool to the touch up to 230°F and up to 180°F for ladles. Other types of serving and cooking equipment include spoons, tongs, hamburger and pan-cake turners, and spatula/scrapers. They all need to be selected carefully because they last for a long time. For example, spoons should be made of 18-8, Type 304 stainless steel and can besolid, perforated, or slotted. Many have plastic handles that resist heat to 230°F. Many other types of small equipment must be purchased according to menu requirements.

recipe format

Before adopting a particular format, variations might be tried to give the cooks an oppor-tunity to choose the one they like best. Flexibility in recipe formats is not possible if a computer program is used. The foodservice manager should compare recipe formats in software packages before purchasing one. Once a format is chosen, all recipes should be printed in that style. In converting to a new format, a good method is to adapt the most used recipes first and then gradually extend the conversion to the entire file. The production manager will need to conduct in-service training sessions on the new format for production employees. Recipes for use at a workstation should be in large print that is easily readable at a distance of 18 to 20 inches; large file cards or 81/2-by-11-inch paper should be used. Recipes that will be reused in the ingredient room or production unit should be in a plastic cover while in use and in some type of rack at the workstations. Because of the larger print, production employees should not have to pick up recipes for a closer look.

blanching

Blanching is defined as cooking an item partially and briefly, usually in water, although some foods, such as french fries, are blanched in hot fat. Two methods are used for blanching in water. To dissolve blood, salt, or impurities from certain meats and bones, the item is placed in cold water, brought to a boil, simmered briefly, and then cooled by plunging in cold water. Blanching is also used to set the color of and destroy enzymes in vegetables or to loosen skins of vegetables and fruits for easier peeling. For this latter purpose, the item is placed in rapidly boiling water, held there until the water returns to a boil, and quickly cooled in cold water.

braising

Braising involves cooking food in a small amount of liquid, usually after browning it. In to-day's price-conscious economy, chefs are showcasing the more flavorful, less tender, and less costly cuts of meat by preparing braised beef menu items. Braised meats usually are browned in a small amount of fat, which gives a desirable appearance and flavor to the product and sauce. With today's emphasis on healthful cooking, cubed meat can be quickly seared in hot stock, assuming a brown color without taking on added fats, and then finished at a lower temperature. The liquid often is thick-ened before serving by reducing it over hot heat rather than using a thickening agent. In some recipes for braised items, no liquid is added because the item cooks in its own moisture. Braising may be done on the range or in the oven, although today a covered tilting skillet is frequently used. Other terms describing the braising process are pot roasting, swissing, and fricasseeing.

tabels

Buchanan (1993) developed tables for adjusting weight and volume of ingredients in rec-ipes that are divisible by 25. Beginning with weights and measures for 25 portions, incremental values are given in these tables for various magnitudes up to 500. Use of these tables allows adjustment of recipes with a known yield in one of the amounts indicated to desired yields di-visible by 25. An example of a direct reading table for adjusting weight ingredients of recipes is shown in Table 6-9. For example, the amount of ground beef needed for 225 portions, us-ing a recipe designed to produce 100 portions, can be determined easily using the table. If the 100-portion recipe requires 10 pounds and 8 ounces of beef, then reading to the right for the amount for 200 portions (21 lb) and the left for 25 portions (2 lb 10 oz), the total of 23 lb 10 oz can be determined quickly.

buffet service

Buffet service has enjoyed increasing popularity in recent years in all types of foodservice. A buffet is a type of service where guests obtain all or a portion of their food from a buffet table. Periodic scheduling of buffets in a college residence hall foodservice, an employee cafeteria in a hospital, or an industrial foodservice operation can serve as a monotony breaker and a means of creating goodwill. Buffet service enables a facility to serve more people in a given time with fewer employ-ees. The usual procedure in commercial operations is for guests to select the entrée, vegetables, and salad from the buffet table before going to the dining table set with flatware, napkins, and water.

cafeteria service

Cafeteria service is characterized by advance preparation and self-service or employee-served of most, if not all, menu items. It is the predominant form of service used in onsite foodservice and employee-feeding operations. Self-busing of trays and dishes is also a common practice as a means of reducing labor costs. A great deal of emphasis is placed on food display, merchandising, and marketing of menu items. The straight-line counter, which may vary greatly in length, was the most common cafete-ria counter arrangement. Generally, the length of the counter varied with the quantity and variety of menu items instead of being dependent on the number of persons to be served. An alternative arrangement to the straight-line counter is the hollow square, sometimes called the scramble or food court system. In this layout, the various stations or food counters are positioned to form three or four sides of a square, with space between the counters and perhaps a center island of food. This layout allows customers to move from one station to another without being held up by the entire line. The hollow square layout not only decreases lines but also per-mits more people to be served in a smaller space.

campylobacter

Campylobacter jejuni was a well-known pathogen in veterinary medicine before it was considered a human pathogen. It is now recognized as one of the most common causes of gastroenteritis in humans, termed Campylobacteriosis or Campylobacter enteritis. A pathogen of cattle, sheep, pigs, and poultry, it is present in the flesh of these food animals and thus may be introduced into the food supply. It is particularly common in poultry; the FDA cites survey estimates that 20-100% of raw poultry is infected with C. jejuni (see Bad Bug Book at www.fda.gov). Properly cooking food and preventing cross contamination between raw and cooked foods are recommended preventative practices.

casual model

Causal forecasting models, like time series models, are based on the assumption that an identifiable relationship exists between the item being forecast and other factors. These factors might include selling price, number of customers, market availability, and almost any-thing else that might influence the item being forecast. Causal models vary in complexity from those relating only one factor, such as selling price, to items being forecast to models using a system of mathematical equations that include numerous variables. The cost of developing and using causal models is generally high, and consequently they are not used frequently for short-term forecasting, such as for perishable produce. They are, however, popular for medium-and long-term forecasts, such as for canned goods.

Percentage steps 2

Check the ratio of ingredients. Standards of ingredient proportions have been estab-lished for many items. The ingredients should be in proper balance before going further. STEP 5 Establish the weight needed to provide the desired number of servings, which will be in relation to pan size, portion weight, or equipment capacity. Examples include the following: • Total weight must be divisible by the weight per pan. • A cookie portion may weigh 0.14 lb per serving; therefore, 0.14 times the number of desired servings equals the weight needed. • Recipe total quantities should be compatible with mixing bowl capacity. Use the established portions, modular pan charts, or known capacity equipment guides to determine batch sizes. The weight of each individual serving is the constant used in calculating a recipe.

decentralized meal assembly

In decentralized meal assembly, the food products are produced in one location and transported to various locations for assembly at sites near the customer. Equipment to maintain proper temperatures—food warmers, hot food counters, and/or refrigerated equipment—must be provided at each location. Because some foods, such as grilled or fried menu items, do not transport or hold well, some cooking equipment may be available in the service units for these difficult-to-hold foods

high acid foods

Chemical contamination can occur when high-acid foods are prepared or stored in metal-lined containers. Poisoning may result if brass or copper, galvanized, or gray enamelware containers are used. Fruit juices should never be stored in enamelware coated with lead glaze or tin milk cans. Cases of poisoning have been recorded that are attributed to use of improper metal utensils. Sauerkraut, to-matoes, fruit gelatins, lemonade, and fruit punches have been implicated in metal poisonings. Toxic metals also have been implicated in food poisoning cases. Copper may become poison-ous when it is in prolonged contact with acid foods or carbonated beverages. The vending industry voluntarily discontinued all point-of-sale carbonation systems that do not completely guard against the possibility of backflow into copper water lines (backflow may dissolve the copper). Also, food such as meat placed directly on cadmium-plated refrigerator shelves may be rendered poisonous.

chemical contamination

Chemical contamination occurs when substances such as chemicals, toxic metals, or sanitizers are introduced into a food product (NRA Education Foundation, 2014). The following are exam-ples of chemical contamination that can occur in a foodservice operation: • Contamination of food with foodservice chemicals, such as pesticides, detergents, and sanitizers • Use of excessive quantities of additives, preservatives, and spices • Acidic action of foods with metal-lined containers • Contamination of food with toxic metals Pesticides are chemicals that kill or discourage the growth of pests, which are defined as organisms that cause damage to food, making it inedible, unappealing, or unsafe (Chaisson, Petersen, & Douglass, 1991). Pesticides typically are applied to crops growing in the field but also may be applied after harvest to prevent insect or mold infestation during transport or stor-age. Much research is being conducted on ways to reduce reliance on applied pesticides.

receiving complaints

Cheney (1993) suggested the fol-lowing steps for receiving a complaint: • Obtain all the pertinent information including the names and addresses of all party mem-bers, the employee who served the meal, the date and time of the customer's visit, and the suspect meal. • Remain concerned and polite, but do not admit liability or offer to pay medical bills. • Never suggest symptoms, but let the complainant tell his or her own story. • Record the time that the symptoms started, which will help in identifying the disease and determining the foodservice operation's responsibility. • If possible, try to get a food history of all the meals and snacks eaten before and after the person ate the suspect meal. • Never offer medical advice; gather information but do not interpret symptoms. All foodservice operations should have a crisis management plan in place for handling food safety complaints. Figure 8-12 details steps for developing a crisis plan.

Citations

Citations are issued by an OSHA area director upon review of the compliance officer's in-spection report if standards or rules have been violated. Several kinds of violations are possible, which may involve fines or legal action if the violation is sufficiently serious. Many hospitals will have an Occupational Safety Officer, or Department of Occupational Safety that consists of several individuals, who works with managers in all departments to en-sure compliance with OSHA and other health and safety regulations. Foodservice accidents and health inspections are monitored by this individual.

clostridium botulinum

Clostridium botulinum produces a toxin that affects the nervous system and is extremely dangerous. The disease, botulism, is the food intoxication caused by this bacte-ria. Improved food processing techniques have led to greatly reduced incidence of botulism, al-though inadequately processed home-canned foods are still frequently associated with botulism. Meats, fish, and low-acid vegetables have been found to support toxin formation and growth. Precautions for avoiding botulism include procuring foods from safe sources, rejecting home-canned products and low-acid products, destroying canned goods with defects such as swells or leaks, storing foods under recommended conditions, and using appropriate methods for thawing frozen foods. In addition to improperly processed products, other suspicious foods include smoked, vacuum-packed fish; garlic products packed in oil; grilled onions; baked potatoes; turkey loaf; and stew. Sous vide products offer a potential risk because they are vacuum packaged. Soil-grown vegetables, particularly potatoes, can be prime carriers of this toxin.

clostridium

Clostridium perfringens is a common inhabitant of the intestinal tract of healthy animals and human beings and occurs in soil, sewage, water, and dust and causes the illness Clostridium perfringens gastroenteritis. The infected food has invariably been held at room temperature or refrigerated in a large mass at the inappropriate temperature for several hours. Meats, poultry, meat mixtures, and gravies are frequently implicated. Overnight roasting of meat has been a contributing factor in some cases because of the low temperatures often used. Prevention of C. perfringens multiplication can be achieved by refrigerating foods at 40°F or below or holding them at 145°F or higher. In addition, rapid cooling of cooked foods is an im-portant practice.

Cold Chain Management

Cold chain management, temperature control throughout the supply chain delivery pro-cess, has become increasingly important in the foodservice industry. The focus is on maintaining a temperature-controlled environment throughout the distribution and storage stages of a food product. Cold chain management would involve, for example, tracking the temperature of meat from the time it was initially processed at a meat packing plant through storage and transportation until it reached the foodservice operator to ensure that the temperature of the product was maintained at acceptable levels throughout the supply chain stages. This often involves use of refrigerated or frozen trucks, insulated containers, temperature data logger devices, and closely monitored conditioned storage units in warehouses.

energy management

Control of energy costs requires maintaining a record-keeping system for tracking util-ity costs and monitoring equipment use. Energy use for lighting, heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning of the facilities must also be monitored and controlled. Dollar costs of energy are, of course, important, and comparisons of current costs with those of previous years will provide one basis of comparison. Because of rising utility rates, however, those figures may not be as meaningful as use data. Actual use, therefore, should also be analyzed. An analysis of energy use and cost is an important management function. The glos-sary in Figure 6-23 lists some of the key terms related to energy consumption.

combustion

Combustion, or incineration, is a form of solid waste recycling in which the energy value of combustible waste materials is recovered (Council on Plastics and Packaging in the Environ-ment, 1991). Modern waste-to-energy plants reduce the volume of waste going to landfills by 80 to 90% while generating electricity and revenue for users. Hospitals, nursing homes, schools, prisons, colleges and universities, and other onsite food-service operations across the country are successfully recycling and composting their solid waste (Chen, Arendt, & Gregoire, 2010; Huang, Gregoire, Tangney, & Stone, 2010; King, 1995; Su, Mason, & Shanklin, 1994). The results showed that most of the onsite foodservice operators were: • Recycling • Practicing source reduction • Incinerating • Composting The most common items being recycled were cardboard (84%), aluminum (79%), cooking oil and grease (79%), and paper (78%). The most common source reduction method reported was a reusable mug or cup program (74%). In addition, operators were decreasing the use of disposables and purchasing in bulk. Challenges noted by operators included lack of recyclers in the area (39%) and lack of customer interest (32%).

composting

Composting, decomposing organic material (food, biodegradable products) into soil-like material called compost, reduces the amount of waste in landfills and provides a natural soil additive for growers. Some foodservice operations have composting units on site; others work with local composting companies for pickup of food waste. Jennings (2007) detailed the citywide composting program for restaurants in San Francisco.

ingredient assembly

Concepts related to receiving, storage, and inventory control are important components of ingredient control, particularly issuing from storage. Clear policies and procedures control the issue and assem-bly of all food and supplies, from delivery to service, by requiring proper authorization for removal of products from storage and by issuing only required quantities for production and service.

Sustainability practices

Concern for the environment has prompted increased interest in sustainable practices in food production. These practices include use of more locally grown products, waste reduction, and resource conservation. The National Restaurant Association (2008) indicated that restaurants are serving more local produce, organically grown food, and sustainable seafood. They reported that 86% of fine dining restaurant operators were serving locally sourced food products. This number is higher than that reported in hospital and college and university foodservice where 30 to 50% of directors respec-tively reported serving locally grown foods items on a regular basis (Chen, 2008; Huang, 2009).

conduction

Conduction is the transfer of heat through direct contact of one object or substance with another. Transfer can occur in any of the three states of matter: solid, liquid, or vapor. Metals, as a group of solids, are good conductors; however, different metals conduct heat at different rates. For example, copper, iron, and aluminum are effective conductors for cooking vessels; stainless steel developed from iron is not as effective. In cooking by conduction, the heat is first transferred from a heat source, usually gas or electricity, through a cooking vessel to food. Con-duction is the dominant means of heat transfer in grilling, boiling, frying, and, to some degree, baking and roasting. In pan broiling or grilling a steak, for example, the heat is transferred from the source to the pan or grill and then directly to the meat. In pan frying, fat is the transfer agent between the pan and the food.

safety and health act

Congress passed the Occupational Safety and Health Act in 1970. The purpose of the act is "to assure, so far as possible, every working man and woman in the Nation safe and healthful work-ing conditions, and to preserve our human resources." OSHA allows a compliance officer to enter a facility to determine adherence to standards and to determine if the workplace is free of recognized hazards. During an OSHA inspection, some of the specific conditions for which the compliance officer will be searching include the following: • Accessibility of fire extinguishers and their readiness for use • Guards on floor openings, balcony storage areas, and receiving docks • Adequate handrails on stairs • Properly maintained ladders • Proper guards and electrical grounding for foodservice equipment • Lighted passageways, clear of obstructions • Readily available first-aid supplies and instructions • Proper use of extension cords • Compliance with OSHA posting and record keeping requirements

Contamination

Contamination is the presence of harmful substances in food. Contamination can occur naturally or be caused by humans or the environment. Contamination of food typically is categorized as biological, physical, or chemical. The extent of contamination of some foods may be difficult to determine from their appearance, odor, and taste; in other foods, mold, discolored or altered appearance, off-odors, or off-flavors are obvious signs of contamination.

Production controls

Control is the process of ensuring that plans have been followed. Therefore, the essence of con-trol is comparing what is set out to do with what was done and taking any necessary corrective action. Control has not been effective until action has been taken to correct unacceptable devia-tions from standards. In essence, then, quality control means assuring day-in, day-out consistency in each prod-uct offered for consumption. Quantity control, simply stated, means producing the exact amount needed—no more, no less. Each type of control is directly related to control of costs and thus to profit in a commercial operation or to meeting budgetary constraints in a nonprofit establish-ment. Over-and underproduction create managerial problems and have an impact on cost. Time and temperature, product yield, portion control, and product evaluation all relate directly to qual-ity, quantity, and indirectly to control of costs.

customer controls

Control of contamination from customers is more difficult, but various as-pects of facility design or policies and procedures can assist in this arena. Sneeze guards on a service counter or salad bar can help reduce the spread of bacteria as can isolation procedures for a patient hospitalized with a highly communicable disease. Maintaining the safety of food served to customers from salad bars can be challenging. Customers often spill food around or in other containers. Observations have been reported of poor sanitation practices such as customers using fingers to pick up items or to dip into the salad dressing to taste it or returning with an already eaten from plate for refills. Sneeze guards are provided with salad bars to help reduce the chance of contamination; however, depending on the configuration of the salad bar, customers may place heads under the sneeze guards to better see and choose items.

convection

Convection is the distribution of heat by the movement of liquid or vapor and may be ei-ther natural or forced. Natural convection occurs from density or temperature differences within a liquid or vapor. The temperature differences cause hot air to rise and cool air to fall. Thus, in a kettle of liquid or a deep fat fryer, convection keeps the liquid in motion when heated. Forced convection is caused by a mechanical device. In convection ovens and convection steamers, for example, fans circulate the heat, which is transferred more quickly to the food, causing faster cooking. Another means of achieving the convection effect is to circulate the food, rather than the heat. A reel oven with shelves that rotate much like a Ferris wheel is an example of moving the food rather than the air. Stirring is another form of forced convection in which heat is redistributed to prevent concentration of heat at the bottom of the container. For example, in cooking a sauce or pudding, stirring is important not only to speed up the cooking but also to prevent scorching and burning

cooking

Cooking may enhance, conserve, develop, or blend flavors, as in a sauce or soup. Pres-ervation of color is another aesthetic objective in cooking food; for example, the dull color of overcooked vegetables makes them unappealing. Also, overcooked cabbage, cauliflower, and broccoli become mushy and develop a strong flavor, thus losing appeal. The contrasts between the qualities of meat prepared properly and improperly provide an-other vivid example of the effect of cooking on the aesthetic quality of food. Consider the juicy, flavorful quality of a properly broiled steak as compared to one that is dry, tough, and overdone. Baked products also are affected greatly by improper preparation and cooking techniques; ten-derness is affected by overmixing, and the effects of over-and underbaking are obvious. These examples all emphasize the importance of adequate controls throughout the pre-preparation, production, and service processes. The holding stage, particularly in cook-chill or cook-freeze foodservices, is another critical component affecting the aesthetic quality and ac-ceptability of food.

production methods and equipment

Cooking methods are classified either as moist heat or dry heat. Dry heat methods are those in which the heat is conducted by dry air, hot metal, radiation, or a minimum amount of hot fat. Moist heat methods involve the use of water or steam for the cooking process. Different cooking methods are suitable for different kinds of food. For example, tender cuts of meat should be prepared using a dry heat method, and a tougher cut, such as that used for stew, should be cooked using moist heat. Quantity food production and equipment are closely related and should be discussed to-gether. Both are important components of cooking technology. Essentially, the equipment avail-able dictates the choice of cooking methods. Almost every technical problem relating to cooking involves either method or equipment. The choices of cooking method and equipment are vital because of their effect on many aspects of daily operations, such as labor scheduling, produc-tivity, product quality, speed of service, sanitation and maintenance, energy conservation, menu flexibility, and cost control. The technology of cooking has become more complex over the past few decades, primarily because of innovations resulting in increased efficiency and sophistica-tion of equipment. Combination cooking methods apply both dry and moist heat to the menu item. Equipment today is identified as moist heat, dry heat, and multifunctional.

Corresponding procedures

Corresponding procedures for each group of ingredients are printed directly opposite them on the right side of the recipe. The layering of the ingredients in lasagna is very important and is detailed in the last procedure. Oven temperature, baking time, and portioning instructions are repeated for the convenience of the cook. Procedures should be checked for clarity and explic-itness, permitting a cook to prepare a perfect product without asking managers for further ex-planation. In recipes that require the use of equipment such as mixers, time and speed should be specified. For example, the procedure for combining the first three ingredients in a cake might be "cream shortening, sugar, and vanilla on medium speed 10 minutes." Additional information may be added at the bottom of recipes, such as the approximate nutritive values per portion and variations of the recipe. Special serving instructions, such as garnishing and portioning suggestions and storage requirements before and after service, often are included. If recipe cards are used, these additions can be printed at the bottom or on the back. The ingredient and procedure portion of a recipe, however, should never be printed on the back of the card. For long recipes, a second card or page should be used.

counter service

Counter service often is found in diners, coffee shops, and other establishments in which patrons are looking for speedy service. People eating alone can join others at a counter and enjoy the companionship. The common arrangements of counter service provide not only fast service for a customer but also efficiency for the establishment. The counter attendant is usually responsible for taking the orders, serving the meals, busing dishes, and cleaning the counter and may even serve as cashier except at peak periods

cross contam

Cross-contamination can occur in production and service when improper food-handling practices are used. Cross-contamination can occur from the following actions: • Using a cutting board to cut raw meats and then not cleaning and sanitizing it properly before using that same cutting board to cut produce • Handling raw meat or poultry and then not washing hands appropriately before handling ready-to-eat products

cross training

Cross-training is a technique being used by foodservice managers to involve employees in the total customer value concept. It usually results in a loyal staff because employees have the opportunity to understand how the foodservice operation works and to find out what is happen-ing in each unit (Weinstein, 1992). Some operations have established a cross-training program in which a front-of-the-house employee starts as a buser at a minimum wage and progresses rapidly to a runner and finally a head runner at a higher salary. Then the employee works in the kitchen at yet a higher salary to see how it operates, learns the computer program, and ob-serves how management handles relationships between front-and back-of-the-house employees. Kitchen employees are given the same opportunity in the dining areas. This cross-training can break down barriers between employees in the front and back of the house, creating a climate that adds to total customer value. For example, cooks who have been cross-trained begin to real-ize that demands of the waitstaff are not personal demands but are demands of customers.

Production demand

Forecasting not only is a function of production but also is needed for procurement. Food products must be available for producing menu items for customers. The primary result of forecast-ing should be customer satisfaction; customers expect to receive what they ordered. In addition, the foodservice manager is concerned with food cost; both overproduction and underproduction affect the bottom line.

special customer

Customers have been mentioned many times in this text—their de-mographics, lifestyles, and menu preferences. The importance of pleasing customers has been discussed in every chapter, but what about customers who don't fit the typical pattern but fit into special groups and have to, or choose to, eat away from home? Restaurant customers often are considered transient, especially during vacation times when they stop to eat in a restaurant on the way to their destination. Most restaurants could not survive if customers only visit during vacations or for special events. Restaurateurs find many ways to thank their regular customers for being loyal and steady customers. A chain of restau-rants in California rewards its customers who dine regularly at their restaurants with priority reservations by giving them a plastic card with special telephone numbers. When that telephone rings, the front-of-the-house employee knows a steady customer is calling for a reservation, usu-ally for the same day. Top priority is given to that customer.

multifunctional equipment

Cutting down on the square footage of a foodservice is a goal in both commercial and onsite foodservice operations. The range, often referred to as a stove, probably was the first piece of multifunction foodservice equipment. Space is expensive and should be used for increasing rev-enue rather than for production. The amount of labor hours required to prepare food can be decreased if employees do not have to walk miles every day. Three pieces of cooking equipment are manufactured to alleviate many of the space and labor problems in a foodservice operation: the combination convection oven/steamer or combi-oven, the tilting fry or braising pan, and the convection/microwave oven.

Cyclospora cayetanensis 2

Cyclospora cayetanensis is a microscopic parasite composed of a sin-gle cell. Cyclospora infection often is found in people who live or travel in developing countries and consume contaminated water or fresh produce washed in contaminated water. Time between becoming infected and showing symptoms usually is a week or longer.

Effective production records should include

Date and day of the week • Meal or hour of service • Notation of special event, holiday, and weather conditions, if applicable • Food items prepared • Quantity of each item prepared • Quantity of each item served

production decision

Decisions are made each day in foodservice operations concerning the necessary quantities to produce and the standards of quality that must be maintained within the limitations of costs. In foodservice operations, as in industry, managers must estimate future events. Thus, forecasting, planning, and production scheduling are important elements for decision making. All these planning decisions must be made within the constraints of the existing facility. Too often, in a hospital or nursing home, the number of patients or residents is increased, but the capacity of the equipment in the kitchen is not. If the anticipated demand exceeds the present capacity, then the facility must be expanded, future production curtailed, or more ready prepared foods purchased to handle the increased demand.

the staff

Delivering consistent, quality service requires having a well-trained staff. Staff em-ployees need to have knowledge of service procedures, a friendly and concerned-for-customer attitude, and an ability to perform the needed service tasks. Many foodservice managers are empowering employees to make decisions that will contribute to a positive customer experience.

delivery service

Delivery service is another rapidly growing aspect of foodservice operations. Delivery service involves transporting prepared food items from the foodservice operation to the customer. Typ-ically, delivery service is either to a customer's home or office location. A fee often is charged for this service. One challenge foodservice operators face in the delivery process is ensuring that proper food temperatures are maintained during the delivery process. Transportation equipment, such as a special cart or insulated container, usually is needed to facilitate the delivery process.

Graph for moving model

Demand data and moving average values plotted on the graph (Figure 6-3) illustrate the smoothing effect of the model. Note that the smoothed data curve eliminates the daily variations in demand and thus indicates a trend of the past. Smooth data is an average of what happened in the past, but the person in charge of determining number of servings needed must take into consideration special events, holidays, weather, and other events that may occur in forecasting the actual amount needed for a particular day.

distribution and service

Distribution and service is the third subsystem in the transformation element of the foodservice system (Figure 7-1). Distribution involves getting food from production to the point of service. Service is the pre-sentation of food to the customer. Depending on the type of foodservice operation, distribution may or may not be a major function. Service, however, is a major component of all types of foodservice operations. Vending machines serve customers who want a snack or a quick meal, as does a waitperson in a fine dining restaurant under leisurely conditions.

distribution

Distribution is a major concern in hospital foodservices in which patients are served in individual rooms located on many floors and often in separate buildings. Ensuring that the appropriate food is sent to the appropriate place for service to a particular patient is a complex process, which is further complicated by the need to ensure that the food is at the right temperature and is aesthetically appealing. In contrast, in quick-service restaurant operations, where customers pick up the menu items directly after production and either go off premises for consumption or to a table in the facility, distribution is relatively simple. Takeout and home-delivered foods have become an important source of everyday meals.

meetings

During these meetings, production unit employees can be encouraged to discuss the ef-fectiveness of the schedule just completed. Problems such as underproduction and suggested corrective measures should be recorded for the next time the menu appears in the cycle. The meeting should conclude with a discussion of the production schedule for the follow-ing three meals. At this time, the employees should review recipes for the various menu items, possible substitutions, and prepreparation for the following day. Free discussion of workloads is appropriate for such meetings and can be a morale builder for the employees who really make the schedule work.

formula

Ft = [aDt-1] + [(1 - a)Ft-1] where a = a constant, usually between 0.1 and 0.3 (judgment factor) Ft = smoothed value at time t (new forecast) Dt−1 = actual observed value at time t - 1 (last demand) Ft−1 = preceding smoothed value (last forecast) Stated in words, this forecast equation is New forecast = { judgment * last factor demand} * {1 - judgment factor * last forecast }

repetitive

Eating a meal in a restaurant often is a one-time, special event for a customer, but serving it is a repetitive, mundane occurrence for an employee. Customers cannot forget a bad experi-ence; even if employees agree to do better the next time, it is too late. Good service may satisfy a customer but not always give total customer value. Exemplary service, however, delights cus-tomers by totally exceeding their expectations (Marvin, 1992). Customers keep a mental score and assign a subconscious point value to their experience; the more positive the experience, the higher the score. If the score is higher for one restaurant than for its competitors, the high-score operation becomes the restaurant of choice. If a competitor has a higher score, the original restaurant is in trouble. Any foodservice operation and its service are only as good as its staff. The U.S. Department of Commerce has found that more than 90% of dissatisfied custom-ers will drift over to the competition, but not always silently (Bode, 1993). This customer will tell as many as nine other people about the bad experience.

Action plan

Employee assignments • Preparation time schedule • Menu item • Over-and underproduction • Quantity to prepare • Substitutions • Actual yield Additional assignments • Special instructions and comments • Prepreparation

hygiene

Employee personal hygiene and good food-handling practices are basics of a food safety program in a foodservice facility. One major risk is that unsani-tary employees can contaminate, or infect by bacteria, food products in production and service (Beasley, 1993). When interviewing prospective employees, managers should note their per-sonal grooming habits and appearance. Employees who practice poor hygiene at home and at work can be the cause of outbreaks of foodborne illnesses. Foodservice managers, therefore, should emphasize the importance of food safety and sanitation to employees before hiring and then after hiring, when an educational process should begin.

Staffing

Employees assigned to the ingredient room must be literate, able to do simple arithmetic, and familiar with storage facilities. They are often responsible for receiving, storage, and ingre-dient assembly. Qualifications and training, therefore, must be specific to each of these areas of responsibility. Training should include the following areas: • Environmental conditions required to store specific foods • Ventilation and humidity factors in dry storage • Safety precautions in handling and storage of nonfood items and toxic materials • Sanitation standards to prevent contamination or deterioration of foods during storage • Security measures to ensure against pilferage • Weighing and measuring procedures

ways to reduce water

Employees need to be trained to conserve water in cooking and cleaning. The objective is to use water as efficiently as possible while maintaining high sanitary standards. The following practices can help reduce water use in a foodservice operation: • Never leave a faucet running; have leaking faucets fixed • Thaw foods under refrigeration rather than under running water • Wash produce in sinks of water rather than under running water • Adjust ice machines to dispense less ice, if ice is being wasted • Use low-volume spray nozzles • Wash only full loads in the dishmachine • Use water from steam tables to wash floors • Do not use "flood the floor" cleaning procedures • Install low-volume faucet aerators to sinks • Reuse rinse water from the dishwasher as flush water in garbage disposal units • Purchase water-efficient equipment, such as air-cooled ice machines and refrigerators

audits

Evaluation of the maintenance of foodservice sanitation standards is accomplished in two ways: external and internal audits of facilities and practices. An external audit may be performed by governmental or nongovernmental agencies; an internal audit is the responsibility of the man-agement of a foodservice organization and may be part of a self-inspection program for sanita-tion or a component of a broader total quality management program.

external

External audits are performed by federal, state, and local governmental agencies to monitor sanitation in foodservice establishments. Many state and local governments have adopted Public Health Service codes in establishing standards of performance in sanitation for foodservice establishments. State and local health agencies act to ensure that foodservice establishments: • Are operated under the supervision of a person knowledgeable in sanitary food-handling practices (Longrée & Armbruster, 1996). • Are equipped, maintained, and operated to offer minimal opportunities for food hazards to develop. • Use ingredients and food products that are wholesome and safe.

maintenance

Facilities and equipment are important factors in any HACCP-based program. Poorly designed facilities and equipment make cleaning and sanitization difficult (NRA Educational Foundation, 2014). Foodservice managers should look for the NSF International mark or the UL (Under-writers Laboratory, Inc. (UL)) sanitation certifications of commercial foodservice equipment (Figure 8-17). Nearly 70 years ago, NSF International brought key industry stakeholders to-gether to develop the first consensus standards for foodservice equipment. Since then, NSF has jointly developed over 75 standards and certified thousands of products as safe to use in com-mercial food settings. NSF International food equipment standards include requirements for material safety to ensure the product will not leach harmful chemicals into food; design and construction to ensure the product is cleanable and is not likely to harbor bacteria; and product performance. NSF certification to these standards also includes audits of the production facil-ity to ensure the product is made using good manufacturing practices. UL has over 120 years' experience evaluating commercial gas and electric cooking appliances and refrigeration, food preparation, and processing equipment for manufacturers seeking safety and sanitation certifica-tion and energy-efficiency evaluations. UL staff members are experts at carrying out a variety of product investigations of foodservice industry equipment.

bacteria 2

Figure 8-3 shows a typical bacterial growth curve. The growth curve typically is divided into four phases as follows: • Lag phase—initial stage where, although bacterial cells exist, little to no growth occurs • Log phase—a period of rapid growth in a relatively short period of time • Stationary phase—the rate of growth is slowed and eventually stops as bacterial cells be-gin to die • Death phase—bacterial cells die more rapidly, new cells are created due to lack of nutri-ents and the excess waste the cells create Food is the most important condition needed for bacterial growth (McSwane et al., 2004). Foods high in protein or carbohydrate are the most supportive of bacterial growth.

flies

Flies are a greater menace to human health than cockroaches. They transmit foodborne illnesses because they feed on human and animal wastes and garbage. Flies enter the facility primarily through outside doors or other external openings. Control can be facilitated by having tight-fitting and self-closing doors, closed windows, and good screening. Screened or closed storage for garbage is also important. Control, however, should be handled by a licensed PCO. Fruit flies are small, flying insects usually congregating around food. They typically breed in warm, moist areas such as floor drains. A licensed PCO can help with their control (NRA Edu-cation Foundation, 2014).

allergy

Food irradiation is classified as a food additive and is regulated by the FDA. It controls microbes responsible for foodborne illness and extends the shelf life of refrigerated foods, such as fresh fruits and vegetables, by delaying ripening. It also extends the shelf life of stored foods like spices and dried herbs. A food allergy is the body's immune system reaction to certain foods. Symptoms of an allergic reaction include itching or swelling in or around the mouth, face, and scalp; tightening in the throat; wheezing or shortness of breath; hives; abdominal cramps, vomiting or diarrhea; loss of consciousness; and even death. (NRA Education Foundation, 2014). Food allergens are primarily protein in nature. Some of the most common food allergens include peanuts and tree-nuts, milk and dairy products, eggs, shellfish, wheat, and soy. According to physicians at the Mayo Clinic (www.mayoclinic.com) food allergies affect 6 to 8% of young children and about 4% of adults. Labeling of foods with these allergens, having waitstaff be able to describe ingre-dients, and avoiding cross-contamination in food production areas will help reduce the chance of allergic reactions by customers.

Objectives of food production

Food is cooked for three primary reasons: • Destruction of harmful microorganisms, thus making food safer for human consumption • Increased digestibility • Change and enhancement of flavor, form, color, texture, and aroma First, cooking at proper temperatures can destroy pathogens. The amount of heat required to kill a particular microorganism depends on such factors as time, method, type of food, and type and concentration of the organism. Adequate cooking is a major factor in foodservice sani-tation, but proper handling before and after cooking is also critical.

Food production

Food production is a key element in the transformation process in a foodservice operation. Having outputs of quality food and satisfied customers depends on success in the food production process. In this chapter, you will learn about what is involved in the food production process and what it will take for you as a manager to be successful in directing the work in this process. You will be introduced to concepts such as forecasting, recipe standardization, and energy control. We also will describe control techniques used in the production functional subsystem.

cross contamination

Food safety during storage of food is another area of concern for the foodservice manager. Proper storage temperatures were discussed in Chapter 5. Proper storage practices should pre-vent cross-contamination, the transfer of microorganisms from one food product to another, by storing raw meat, poultry, and fish separate from cooked and ready-to-eat foods. Raw poul-try should go on the lowest shelves. Raw ground meat should be placed on shelves above raw chicken but under raw whole meats and fish. Raw meats should be placed above raw poultry and raw ground meat but under cooked and ready-to-eat foods. Ready-to-eat foods and cooked food items should be placed on upper shelves above any raw meat, fish, or poultry. Wrapping food correctly can reduce risk of cross-contamination in the storage units. Foods placed into storage should be labeled and dated, rotated to facilitate use of oldest product first, stored in shelving that is at least six inches off the floor, and held at the proper temperature. Food items should be stored in durable, leakproof containers that are intended for food use. Food should never be stored in empty chemical containers or in plastic garbage bags. Chemicals need to be stored separately from food products.

food safety in storing

Food safety starts in the receiving area of a food-service operation. Deliveries should be made in off-peak hours to allow sufficient time to inspect deliveries carefully. Both the temperature and condition of packaging should be inspected at deliv-ery. Food safety criteria to check in receiving include (NRA Education Foundation, 2006, 2010): • Meat. 41°F or below; bright red color; firm, nonslimy texture; no odor; intact and clean packaging • Poultry. 41°F or below; no discoloration; firm; no odor; frozen or packed in crushed, self-draining ice • Fish. 41°F or below; bright red gills and bright shiny skin; firm flesh; mild ocean or sea-weed smell; bright, clear full eyes; frozen or packed in crushed, self-draining ice • Shellfish. Live on ice or at temperature of 45°F or below; shucked at internal temperature of 45°F or below; mild ocean or seaweed smell; unbroken shells; closed shells if alive; shellstock identification tags (packer's name, address, and certification number) on con-tainer (manager must date when the last shellfish was served and then keep tags on file for 90 days from date) • Shell eggs. Temperature of 45°F or below; no odor; clean and unbroken shells • Liquid, frozen, dried eggs. Must be pasteurized and have a USDA inspection mark • Dairy. Temperature of 41°F or below; milk must be pasteurized and comply with FDA Grade A standards; cheese with typical flavor, texture, and uniform color • Canned goods. Can and seal in good condition (no swollen ends, leaks, dents) • Dry goods. Intact packaging (no holes, tears, punctures, water stains) • Produce. Temperature of 41°F or below for fresh cut greens, melons, tomatoes, or other processed produce

approved source pg 234

Food should be purchased from approved, reputable suppliers. Foodservice managers should visit and inspect the vendor's facilities to assure they are using Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) or Good Agricultural Practices (GAP).

preservatives

Foodservice chemicals, including detergents, polishes, caustics, and cleaning and drying agents, are poisonous to humans and should never come in contact with food. Labels should be read carefully for directions on how to use and store these products under safe conditions away from food. Preservatives used to preserve the flavor, safety, and consistency of foods have been linked to food contamination. Additives, which are used to enhance appearance and/or flavor of products, also can become a chemical contaminate if used in excess or if given to someone with a sensitivity or allergy to the product. Several preservatives and food additives, when used in excessive amounts, have caused illness. Nitrites, for example, are preservatives used by the meat industry to prevent growth of cer-tain harmful bacteria and as a flavor enhancer (NRA Educational Foundation, 2004). Scientists have established a link between cancer and nitrites when meat containing them is overbrowned or burned. As a result, the meat industry has decreased levels of nitrites in meats.

ingredient room 3

Foodservice management computer programs support the ingredient room. Recipe amounts are adjusted and printed by computer, making them easier to read and more likely to be accurate than when these adjustments are done manually and are hand printed. This and other types of computer-adjusted recipes increase the speed and productivity of the ingredient room employee and eliminate product errors and costly mistakes. Computers also can produce consol-idated ingredient lists by individual ingredients or by production area. In a computer-assisted op-eration, the recipe can be adjusted and peel-off labels printed for each ingredient. These labels, which usually have the ingredient name and quantity, facilitate marking the ingredient packages for each recipe.

bacillus cereus

Foodservice managers are beginning to be concerned about the B. cereus toxin, which is found in soil and, therefore, gets into many foods once thought to be safe (NRA Educa-tional Foundation, 2014). B. cereus bacteria are found in grains, rice, flour, spices, starch, and in dry mix products such as those used for soups, gravies, and puddings and can cause Bacillus ce-reus gastroenteritis. Time and temperature are very important in preventing rapid increase in the vegetative bacteria and development of spores. Foods should not be held at room temperature for any period of time, but should be held hot or quickly chilled to at least 40°F.

Production meetings

Foodservice managers in small operations and unit supervisors in large ones should hold a meet-ing daily with employees in the production unit. Ordinarily, these production meetings can be rather short, but when a menu is changed, more time is required to discuss new recipes and employee assignments. In foodservice operations that serve breakfast, lunch, and dinner, these meetings are generally scheduled after lunch, when activity in the production unit is minimal.

conventional production

Foodservice managers must consider each when evaluating distribution options for their operation. Figure 4-1 (p. 65) illustrates the various process steps that can occur between produc-tion and service, creating the need for the distribution function. Food that is prepared using conventional production and delivered immediately to the cus-tomer, as occurs in many restaurant operations, does not require special distribution equipment (Figure 4-3). The temperature and quality of the food are maintained because of the limited time between the completion of production of the food and its service to the customer.

In the black

Foodservice managers must realize that portion control is essential for operating in the black. All food items must be purchased on the basis of weight and measure, and everything served on the basis of specified weight or portion size. Portion control is critical, not only for cost control but also for customer satisfaction. The key steps in ensuring portion control are purchasing by exact specifications, using standardized recipes, and using proper tools and tech-niques during all aspects of production and service.

Energy and water conservation

Foodservice operations use about two and a half times more energy per square foot as compared to other commercial buildings (EPA, 2010). The ENERGY STAR® program is a voluntary part-nership among U.S. organizations, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the U.S. Department of Energy to promote energy efficiency in buildings and homes. Organizations that join the partnership follow a proven, cost-effective strategy to save money by reducing the total energy consumption of their buildings. The EPA provides participants in ENERGY STAR® buildings unbiased technical information, customized support services, public relations assis-tance, and access to a broad range of resources and tools. Participants can display an ENERGY STAR® logo in their buildings and can benchmark their operations with others. A Web site, www.energystar.gov, contains information about the program

risk management

Foodservice operators are encouraged to implement an operations risk management (ORM) process to prioritize the preventive measures that are most likely to have the greatest im-pact on reducing the risk of food security problems. USDA's Food & Nutrition Service released Biosecurity Checklist for School Foodservice Programs: Developing a Biosecurity Management Plan (2004) to assist school foodservice directors with their food biosecurity planning. The As-sociation of Nutrition & Foodservice Professionals (www.anfponline.org) offers the following suggestions for food protection: • Awareness—be alert to unusual activity in and around your operation • Procurement—use reputable suppliers and inspect deliveries carefully • Access—control access to foodservice operation • Personnel Management—screen applicants carefully and document, post, and enforce employee schedules • Monitoring—observe employees and customers and check less used areas • Planning—have detailed response plans in place that include call lists • Education—educate employees on the role they need to play in helping monitor and report unusual occurrences

Cooking methods

For many years, cooking methods were classified only as moist heat and dry heat, and equipment was purchased to perform these functions. Steamers still are manufactured to provide moist heat and broilers, fryers, and ovens to provide dry heat. Production equipment is probably the highest cost item in a foodservice operation budget. In our competitive environment, shop-ping to save a few extra dollars often yields far less savings than does finding the best value. This is often referred to as the sweet spot in pricing—the size or capacity of equipment from which the buyer gets the best value and lowest cost per menu item produced. Much of the cost is for the labor required to make the equipment; downsizing standard size models often yields far less savings than expected. A half-size convection oven is priced only 10 to 15% less than a full-size unit. Value should be considered in terms of performance or capacity per dollar invested. Select-ing equipment based on that criterion can offer far more savings than just the lowest price.

Forecasting

Forecasting is the art and science of estimating events in the future and provides the database for decision making and planning. The art of forecasting is the intuition of the forecaster, and the science is the use of past data in a tested model. Both are required to estimate future needs. Forecasting is described as a function of production and constitutes the basis for procurement. Computerized systems often are used to facilitate the forecasting process.

Types of models

Forecasting models have been classified in numerous ways, but the three most common model categories are: • Time series • Causal • Subjective A model in one classification may include some features of the others. In all methods of forecasting, trends and seasonality in the data must be considered.

fungi

Fungi includes single and multicellular organisms such as molds, yeasts, and mushrooms. Molds are larger than bacteria and more complex in structure. In general, they grow on a wide range of substrates—moist or dry, acid or nonacid, high or low in salt or sugar. Molds also grow over a wide range of temperatures, although the optimum temperature is between 77°F and 86°F. Because mold growth may appear as highly colored, cottony, powdery, or fuzzy tufts and patches, it is probably the most common type of spoilage that can be identified by the naked eye. Some food products, such as Gorgonzola and blue cheese, have mold as a natural component of the product. Yeasts are not known to cause foodborne illnesses, but they may cause spoilage of sugar-containing foods. They are unicellular plants that play an important role in the food in-dustry, particularly in the fermentation or leavening of beer, wine, and bread. Yeasts can induce undesirable reactions, however, resulting in a sour or vinegary taste. Mushrooms are a type of fungi. Many forms are safe to eat. Some are toxic and can cause foodborne illness if eaten (discussed in the next section).

garbage

Garbage and trash must be handled carefully in a foodservice operation because of the potential for contaminating food, equipment, and utensils and for attracting insects and other pests. The manager needs to establish procedures for handling garbage and trash within the operation and then disposing of the solid waste into the environment.

solid waste 2

Generally about 60 to 70% of the solid waste discarded from a foodservice operation is service related (Hollingsworth, Shanklin, & Cross, 1995). Service waste includes food, napkins, straws, and condiment packaging. The remaining 30 to 40% is from the food production and preparation areas. The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics' positions on conserving the environment (Shanklin & Hackes, 2001) and supporting ecological sustainability (Harmon & Gerald, 2007) and the practice paper on promoting ecological sustainability (Robinson-O'Brien & Gerald, 2013) encourage environmentally responsible practices that minimize the quantity of waste that is gen-erated. The position papers indicate that an average of 0.32 to 1.47 lb. of food and package waste are discarded per meal served in foodservice operations. Foodservice managers are encouraged to develop integrated waste management systems that include source reduction, recycling, and waste combustion to reduce the amount of waste going to landfills. Recycling is the act of re-moving materials from the solid waste stream for reprocessing into valuable new materials and useful products (Foodservice and Packaging Institute, 1991). Many of the traditional packaging materials, including paper, metals, plastic, and glass, can be recycled. Composting is the con-trolled application of the natural process of organic degradation, according to the US Compost-ing Council (Crosby, 1993). Any organic material, including food waste and paper or cardboard that has been contaminated with food, can be composted. A commercial composting plant accel-erates natural biodegradation, converting mixed organic waste to a nutrient-rich soil conditioner in great demand in agriculture and horticulture.

five genres of perceived authenticity

Gilmore and Pine (2007) suggest that in the experience economy, consumers are looking for authenticity. They describe five genres of perceived authenticity and suggest businesses will be more successful if they incorporate authenticity in their strategic planning: • Natural authenticity. Perceived as authentic because it is in its natural state, not artificial or synthetic; for example, organic foods and handmade soap. • Original authenticity. Perceived as authentic because of its original design or being first of its kind, not a copy, such as the iPod and Coca-Cola in glass bottles. • Exceptional authenticity. Perceived as authentic because what they do is done excep-tionally well, executed individually; for example, Nordstrom, Ritz-Carlton, and Cuban cigars. • Referential authenticity. Perceived as authentic because of the inspiration from human history or shared memories; for example, the Chinese tea ceremony and neon lights in Las Vegas. • Influential authenticity. Perceived as authentic because of influence exerted on others, calling human beings to a higher goal; for example, Hard Rock Café's "Save the Planet" environmental slogan and The Eden Alternative elderly housing.

grilling

Grilling, griddling, and pan broiling are all dry heat cooking methods that use heat from below. Grilling is taking on an international flavor that is exciting customers. Asian teriyakis, Tex-Mex fajitas, Middle Eastern kebabs, and all-American grilled steaks are highlights. Grilling is done by placing food items on an open grid over a heat source, which may be an electric or gas-heated element, ceramic briquettes, or exotic woods and flavored chips. Griddling involves the cooking of food on a flat surface (griddle) that is heated from below by gas or electric-ity. The griddle cooking surface, or plate, can be cast iron, polished steel, cold-rolled steel, or chrome-finish plates.

service controls

Handling and controlling guest checks is another concern of managers in using a waitstaff. One element of effective control is to ensure that all menu items are charged to the customer. Tradi-tionally a duplicate check procedure was widely used in which the waitperson wrote the order on a customer check, simultaneously preparing a carbon duplicate that was submitted to the pro-duction area to obtain menu items. Computers are now much more commonly used as a means of documenting customer orders and transmitting orders to the production area. Another element of control is to charge proper prices for menu items. Electronic cash registers with preprogrammed prices and computerized systems are widely used for this reason. The prices are stored in the electronic system and do not allow staff to charge differ-ential pricing. Many restaurants accept credit cards as a means of payment. Most restaurant chains use the swipe method of authorizing credit card transactions. The credit card number is used to au-thorize the transaction and check the card against a computer file of lost or stolen cards within seconds. Customers ordering home or office delivery of food by telephone can give the order taker their card number, and authorization is obtained while they wait.

dish storage

Handling and storage of clean dishes are important aspects of a sanitation program in a foodservice operation. All dishes and utensils must be stored dry and in clean, dust-free areas above the floor and protected from dust, mop splashes, and other forms of contamination. Mobile equipment designed for storage of various types of dishes and glassware is ideal.

heat transfer

Heat is the factor that causes many reactions to occur, and the type and amount of heat greatly affect the resulting product. Heat is transferred in four ways (Spears, 1999): • Conduction • Convection • Radiation • Induction

Hot thermal retention meal distribution

Heated base (pellet, unitized base, induction heat base) Benefits: Support equipment and system operation are uncomplicated. No requirement for a special plate: any standard-size china. No special delivery cart is required. Cons: Provisions for maintenance of cold items such as milk, salads, gelatin, ice cream are not made. Hot food cannot be held for a long period of time (more than 45 minutes). Additional service ware pieces need to be inventoried, stored, transported, and washed. Induction heat bases: difficult to determine if heating process initiated.

HVAC

Heating, ventilation, and cooling, commonly termed HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning), constitute nearly a quarter (21%) of the energy use in foodservice oper-ations (Figure 6-21). Adjusting the temperature settings for the work and service areas can positively impact energy use; the EPA (2010) estimates that energy use changes 4 to 5% for every degree of thermostat setting. Thus, raising the temperature three degrees on the thermostat in the summer could reduce air-conditioning costs by 12 to 15%. Installation of demand-based exhaust hood controls, which vary the exhaust fan speed based on cooking and ventilation needs, could result in a 30 to 50% reduction in energy use by the foodservice exhaust system. Approximately 15% of energy use in foodservice operations is for lighting (Figure 6-21). Energy savings can be obtained by the installation of more energy-efficient lighting such as compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs). According to the EPA (2010), installation of this type of lighting in a restaurant dining area can reduce energy consumption and heat output by 75%. The EPA also recommends switching T12 fluorescent lamps with magnetic ballasts, which are commonly found in kitchen areas, to more efficient T8 or T5 lamps with electronic ballasts. Use of light emitting diode (LED) lamps in exit signs and over office work areas is also much more energy-efficient than use of incandescent bulbs.

batch cooking

High-speed equipment available today, such as convection steamers and combi-ovens, has made batch cooking feasible for a broad range of menu items. Because many vegetables do not hold up well in a heated service counter, they are frequently prepared using batch cookery. Grilled, deep-fried, and broiled items are examples of other products that should be cooked in small quantities to meet service demands.

reg

In Chapter 5, key federal agencies involved in the wholesomeness and quality of food from producer to purchaser were discussed. The sanitation and service of food after it is purchased is controlled largely by state and local agencies and private organizations.

HACCP PLAN

In November 1992, NACMCF defined seven widely accepted principles to consider when developing a HACCP plan: • Principle 1: Conduct a hazard analysis. • Principle 2: Determine the critical control points. • Principle 3: Establish critical limits. • Principle 4: Establish monitoring procedures. • Principle 5: Establish corrective actions. • Principle 6: Establish verification procedures. • Principle 7: Establish recordkeeping and documentation procedures.

cooking losses

In addition to losses during prepreparation, losses may occur during actual production, in portioning, or in panning for baking. Cooking losses also account for decrease in yield of many foods, primarily because of moisture loss. As discussed previously in this chapter, the time and temperature used for cooking a menu item will affect the yield. Handling loss occurs not only during production but also during portioning for service. McManis and Molt (1978) state that handling losses must be considered in determining desired yield. They indicate that cooking and handling loss may vary from 1 to 30%, depending on the product being produced and served. In the devil's food cake recipe included in Table 6-8, a 1% handling loss was reported to illustrate the percentage method of recipe adjustment.

centralized ingredient control 2

In addition, less-skilled employees can develop skill in performing prepreparation tasks, thereby reducing labor cost. Combining tasks for two or more recipes using similar ingredients is another efficiency. For example, chopped onions may be needed for both meat loaf and a sauce at lunch and for both soup and salad on the dinner menu. By centralizing prepreparation, all the onion that is needed can be chopped at one time and divided into separate batches for each of the four recipes.

central meal assembly

In centralized meal assembly, food items are prepared and assembled on trays before be-ing transported to other locations for service. Even in centralized meal assembly, a few items such as coffee and toast may be prepared at point of service. Centralized assembly has the advantages of eliminating double handling of food and facilitating supervision of meal assembly because the activity takes place in one location rather than throughout the facility. In addition, central-ized assembly allows for standardization of portions, uniformity of presentation, and decreased waste. Finally, less staff time is needed, and the space occupied by decentralized kitchens can be used for other purposes. Decentralized meal assembly is still used in some institutions, however, because it offers the advantage of less time between meal assembly and service to patients, al-lowing for potentially higher-quality food. Decentralized facilities also offer greater flexibility in providing for individual customer needs and in making last-minute substitutions and changes. Depending on the layout and design of the facility, a combination of meal assembly and distribution methods may be used. Some facilities may serve customers in groups onsite, con-duct centralized meal assembly of individual meals, and transport foods to satellite units for service off-site.

Hazards

In comparison with many industrial jobs, those in hospitality are relatively safe occupations. Bureau of Labor Statistics data (www.bls.gov) found that the number of nonfatal occupational injuries at leisure and hospitality places in 2012 was 3.9 per 100 full-time employees, which was a decline from 8.4 in 1990 and was equal to the average for all industries. A foodservice facility, however, has many potential hazards; minor injuries from cuts and burns are common, and more serious injuries occur all too frequently. The quantity of hot foods handled, type of equipment used, weight and size of products lifted and moved, potential for spills, and the frequently frenetic pace of a foodservice operation require that safety conscious-ness be a high priority. Accident prevention must be a priority for foodservice managers because accidents may involve injury or even death of employees or customers.

Subjective model

Subjective Model A subjective forecasting model generally is used when relevant data are scarce or patterns and relationships between data do not tend to persist over time. In these cases, little relationship exists between the past and the long-term future. Forecasters must rely on opinions and other information, generally qualitative, that might relate to the item being forecast.

reheating methods

In facilities using either a cook-chill or cook-freeze production system, a reheating pro-cess may be added between production and service (Figure 4-1). Table 7-2 details benefits and constraints of various reheating methods. Traditionally this reheating often took place in galley kitchens close to the point of service in microwave or convection ovens. Tray delivery personnel heated the food items for a meal tray before serving the tray. Equipment innovation has resulted in the development of carts that allow this reheating to occur in the carts used to transport assembled meal trays. One cart design has chilled plates or bowls of food being placed on food trays with cut-out openings. These openings allow for dishes to have contact with conduction heat plates when placed in special carts. These heating units heat the plate or bowl and its contents while the remainder of the tray remains chilled in the refrigerated cart. Separate conduction heat units also are available in which all food items to be heated are placed on heated shelves that transfer the heat to the plates or bowls of food. The tray delivery personnel must then assemble the trays prior to service. A newer concept incorporates the split-tray concept with convected heat, allowing cold foods on half of the tray to be held at refrigerated temperatures while the hot food items on the other half of the tray are reheated in a convected heat oven.

health care tray service

In healthcare facilities, the patient or resident often has selected food items from a menu for each meal. When centralized tray assembly is used, these menus usually precede the meal tray down the tray assembly line. Computerized diet office systems transfer the selected menu items into a printed tray ticket that organizes the selected menu items by station along the tray line, facilitating assembly of trays. Another item of importance in hospitals is verifying the identification of the patient using two identifiers to ensure that the correct tray is going to the patient. A variety of identifiers are used, most often the patient's name, medical identification number, and/or birthday.

Linear regression

In linear regression the word linear signifies the intent of the analysis to find an equation for a straight line that fits the data points most closely. In conventional statistical terminology, the item being forecast is called the dependent variable (Y), and the factors that affect it are called independent variables (X). In the analysis, historic demand data for a single variable will result in a derived equation from a linear regression process in the form of a straight line: Y = a0 + a1X

utility cost

In many onsite foodservices, utility costs are not considered as important as other costs be-cause they generally are absorbed by the organization's general operating budget and not charged directly to the foodservice operation. Energy used in the foodservice areas of hospitals and schools was between 5 and 10% of the total used for the building (Mason et al., 1999). The National Restaurant Association indicates that 3.0 to 3.5% of restaurant sales are consumed by utility costs (www.restaurant.org). The big expenses in restaurant operations are food and labor (Figure 6-20).

relevancy of past data

In most forecasting models, the general assumption is that past behav-ioral patterns and relationships will continue in the future. If a clear relationship between the past and the future does not exist, the past data will not be relevant in developing forecasts. In these cases, subjective approaches, such as those that rely heavily on the opinions of knowledge-able persons, may be more appropriate.

haccp sanitation

In some areas, HACCP principles have replaced traditional health department inspections that stress the appearance of the facility and spot-checking temperatures. Inspectors trained in these principles examine the procedures related to the flow of food from receiving to service and may verify critical control points for each step. Many state and local ordinances are patterned on the Model FDA Food Establishment Inspection Report, shown in Figure 8-16. Definitions for the com-pliance items and directions for marking the inspection report can be found in Food Code (2013). A good sanitation program and well-trained employees result in safe food and are re-flected in a good sanitation report (NRA Educational Foundation, 2010). Based on their years of experience, sanitarians generally can offer advice on correcting violations. According to the FDA Food Code, corrective actions must be taken on all violations. The larger violations should have a time frame approved by the inspector. The sanitarian usually has the authority to close the operation if violations are excessive and dangerous to public health. The inspection process in a foodservice facility may begin before a facility is built, as many jurisdictions require a review of plans and specifications for new construction or exten-sive remodeling. Once a facility is completed, inspection visits are usually conducted prior to issuance of permits to operate. After a foodservice operation has opened, inspections will occur periodically, depending on the workload of the responsible agency and severity of violations at previous inspections. The growth of the foodservice industry has not been matched by expansion of the capacity of health agencies to monitor operations.

honorable profession

In some of the fine dining restaurants patterned after those in Europe, service is considered an honorable profession and a career (Ryan, 1993). All new staff, regardless of experience, must go through an apprenticeship program that might last a year to become a fully qualified waitper-son. Other operations often have a rigorous and lengthy training program that uses written tests covering a general knowledge of the restaurant and its foods and wines and essays on hypotheti-cal situations that might happen in the restaurant. Burnout, emotional exhaustion, and loss of enthusiasm for the job are common among many employees in the workforce. Satisfaction of employees with their jobs should be thor-oughly examined by management because it can have a great effect on the quality of service. Often managers take advantage of good employees and overload them with tasks. Employees should be praised when they do a good job.

records

Keeping records on equipment maintenance is an important function for the manager to perform. Ideally records should be kept on the age, condition, service history, or maintenance requirements for equipment in the operations. Records for the number of repairs and cost of each provide crucial information when considering whether to repair or replace equipment. Another benefit of keeping inventory and service records is tracking warranties. The manager who has no records might be paying for parts and labor that are covered by extended warranties purchased with the equipment. Electronic databases can help track the preventive maintenance and war-ranty information.

1980

In the 1980s, a number of food-related illnesses, allergic in type, were traced to sulfites used on fresh fruits and vegetables, shrimp, dried fruit, and wine. For packaged foods, if sulfites are used, proper labeling now is required. Foodservice operators now use lemon juice or citric acid for preserving color in fresh produce as the FDA prohibits the use of sulfites on raw fruits and vegetables that are to be served or sold to customers. One foodborne illness that remains in question is that which can result from the use of too much monosodium glutamate (MSG), a food additive that serves as a flavor enhancer. Because it is often heavily used in Chinese and Japanese foods, apparent reactions to MSG have been called the "Chinese Restaurant Syndrome." MSG also is very high in sodium. Most of the symp-toms after ingestion are subjective. They include a feeling of tightening of the face and neck skin, tingling sensations, dizziness, and headache. MSG apparently affects only persons with sensitivity to MSG (Cody & Kunkel, 2002). Federal law requires that MSG be listed on the label of any product to which it is added.

Ingredient room organization

In the design of a new foodservice facility, an ingredient room that can be locked should be lo-cated between the storage and production areas. In an existing facility, the ingredient room may be located in or near a storeroom, combined with the prepreparation area, or put in a designated part of the production unit. Necessary large equipment includes refrigeration, which should be in or near the ingredi-ent room area, and a water supply. Trucks or carts are needed for assembly and delivery of recipe ingredients and portable bins for storing sugar, flour, and other dry ingredients. A worktable or a counter is required, with shelving over or near it for such products as spices. An example of an ingredient room worktable is shown in Figure 6-6. Scales are the most essential pieces of equipment for an ingredient room. A countertop scale and a portion scale are required for weighing the various types of recipe ingredients. Other equipment will vary depending on the specific functions assigned to the ingredient room, such as a slicer, vertical/cutter mixer, food waste disposal, and mixer.

joint commission

In the healthcare industry, The Joint Commission has encouraged high standards of san-itation by including assessment of sanitary practices in its accreditation standards and visits. The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, formerly the American Dietetic Association, has em-phasized food safety for many years and has published Food Safety for Professionals: A Refer-ence and Study Guide (Cody & Kunkel, 2002), Pesticides in Food: A Guide for Professionals (Chaisson, Petersen, & Douglass, 1991), and Disaster and Emergency Preparedness in Food Service Operations (Puckett & Norton, 2003). The National Association of College & University Food Services (NACUFS), the trade association for foodservice professionals at institutions of higher education, publishes a standards manual. These standards were designed to be used as a self-monitoring program for improving operations and as part of a voluntary peer review program. Sanitation, safety, and maintenance comprise a major section of the manual.

percentage method

In the percentage method, measurements for ingredients are converted to weights and then the percentage of the total weight for each ingredient is computed. The number of portions is forecast, which provides the basis for determining the ingredient weights from the ingredient percentages. Formulas that have been converted to percentages need not be re-calculated. This method allows adjustment to the portion size or forecast and permits a shift of ingredients to be done easily. Percentages can be readily determined using a desk calculator and with computer assistance they are made even easier. Molt (2001) described the following step-by-step method for recipe adjustment via the percentage method:

food production

In the simplest possible terms, the objective of food production is the preparation of menu items in the needed quantity and with the desired quality, at a cost appropriate to the particular foodservice operation. Quantity is the element that distinguishes production in food services from home or family food preparation. Quality, an essential concomitant of all food preparation, becomes an extremely vital consideration in mass food production due to the number of employees involved. Quality includes not only the aesthetic aspects of a food product but also nutritional factors and microbiological safety. Cost determines whether or not a product should be produced for a specific customer in that operation.

indirect energy

Indirect energy refers to energy expended to facilitate functions that use energy directly. It supports the other necessary functions, like waste disposal, sanitation, and maintenance of the foodservice optimal work environment. Unklesbay and Unklesbay (1982) named three vital aspects of food quality that should be assured by the effective use of direct energy: • Sensory quality • Food safety • Nutrient retention

induction

Induction is the use of electrical magnetic fields to excite the molecules of metal cooking surfaces (Riell, 1992). Induction-heat burners that cook magnetically are in use in many food-service operations. The burner has no open flame and the burner surface does not get hot; rather, molecules in the pan are activated, which produce the heat to cook food. According to foodser-vice operators, induction heating is fast, even, and clean. The units do not require ventilation.

Ingredient control

Ingredient control is a major component of quality and quantity control in the production sub-system and a critical dimension of cost control throughout the foodservice system. The pro-cess of ingredient control begins with purchasing, receiving, and storage of foods and continues through forecasting and production.

IPM

Integrated pest management (IPM) is an alternate approach being used in agriculture to control pests; it is also a program in foodservice operations to prevent pests from entering an operation or to eliminate them if they do enter. In agriculture, IPM incorporates the latest ag-ricultural technologies and biological controls, including pest predators and pest diseases, to decrease the amount of pesticide used. The USDA and FDA are responsible for monitoring the food supply to ensure that residue levels are within tolerance limits. In a foodservice operation, IPM involves preventing pests' access to the operation; elim-inating sources of food, water, and nesting places for pests within an operation; and working with a licensed Pest Control Operator (PCO) to eliminate pests if they do enter the operation. The most common pests in a foodservice operation are cockroaches, rodents (mice, rats), flies, and fruit flies. Cockroaches live and breed in moist, warm, dark places, so often they are only seen by the signs they leave behind, such as a strong oily smell, droppings that look like grains of pepper, and/or capsule-shaped egg cases. Rodents, too, are often not seen, as they tend to live in holes in quiet places. Signs of rodent infestation include signs of gnawing, shiny black drop-pings, tracks on dusty surfaces, and nesting materials.

clamshell

Lang Manufacturing Company introduced double-sided grilling technology with the Clamshell and Add-On Clamshell hood that attaches to the foodservice's existing equipment (Figure 6-13). Rapid cooking action from the hood's infrared broiler and the grilling heat from below drive the natural juices in the food to the center and decrease food shrinkage, resulting in juicy meat in half the time. For example, New York steaks that take 7 minutes to broil can be served after only 4 minutes and chicken that takes 6 minutes to broil takes only 3 minutes. Of course, cooking times may vary depending on the thickness and weight of the raw product. This same type of equipment is used to cook items, such as panini sandwiches. A newer piece of grill-ing equipment is the Mongolian barbecue. It is a round, flat-surface griddle, 4 feet in diameter, that often rotates. At Mongolian barbecue restaurants, guests select foods they want cooked and watch as staff cook the items on the large griddle.

Large quantity format

Large quantity recipes generally differ in format from home recipes, which have a list of ingredients followed by procedures. The cook in a foodservice operation is more likely to make errors if required to read alternately from the top and bottom of the recipe. A block format, in which the ingredients are listed on the left side of the recipe and the corresponding procedures directly opposite them on the right, generally is used for quantity recipes. In a complete block format, horizontal lines separate each group of ingredients with procedures from those of the next, and vertical lines separate the ingredient, amount, and procedure columns. A modified ver-sion, in which only horizontal lines separate the required ingredients for each procedure, often is used. An example of a modified block format is the recipe for lasagna in Figure 6-8. This recipe format is suitable for both recipe cards and computer printouts.

lead time

Lead time pertains to the length of time into the future that the forecasts are made. Usually, these times are categorized as short-, medium-, or long-term. The choice of a lead time depends on the items being forecast: A short-term lead will be chosen for perishable produce, and a medium-or long-term lead is suitable for canned goods.

listeria

Listeria monocytogenes is the bacterium responsible for listeriosis and is widely distributed in nature. It has been isolated from feces of healthy human carriers and sheep, cattle, and poultry. It has been detected in cow's milk and has been isolated from un-washed leafy vegetables and fruit and soil. Also, the bacterium has been found in dairy and meat processing factories with some degree of frequency. Unlike other bacteria, it grows in cool, moist environments. Listeriosis disease has been linked to consumption of contaminated delicatessen food, milk, soft cheeses (like Mexican-style feta, Brie, Camembert, and blue-veined cheeses), and undercooked chicken. Preventive measures include discarding outdated products, cooking foods to the recommended internal temperature, preventing cross contamination be-tween raw and cooked foods, and avoiding unpasteurized milk.

guest facilities

Locker rooms should be provided for employees to change clothes. Individual lockers with locks are needed for storing street clothes and personal effects when employees are working. Adequate space and good lighting are necessary for changing clothes and for employee safety. Floors should be tile laid in cement or other nonabsorbent materials, especially in the toilet and handwashing sink areas. Employee facilities should be located near the work area. Guest restrooms should be easily accessible from the dining room. In most commercial foodservice operations, the restroom foyer is decorated in harmony with the dining room. Walls might be papered and the floor might be carpeted in this area, but the toilet and handwashing sink areas should have tile floors and walls. Keeping both employee and guest restrooms clean can be a major management problem. Frequent management inspections are required, especially during changing of employee shifts or guest meal times, when traffic volume is the highest. These inspections are too important to delegate to an employee. Many customers will not return to a foodservice operation if they are dissatisfied with the cleanliness of a restroom. Employee restrooms should be maintained at the same quality as those for guests.

Equipment

Maintenance of equipment and facilities is important. The safety of surroundings often is related to cleaning and maintenance practices. Two examples are spills that are not cleaned up properly, which may cause people to fall, and grease buildup in the hoods over the production equipment, which is a major cause of fires in foodservice operations.

employee

Management commitment (managers model safe behaviors, show concern and investigate employee injuries, modify work environment as needed to make it safer) • Employee involvement (employees attend safety meetings, view posted safety information, follow safe practices) • Communication (communication of required safety behaviors/practices and suggestion boxes and meetings as ways to share safety concerns) • Education and training (orientation to safety, on-the-job training for safe behaviors) • Injury reporting and treatment (forms and process for reporting injuries, mechanism for reviewing injury reports and implementing corrective action as needed) Return to work policies (detailing process/procedures for clearance to return to work) • Safety program (employee involvement, policies/procedures detailed, training) • Safety audits and inspection (conduct routine, formal inspections of operation to assure safe working environment; audit corrective action completion)

dish machines

Many different brands of dishmachines are on the market today. Most manu-facturers have a series of machines starting with simple models to very sophisticated equipment. The dishwashing process, whether manual or machine driven, consists of scrapping, prewashing, washing, sanitizing, and air drying. Although dishmachines are the most reliable way to clean and sanitize dishes and utensils, many problems can occur if machines are not installed or oper-ated correctly (see Table 8.5). In choosing the size of a dishmachine to purchase, check the manufacturer's data chart that gives the maximum mechanical capacity of the machine. A factor of 70% should be used to de-termine what actually happens in the dishroom. Seldom is the maximum attainable. Production of clean dishes will vary depending on the type and efficiency of the dishroom layout, traffic flow, type and length of time the food soil has remained on the dishes, relative hardness of water, skill of the dishmachine operator, and fluctuations in flow of soiled dishes.

Conserving water

Restaurants use an average of 300,000 gallons of water a year (Odesser-Torpsey, 2007). WaterSense® is a program launched by the EPA to promote water efficiency and recognize water-efficient products, programs, and practices (see www.epa.gov/watersense). Equipment meeting preset criteria for water conservation can carry the WaterSense® logo.

methods of production

Many different processes are involved in production of food for service. Preparation may be as simple as washing and displaying the food, such as fresh fruit, or as complex as the preparation of a lemon meringue pie. Production may include cooking, chilling, and freezing processes or a combination. Cooking is scientifically based on principles of chemistry and physics. Properties of many ingredients used in food production cause reactions of various types. For example, baking pow-der, when exposed to moisture, gives off carbon dioxide, and the combination of egg, liquid, and oil produces an emulsion identified as mayonnaise.

digestion

Many foods become more digestible as a result of cooking. For example, protein in cooked meat is more digestible than in raw meat. Raw starch in foods such as potatoes and flour will gelatinize during cooking or baking and become more digestible. Nutrient value of some foods can be decreased if they are improperly cooked. Vegetables, for example, often are handled improperly during prepreparation or production, thus causing vitamin or mineral loss. The amount of cut surface and length of time between prepreparation and production affect nutrient retention. Nutrients also may be leached out in the amount of wa-ter, length of cooking time, and cooking temperature. Proper attention to time and temperature control is important in preserving quality of food, especially the nutrient value. The foodservice manager should be well versed in concepts of food science to understand changes that occur in food during production. The aesthetic quality of food can be enhanced by cooking; food can be ruined or be made less palatable by improper procedures. The quality of any cooked food depends primarily on the following four variables: • Type and quality of raw ingredients • Recipe or formulation for the product • Expertise of production employees and techniques used in preparation • Method and duration of holding food items in all stages from procurement through service

thermometer 2

Many foodservice operations have supplemented the use of thermometers with a disposable product called T-Sticks. T-Sticks are multipurpose sensor sticks used to monitor food tempera-tures and the temperature in the dishwasher's final rinse section. They help promote food safety in restaurants and other foodservice operations. They are relatively inexpensive, and employees who might not take the time to track down a thermometer find them easy to use. T-Stick 140 Plus is used for monitoring food temperatures on hot lines or steam tables; food must be held at 140°F or higher to stop growth of harmful bacteria. It turns green at 142°F to 144°F for a margin of safety. T-Stick 160 monitors the cooking temperature of hamburger, ground meat, fish, pork, and eggs and verifies temperatures in the final rinse section of the dishwashing machine. It turns black if the temperature reaches 160°F. An illustration of how to use the T-Stick 160 for cooking hamburgers is shown in Figure 8-10. T-Sticks also are used to check the final rinse temperature in a dishmachine by attaching the T-Stick to a plate and sending it through the dishmachine. The Iowa HACCP Web site (www.extension.iastate.edu/foodsafety/HACCP) contains a variety of resources to help a foodservice manager develop a HACCP program. Included is a case study detailing the process in a school, SOPs, forms for monitoring temperatures, and em-ployee training materials.

hospital tray service

Many hospitals are shifting their traditional centrally assembled tray service process to an on-demand room service program. This room service program allows hospital patients to call the foodservice department and order their meals when they are ready to eat, similar to what a guest might do when staying in a hotel. The food and nutrition services department at Memo-rial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center in New York City changed to an on-demand room service-delivery process for its patients in 2001 and patient satisfaction and patient meal consumption increased. Cox (2005) indicated that the department's Press Ganey satisfaction scores increased from the 24th percentile to the 99th percentile and patient food consumption increased from 29 to 88% of patients consuming half of their food or more when the hospital implemented the on-demand room service option for patients. Maintaining appropriate food temperatures and food quality are particular challenges with tray and/or room service. Often food is placed on the tray at a location separate from the point of service, requiring that food be transported to the point of service.

customer safety

Many of the factors discussed for employee safety also apply to customer safety. A crack in the sidewalk, an exit door that does not open, grease on the dining room floor, or a cup of hot coffee that is dropped can cause customers to have serious accidents that end in litigation. Customer safety is the responsibility of the foodservice manager and employees. Employees should be trained on steps to take in case of customer injury. A foodservice operation always should have a complete first-aid kit. Some states also have laws specifying the supplies that must be included in this kit. OSHA requires that a restaurant either have a kit equipped according to the advice of a company physician or have physical or telephone access to community emergency services. Ideally, a foodservice operation should have present at all times an employee who is trained and certified in first aid, including how to administer the Heimlich maneuver, how to give cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), and how to identify potential allergic reactions.

time and temp

Many of the foodborne illness outbreaks are caused by in-adequate cooking and improper holding of food (see www.cdc.gov). Minimum, maximum, and optimum temperatures vary for the various pathogenic microorganisms; in general, however, they flourish at temperatures between 41°F and 135°F (Figure 8-7). This temperature range is commonly called the temperature danger zone because bacteria multiply rapidly within it. The Food Code (2013) indicates that TCS foods, termed time/temperature control for safety (TCS) food, should be cooled within 2 hours from 135°F to 70°F; and within 6 hours from 135°F to 41°F or less (www.fda.gov). Safe temperatures, then, as applied to TCS food, are those of 41°F and below and 135°F and above.

company vending machines

Many organizations use a contract company rather than setting up their own vending oper-ation. The contract should be reviewed periodically as should the accident, liability, and hazard insurance carried by the vending supplier (Beasley, 1990). Also, the supplier's compliance with city, county, state, and other regulatory agency standards should be checked. Before selecting a supplier, it can be helpful to visit the headquarters to see how and under what conditions the food is prepared. Competitive bidding has proven beneficial to the purchaser of the service, who can negotiate commission rates and replacement of equipment when necessary. Foodservice directors who operate their own vending business have the opportunity to tailor a vending program to their customers' needs. These directors should be innovative and creative in finding ways to make vending a profit center.

children menus

Many restaurants now have children's menus and games to keep children busy while par-ents eat. Some foodservice operations are even offering childcare to customers. People with disabilities often were not able to eat away from home because restaurants and transportation were not accessible to them, especially if they were in wheelchairs. Hearing and visual impairments also are considered disabilities. With the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) in 1992, public accommodation rules took effect. Front door, aisle, table, self-service, and restroom access must be available to customers with disabilities. ADA rules apply not only to restaurants but also to all onsite foodservice operations. Hospital and nursing home foodservice managers have had more experience in feeding people with disabilities than have any other managers, but they still must comply with the ADA rules.

Pot and pan washers

Many smaller pots and pans can be washed in a dishmachine. The scraping with a knife or spatula and soaking required for burned-on food particles are usually done at the pot and pan sink close to the production areas. A common procedure is to transport pots and pans that have been prerinsed to the dishmachine for washing and sanitizing after the bulk of the dishwashing has been completed. In large-volume operations, special pot-and pan-washing machines are used for this labor-intensive task. The machines are heavy duty and capable of cleaning cooked-on foods off pots and pans. Pot washing is quite different from dishwashing because pressurized hot water is sprayed directly on the soiled surface. A piece of equipment called Power Soak (Figure 8-14) is considered the easiest way to clean pots and pans. Power Soak capitalizes on the natural scouring abilities of high-turbulence, heated water. Maintaining an optimum cleaning temperature of 115°F loosens soil while pow-erful jets blast clinging particles away. Dirty pots and pans are literally water-blasted clean, thus eliminating scrubbing by hand. Power Soak is so powerful that it can clean dirty hood filters and oven parts. The "power" behind Power Soak is in its recirculating wash pump, which dispatches more than 300 gallons of water every minute. At the beginning of the first shift of employ-ees, the tank is filled with warm water, and detergent is added. Because the pans are prerinsed and scraped, the water and detergent should successfully perform for several hours. A heating element keeps the temperature at 115°F; the heating element automatically turns on with the presence of water and turns off when the wash tank is emptied.

ciguatoxin

Many species of marine algae contain tox-ins. The toxins enter fish and shellfish that consume the algae or smaller fish who have con-sumed the algae and are passed on to humans who consume the fish. Ciguatera fish poisoning occurs with the consumption of Ciguatoxin and is found in predatory tropical reef fish such as barracuda, grouper, jacks, and snapper who eat smaller fish who have consumed the algae toxin. Saxitoxin, which causes paralytic shellfish poisoning; brevetoxin, which causes neurotoxic shellfish poisoning; and domoic acid, which causes amnesic shellfish poisoning, can be in shell-fish (clams, mussels, oysters, scallops) from contaminated waters (NRA Education Foundation, 2014). These toxins are passed on to humans when infected fish is consumed. None of these fish toxins are destroyed by cooking or freezing, thus purchasing seafood from approved, reputable suppliers is critical to help prevent illness.

usphs

Many state and local governments have adopted the U.S. Public Health Service codes in establishing standards of performance in sanitation for foodservice establishments. These codes generally require that employees have medical examinations to determine their qualifications to handle food safely and have a food-handler's permit, which usually requires a short training program on sanitation practices. State or local agency officials make periodic inspections to foodservice operations to com-pare their performance with standards of cleanliness and sanitation. Any deficiencies must be corrected before the next inspection. The agency generally has the authority to close an opera-tion with an inordinate number of deficiencies in meeting the sanitation standards. The Environmental Protection Agency, another agency within the U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, also has responsibility in certain areas related to sanitation in food-service establishments. The EPA endeavors to comply with environmental legislation and control pollution systematically by a variety of research, monitoring, standard setting, and enforcement activities. Of particular interest to the foodservice industry are programs on water standards, air quality, pesticides, noise abatement, and solid waste management.

energy management 2

Mason et al. (1999) recommend forming an energy team to help guide and direct a food-service operation's energy management efforts. The team should identify forms of energy being used in the operation, perform routine audits of current practices to help identify areas for im-provement, set energy conservation goals, and train staff. Employee training is one of the keys to a successful energy conservation program. Ultimately, employees are the ones responsible for turning equipment on and off at appropriate times, reporting equipment that is not closing or working properly, and using equipment prop-erly. Before initiating an equipment operation schedule, employee-training sessions are needed to present information on the objectives of the program and on its importance for controlling operational costs and to elicit cooperation and support.

MSDS

Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) with information about each chemical must be readily available to foodservice employees. OSHA mandates that chemical manufacturers provide an MSDS with each chemical that lists identity and physical property information about the chem-ical, precautions for safe handling and use, physical and health hazards, emergency and first-aid information, when the MSDS sheet was prepared, and contact information of the manufacturer.

heat

Meal trays assembled with foods produced in a conventional food production operation will need to have equipment designed for maintenance of both hot and cold temperatures. Meth-ods of heat retention are described in Table 7-1. Heat maintenance can be achieved by plac-ing plates of hot food items on specially designed bases that continue to generate heat during the transportation process or insulated bases designed to maintain current food temperatures. Chilled bases can be used to help maintain cold food temperatures. Food trays using heated or insulated bases typically are transported in closed carts, which do not have either heat or refrig-eration. Insulated trays are used in many operations. Although these trays do not generate addi-tional heat or refrigeration, they are designed with the insulation ability to maintain hot and cold temperatures for a period of time.

ingredient room 2

Meat products, which have been ordered according to production demands, may or may not be handled in the ingredient room. For example, preportioned meats that have been ordered in a quantity appropriate for the production demand may go directly from receiving to produc-tion. Greater control is possible, however, if these products were distributed through the ingre-dient room. Prepreparation tasks, such as cleaning and slicing or dicing vegetables or breading and panning meat items, may be done in a prepreparation area or the ingredient room. Today, many of these products, especially produce, are purchased already prepped. After all ingredients for each recipe have been weighed, measured, chopped, or otherwise prepared, each ingredient is packaged and labeled. Ingredients for each recipe are then trans-ported with a copy of the recipe to the appropriate work unit or held until the scheduled distri-bution time.

mechanical devices

Mechanical devices are used in most foodservice facilities to assist in garbage and trash disposal. At a minimum, garbage disposal units should be available in prepreparation, dishwash-ing, and pot-and pan-washing areas. Pulpers are replacing garbage disposal units in many food-service operations. A pulper works somewhat like a garbage disposal except that it is designed especially for the disposal of cardboard, paper, and food waste. The pulper hydrates products into a slurry in a shredding device and then presses water out of it. The waste becomes a semidry, degradable pulp ready for disposal; the excess water is recycled in the pulping tank for reuse. Solid waste can be reduced by 85%, which means less space is used in a landfill. Pulpers can handle paper trays, foam, foil, corrugated boxes, bones, food scraps, and some plastics. Pulpers require daily cleaning. Mechanical trash compactors are used for dry bulky trash, such as cans and cartons. Com-pacting reduces the volume of trash to one-fifth of its original bulk

microwaves

Microwaves have a very short length and are generated by an electromagnetic tube. In use, microwaves penetrate partway into the food and agitate water and/or fat molecules. The friction resulting from this agitation creates heat, which in turn cooks the product. Because microwave radiation affects only water and fat molecules, a dry material will not become hot in a micro-wave oven. Thus, disposable plastic or paper plates can be used for heating or cooking some foods. Most microwaves penetrate only about 2 inches into food, and heat is transferred to the center of large masses of food by conduction. Microwave cooking is not a predominant method in foodservice operations, because cooking time increases proportionately with the quantity of the food to be cooked. Thus preparing multiple servings of a product in a microwave oven may take as much as or more time than preparing that same item in an oven or steamer. Microwave ovens are widely used, however, for heating prepared foods for service. For example, microwave units are frequently available in hospital galleys, and vending operations often have small micro-wave ovens for heating sandwiches and soups. Cooking units are now available with microwave and convection functions that can be used singly or together. Microwaves provide thawing and heating energy, and circulating air provides surface color and texture. For example, potatoes may be cooked more rapidly using both microwave and convection, yielding the texture and flavor of a baked potato.

fire safety

More fires start in foodservice than in any other kind of business operation (NRA Educational Foundation, 1992). Oxygen, fuel, and heat are required to start and sustain a fire; most fires start with the mishandling of fuel and heat. Suppressing a fire typically focuses on reducing or elimi-nating oxygen or the source of the fuel for the fire (Goetsch, 2010). Managers must check their operations regularly and must establish procedures for han-dling any hazards that could start fires. Hot oil in fryers can burst into flames at its flammable limit of between 425°F and 500°F and be the source of a fire, or it can increase the severity of a fire that is started another way. Also, oil in ventilation systems and on walls, equipment, and other surfaces is highly flammable. Hoods over ranges and filters that are not cleaned regularly provide an ideal environment for a grease fire (Bendall, 1992). A good solution for high-volume restaurants is the extractor ventilator, which is a series of baffles on the hood to extract grease through a centrifugal action. Some have an automatic wash-down feature to clean the inside of the hood with detergent and hot water at scheduled times. Tests have shown that some of these ventilators can remove more than 90% of the grease from the air.

Human error

Most accidents are the result of human error. Employees may lift heavy loads incorrectly, leave spills on the floor, walk across freshly mopped floors, fail to use safety devices on food-service equipment, block passageways, or fail to clean greasy filters regularly. Many other un-safe practices can be added to this list. Obviously, then, training is an important part of a safety program. Employees should be taught to prevent accidents by learning to recognize and avoid or correct hazardous conditions. The first day on the job is the best time to start educating a new employee about safety procedures and equipment handling (Spertzel, 1992b).

Weight to measure conversion

Most ingredients in quantity recipes are given in weights, but if volume measurements (teaspoon, tablespoon, cups, quarts, or gallons) are to be used, tables such as the following from Molt (2001) are available that assist in converting from weights to measure: • Food weights and approximate equivalents in measure—for example, 1 pound (weight) or 3 cups (measure) cooked cubed chicken. • Basic equivalents in weights and measures—for example, 8 fluid ounces (weight) or 1 cup of milk (measure). • Weight (1-16 ounces) and measure equivalents for commonly used foods—for example, 2 ounces (weight) or 1/4 cup (measure) flour. • Guide for rounding off weights and measures—for example, more than 1/2 cup but less than 1 cup rice (measure) rounded to closest full teaspoon or converted to weight. This ta-ble aids in rounding fractions and complex measurements into amounts that are as simple as possible to weigh or measure while maintaining the accuracy needed for quality control. • Ounces and decimal equivalents of a pound—for example, 8 ounces (weight) or 0.5 of a pound of butter (measure). This table is used when increasing or decreasing recipe sizes. The multiplication or division of pounds and ounces is simplified if the ounces are con-verted to decimal equivalents of a pound.

Format

Most recipes are written in a definite pattern or style that is identified as a format. For most effective use, all recipes in a particular foodservice operation should be in the same format. This uniformity of style simplifies recipe use by cooks.

complaints

No foodservice manager is immune to outbreaks of foodborne illness (Cheney, 1993). A cook might fail to heat up the grill to the correct temperature, a refrigerator might break down, em-ployees might forget to wash their hands before cutting meat or produce, and a supplier might deliver a contaminated product. Customers who believe their health has been harmed by food eaten in the foodservice establishment have a right to take the manager to court (NRA Educa-tional Foundation, 1995). The customer might have a legitimate grievance, and managing this crisis correctly could be difficult. When someone complains of foodborne illness, it is best practice to have that person com-plete a complaint report similar to the one shown in Figure 8-11. This will ensure that the right questions are asked even if the business is hectic at the time.

help increase for positive service recovery

No matter how well service employees have been trained, they will be challenged at some point to handle service failure situations. According to Ford and Heaton (2000), how the service re-covery is handled is much more important to customers than the original failure. A company's ability to recover from a service failure impacts customer likeliness to return to that operation. Martin (2002) recommends a seven-step gracious problem-solving process to help increase the potential for a positive service recovery: 1. The service provider LISTENS carefully to the complaint or problem. 2. The service provider REPEATS the complaint or problem to get acknowledgment that the customer has been heard correctly. 3. Somewhere along the way, the service provider APOLOGIZES to the customer, regard-less of who is responsible for the problem or complaint. 4. The service provider ACKNOWLEDGES the guest's feelings (anger, frustration, disappointment, etc.). This is an important step that helps establish a nondefensive problem-solving approach. 5. The service provider MAKES problem solving a two-way process by asking the customer how he or she would like the problem resolved. 6. The service provider EXPLAINS what action can be taken to solve the problem or revert a wrong into a right. 7. The service provider SAYS "thank you" to the guest for bringing the problem or com-plaint to his or her attention.

salmonella

Nontyphoidal Salmonella frequently has been associated with foodborne illnesses and causes salmonellosis. The bacterium does not release toxins into the food in which it multi-plies; rather, the ingested cells continue to multiply in the intestinal tract of the victim, causing illness. The primary source of Nontyphoidal Salmonella is the intestinal tract of carrier animals. A carrier appears to be well and shows no symptoms or signs of illness but harbors causative or-ganisms. Various insects and pets may be reservoirs of Nontyphoidal Salmonella. Food animals are important reservoirs, especially hogs, chickens, turkeys, and ducks. The disease salmonello-sis is spread largely by contaminated food and is believed to be one of the major communicable diseases in the United States. A number of raw and processed foods have been found to carry Nontyphoidal Salmonella, especially raw meat, poultry, shellfish, processed meats, egg products, and dried milk. Meat mix-tures, dressings, gravies, puddings, and cream-filled pastries are among the menu items frequently indicated in salmonellosis. Food handlers and poor sanitation practices are often associated with outbreaks. Care must be exercised in production, storage, and service to ensure that food is not held for long periods at warm temperatures, cooled slowly, or cut on contaminated surfaces. Another form of salmonella is Salmonella typhi, which causes typhoid fever. This organ-ism lives in the intestinal tract and bloodstream of humans who have typhoid fever. It is passed to others when poor handwashing is not practiced by infected individuals. It is most commonly transferred on ready-to-eat food items.

Norovirus pg 229

Norovirus is a viral illness caused by poor personal hygiene among infected food handlers (NRA Educational Foundation, 2014). Because it is a virus, it does not reproduce in food but remains active until the food is eaten. It is very contagious and consuming even a small amount can make someone ill. It has been identified as the cause of several incidents of foodborne illness on cruise ships, sometimes causing the early return of the ship to port. The Norovirus (formerly known as the Norwalk virus) is rapidly increasing as a health threat. Out-breaks have occurred through water contaminated with sewage, raw shellfish harvested from polluted growing areas, and feces of infected food handlers who have not scrubbed their hands after using the toilet and transferred the virus to ready-to-eat foods. The CDC estimates that Norovirus and similar viruses account for more than half of all foodborne outbreaks of gastro-enteritis (information from www.cdc.gov, 2014). 24- 48 hr, 1-3 day illness, source is human

Criteria for forecasting

Numerous forecasting models have been developed, but, as one might expect, the trend has been toward sophisticated models using computer-based informa-tion systems. According to Fitzsimmons and Sullivan (1982), the factors deserving consideration when selecting a forecasting model are: • Cost • Required accuracy • Relevancy of past data • Forecasting lead time • Underlying pattern of behavior

Cost element

Obviously, planning cannot be effective without reasonably accurate forecasting of future demand quantities. Finally, standards of quality must be established for all products. Mainte-nance of quality is a cost factor because of employee training, inventory control of both raw and prepared food items, and sanitation programs. The cost element in planning is the result of the correlation of food, storage, issue, and production costs with labor, facility, and energy costs. These elements must be considered in all planning. Whenever planning goes beyond a day-to-day basis, forecasting becomes absolutely necessary

safety training

Obviously, safety training must have major emphasis in both initial and in-service employee training. Many resource materials on safety and accident prevention are available, such as those of the National Safety Council and the American Red Cross. Also, personnel from state and local fire prevention agencies are often available as speakers. The National Restaurant Association (www.restaurant.org) has published a variety of workplace safety training materials and mini-posters to help foodservice managers continually improve the safety in their operation. The Institute of Child Nutrition (ICN) (www.nfsmi.org) also has posters and training materials available for foodservice managers to use to train employees.

standardized recipes

The development and use of standardized recipes greatly facilitate purchasing and food production. When adjusted to an accurate forecast quantity, these recipes provide assurance that standards of quality will be consistently maintained. A well-planned program beginning with the standardization of recipes and production procedures needs to be developed individually for each foodservice operation.

oil and gas

Oil and gas constitute almost three-fourths of U.S. energy consumption; both are fossil fuels and thus nonrenewable resources. Projections suggest that this reliance on oil and gas will decrease. Still, these fuels are expected to continue to be the major sources of energy in the United States, constituting almost 50% of energy use by 2025. Utility services represent a major controllable expense category for restaurant operators, according to the National Restaurant Association's Restaurant Industry Operations Report, 2010. Full-service operators with lower average per-person checks have the highest utility ser-vices costs as a ratio to total sales (3.6%). As the average check increases, the ratio of utility services costs to total sales remains a fairly consistent percentage (3.4-3.5%); limited-service restaurants reported the lowest (3.0%) ratio. Restaurant operations, particularly quick service, reported electricity as their largest utility expense. A national survey of restaurants reported the following information regarding utilities, in-cluding electricity, gas, water, and waste removal

chapter 7

Once food has been prepared in the production subsystem, it must be distributed to service areas and served to the customer. Attention to details in this process, or lack of it, can mean the difference between success and failure in a foodservice operation. In this chapter, we will review the distribution and service subsystem. Suggestions for service success are given.

trays are assembled

Once trays have been assembled, they are placed in some form of cart for transportation to the service area. A variety of techniques are used to maintain food temperatures during the transportation process. Transportation carts may be motorized, pushed manually by employees, or moved with special moving equipment. Automated guided vehicles (AGVs), or mobile ro-bots, are being used in some large medical centers such as Ohio State University Medical Center to move meal carts from the kitchen to the patient units. Moving carts using AGVs greatly re-duces the amount of labor needed in the delivery process.

prions

One of the newest foodborne disease concerns is a group of organisms termed prions (PROteinaceous INfectious particle). According to Cody and Kunkel (2002), prion proteins are small glycosylated protein molecules found in brain cell membranes. Prion diseases, often termed transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE), are infectious diseases of the brain that can occur in both animals and humans. The disease is termed bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) (mad cow disease) in cattle, scrapie in sheep, chronic wasting disease in deer and elk, and Creutzfeld Jakob disease (CJD) or Gerstmann Sträussler syndrome (GSS) in humans. Prions are extremely resistant to heat; heating to 100°C often does not inactivate them. Prion diseases are transmissible between species. The period of time between infection and appearance of clinical symptoms can be years. The disease course in humans includes behavioral changes, ataxia, progressive dementia, and death (Cody & Kunkel, 2002).

SOP

One of the prerequisite programs is documentation of Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs). SOPs are written, step-by-step instructions for routine tasks. SOP checklists and sam-ples can be found at the online ISU HACCP Information Center. An example of an SOP for handwashing is included in Figure 8-8. In a HACCP program, temperatures must be monitored and recorded. Placing deep containers of hot foods, especially soups and stocks, in refrigeration units is one of the most often-cited cases of food safety risk. Not only does hot food not reach recommended safe temperatures within the specified time frame, but the heat from the containers can raise the temperatures in refrigerators. Hot foods should be put into shallow pans before refrigeration to speed the cooling. Blast chillers can help reduce very quickly the temperature of these foods. Results of study on cooling confirm these recommendations. Olds and Sneed (2005) found that a 3-gallon pot of chili placed in a walk-in refrigerator took more than 24 hours to cool from 135°F to 70°F (Olds & Sneed, 2005). When hot chili was placed in a 2-inch pan in the walk-in refrig-erator, it cooled from 135°F to 70°F in 7 hours. A 2-inch pan of chili cooled in a blast chiller dropped from 135°F to 70°F in less than 2 hours.

takeout service

One of the rapidly growing areas of foodservice operations is takeout service. American con-sumers are cooking less at home in part because of an increase in the number of family members who work outside of the home and the pressure to balance work and family life. Takeout service allows consumers to purchase food at one location and then enjoy that food in a location of their choice. According to Sloan (2005), more than half of all Americans purchase food each week through takeout or delivery services; 20% of restaurant orders are made from a vehicle. Quick-service restaurants are the primary provider of takeout food. Many onsite foodservice operations now offer home meal replacement programs, in which food items are packaged and sold as meals for consumption in the home. Often customers will call in advance to place a food order so that the food items can be quickly purchased from the foodservice operation.

Delphi Technique

One of the subjective forecasting models is the Delphi technique, which involves a panel of experts who individually complete questionnaires on a chosen topic and return them to the investiga-tor. Results of the first questionnaire are summarized and returned to the panel for revision. Question-naires are revised successively until a simple majority agreement is reached. The Delphi method can be time-consuming and expensive and is not especially suitable for foodservice forecasting.

Cross-referencing

Only by cross-referencing records of sales with those of production can a reliable historical basis for forecasting be formalized. Records of sales will yield customer count patterns that can be useful for forecasting. These data can be related to the number of times customers select a given menu item or the daily variations induced by weather or special events. Historical records in the production unit provide the fundamental base for forecasting quantities when the same meal or menu item is repeated. These records should be correlated with those kept by the purchasing department, which include the name and performance of the supplier and price of the food items.

Other techniques

Other qualitative forecasting techniques include market research, panel consensus, visionary forecast, and historical analogy. Market research is a systematic and formal procedure for devel-oping and testing hypotheses about actual markets. Panel consensus is based on the assumption that a group of experts can produce a better forecast than one person. This differs from the Delphi method by requiring free communication among the panel members. A visionary forecast is characterized by subjective guesswork and imagination. The historical analogy involves comparative analysis of the introduction and growth of new items with similar new-product history.

Overproduction

Overproduction, the production of more food than is needed for service, generates extra costs because the salvage of excess food items is not always feasible. Leftover prepared food spoils easily and requires extreme care in handling and storage. Even though some leftover foods might be salvageable by refrigeration, certain foods may break down and lose quality. An exam-ple is a custard or cream pie that must be held under refrigeration for microbiological safety but develops a soggy crust quickly and cannot be served. Policies and procedures for the storage of overproduced food items should be well defined and rigorously enforced. Attempts to reduce overproduction costs by using a leftover high-priced food as an ingredient in a low-cost menu item reduce profits. For example, using leftover rib roast in beef stew, soup stock, or beef hash, all of which could be prepared with less expensive fresh meat, is difficult to justify. In addition to the higher food cost, planning and carrying out these salvage efforts incurs higher labor costs that could have been avoided had overproduction not occurred. Customers often suspect that leftovers are being used, which can be damaging to the image of a foodservice operation.

parasites

Parasites are living organisms that need a host to survive. They include Trichinae, Anisakis simplex, Cryptosporidium parvum, Giardia duodenalis or G. lamblia, and Cyclospora cayetanensis.

pathogens

Pathogens can be categorized as bacteria, viruses, parasites, fungi, and natural toxins. They are found everywhere that temperature, moisture, and substrate favor life and growth. Some spe-cies are valuable and useful in preserving food, producing alcohol, or developing special flavors if they are specially cultured and used under controlled conditions. Other microbial activity, however, can be a primary cause of foodborne illness or intoxication. Foodborne microorganisms need the right conditions to grow. FAT TOM is an acronym used to identify the ideal conditions for foodborne microorganism growth (NRA Education Foundation, 2014): • F is for Food: specifically carbohydrates and proteins • A is for Acidity: a pH of 4.6 to 7.5 is ideal T is for Temperature: growth is best between 41°F and 135°F (5°C and 57°C) • T is for Time: food should be in the temperature danger zone for limited amounts of time • O is for Oxygen: some need oxygen, others do not • M is for Moisture: water activity (Aw) of 0.85 or higher is ideal for growth

PPE

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) items are used to help protect the foodservice worker from injury or illness. Examples of PPE use include: wearing protective glasses and rubber gloves when deliming the dishmachine to protect the eyes and hands from harsh chemicals; using stain-less steel mesh gloves when cleaning the slicer to prevent cuts; or wearing asbestos arm guards when working over a hot grill. PPE and special cleaning materials must be used when cleaning up spills of blood or other body fluids. Most organizations will have a procedure and special chemicals to use for cleaning up such spills. The process involves wearing protective gloves, using chemicals such as isolyzers and disinfectants, and following specific time and process guidelines.

physical contamination

Physical contamination occurs when particles that are not supposed to be in a food product are accidentally introduced into that product (National Restaurant Association [NRA] Educational Foundation, 2014). Chips of glass or metal from broken glasses or enamelware dishes are obviously dangerous. Metal curls from a worn-out can opener can fall into the food when the can is being opened. Other physical contaminants would include staples from cartons, fingernails or hair, dirt, bones, jewelry, or fruit pits. Dangers caused by physical contaminants may result from tampering incidents, particularly with soft-packed food items. Food items delivered to the food-service operation should be rejected if evidence of tampering is seen.

experience economy

Pine and Gilmore (1999) contend that we have moved from a service economy to an experience and transformative economy. In their book The Experience Economy, the authors describe the movement of the U.S. economy from one based on commodities to one in which value is gained by experiences. As an example, they describe the commodity economy as one in which people grew/raised their own food products such as vegetables and livestock. In the late 1800s, we began to manufacture goods and people began to buy food products at the local market or gro-cery store. This launched what the authors refer to as a goods economy. By the 1950s, we had moved into the service economy, where people would go out to restaurants to eat their food. In the 1990s, the experience economy became more prevalent, which involves creating an experi-ence for the customer such as that created in places like Hard Rock Café, Rainforest Café, and Starbucks. Creating an experience for customers in restaurants and onsite foodservice operations involves engaging them. Pine and Gilmore describe this engagement using two dimensions: par-ticipation and connection/environmental relationship. Participation ranges from passive to active and environmental relationship from absorption (mental engagement) to immersion (physical involvement).

planning for production

Planning for production is the establishment of a program of action for transformation of resources into products and services. The manager identifies the necessary resources and de-termines how the transformation process should be designed to produce the desired products and services. Once this process has been developed, planning must be integrated with the other managerial functions of organizing and controlling. Planning, organizing, and controlling are overlapping managerial functions, however, and cannot be considered separately. For example, the foodservice manager and the produc-tion supervisor might have established a schedule of preparation times to prevent vegetables from being overcooked (controlling), but then suddenly they must revise the production schedule (planning) because an essential employee went home sick and a critical task had to be reassigned. The content of jobs must be analyzed to be sure all tasks are covered (organizing).

Portion control

Portion control is one of the essential controls in production of food in quantity. In essence, it is the achievement of uniform serving sizes, which is important not only for control of cost but also for customer satisfaction. Customers of any foodservice establishment are concerned about value received for price paid, and they may be dissatisfied if portions are not the same for every-body. In a commercial cafeteria, for example, if one person is served a larger portion of spaghetti than another, customers may believe they have been treated unfairly even though the smaller portion may be adequate to satisfy their appetites.

distribution of food

The distribution of food from production to the customer depends primarily on four factors: • Type of production system in use • Degree of meal preassembly prior to service • Physical distance between production and service • Amount of time between completion of production until the time of service

food safety in purchasing

Possibilities for contamination of food before it is purchased include contaminated equipment, infected pests and animals, untreated sewage, un-safe water, and soil, as shown in Figure 8-5. After purchase, possibilities of contamination ex-ist in storage, preparation, and service of food. Following human consumption, illness occurs. Figure 8-6 illustrates the possible transmission routes from infected persons through respira-tory tract discharges, open sores, cuts, and boils, or through hands soiled with feces into food being prepared. The consumed food then completes the transmission to other persons. The USDA's Economic Research Service (www.ers.usda.gov) reports that imports are very common in the American diet. In 2013, nearly $105 billon in food was imported into the United States. Nearly 70% of all the fish and shellfish consumed in the United States in 2012 were imported, as were 35% of fruits and nuts, 20% of vegetables, and 10% of red meat. Im-ported foods, particularly produce, have been linked to a growing number of foodborne illness outbreaks. Foodservice operators can avoid potentially contaminated food items by using repu-table producers and suppliers, who should comply with growing and transportation standards set by the Produce Marketing Association.

preventative pg 257

Preventive maintenance is the process of keeping equipment and facilities in good repair. It has two aspects: regular cleaning schedules and standard procedures, and the preventive and correc-tive maintenance of foodservice equipment and facilities. Some cleaning should be performed every day and included in the daily tasks of specific employees. Other cleaning tasks may be scheduled on a weekly, monthly, or less frequent ba-sis, as appropriate to the operation, but must be done regularly for proper maintenance of the facilities. In some instances, specific scheduling of additional employees or perhaps special-ized cleaning crews may be required. Whatever the schedules, however, proper tools, equip-ment, and cleaning materials are basic to an effective facility maintenance program and must be on hand as required. All cleaning tasks should be combined in a master schedule that includes a list of what is to be cleaned, when each task should be done, how the task should be performed, and who has the assigned responsibility. Table 8-6 illustrates a partial master cleaning schedule for a food production area. Specific cleaning procedures need to be developed to supplement the master schedule. Employees should be instructed in the procedures for cleaning foodservice equipment and in what the proper cleaning devices and materials are. Equipment cleaning procedures must be sufficiently detailed and presented in a step-by-step procedure to ensure that the correct process is followed and that any special precautions are heeded. Table 8-7 presents the procedure for cleaning a food mixer along with important safety precautions. Similar procedures need to be developed for all pieces of equipment. Manufacturers' instructions can be useful in developing these procedures. Bacteriological counts on dishes, utensils, and equipment are a way to check on the quality of the sanitization program. In some localities, health inspectors may perform these tests.

Product evaluation

Product evaluation follows the recipe verification phase and is a crit-ical part of the recipe standardization process. Product evaluation is used to help determine the acceptability of the recipe by foodservice managers and staff and customers. Typically an informal type of evaluation is completed when the product is first prepared. The informal evaluation is done to help determine whether to proceed with further standardiza-tion of the product. According to Gregoire and Henroid (2002), this evaluation usually focuses on issues such as the following:

Secondary Objectives

Product/service characteristics • Process characteristics • Product/service quality • Efficiency: Effective employee relations and cost control of labor Cost control of material Cost control in facility use • Customer service: Producing quantities to meet expected demand Meeting the delivery date for products or services

Quantity food production

Production of quality food in quantity involves a highly complex set of variables. Quantity food production varies widely with the type of operation and foodservice. Many types of foodservice operations and their different objectives were described in Chapter 1. The one-or two-meal-a-day pattern of a school foodservice operation, for example, presents a different production challenge from the 24-hour-a-day, quick-service restaurant. Because the menu is the basic plan for the foodservice system, planning in the food production subsystem depends on menu item selections. In Chapter 4, four basic foodservices were described: conventional, commissary, ready prepared, and assembly/serve. Differences in processing foods in these various foodservices were indicated. Obviously, those using completely prepared foods requiring only thawing and heating prior to service have different production demands from conventional foodservices in which foods are prepared from scratch.

Production synthesis

Production planning primarily is the effective synthesis of quantity, quality, and cost objectives. The objective of the production subsystem is to transform human, material, facility, and operational resources into outputs. The secondary objectives focus on the following

Production process of characteristics

Production process characteristics include the method of food preparation, ranging from grilling to broiling to baking. The process and product characteristics are closely related because both determine the quality of the product and service. Efficiency of the process depends upon the control of costs for labor, material, and facility use. All of these secondary objectives lead to customer service.

Production scheduling

Production scheduling in foodservice operations can be defined as the time sequencing of events required by the production subsystem to produce a meal. Scheduling occurs in two dis-tinct stages—planning and action—and is essential for production control. In the planning stage, forecasts are converted into the quantity of each menu item to be prepared and the distribution of food products to supervisors in each work center. As an exam-ple, 500 servings of grilled marinated chicken breasts, pasta with pesto, asparagus spears in a red pepper ring, green salad with artichoke hearts and diced tomatoes, sourdough rolls, and frozen yogurt with fresh strawberries have been forecast for a special dinner. The foodservice director assigns the production of the 500 servings of chicken, pasta, and asparagus to the supervisor of main production, the green salad to the salad unit, and the rolls and dessert to the bakery unit.

training 2

Professional associations have played an important role in upgrading sanitation practices in the foodservice industry. The certification programs of several organizations, like the School Nu-trition Association and the Association of Nutrition & Foodservice Professionals, include knowl-edge and competency in sanitation practices as a major component. A major contributor to the upgrading of sanitation practices is the Educational Foundation of the NRA through its national uniform sanitation, training, and certification plan for foodservice managers, termed ServSafe®. Training of nonmanagerial employees is the responsibility of the foodservice manager. Ini-tial training in safe food-handling practices and personal hygiene is needed for new employees. Many teaching aids are available to assist the manager in conducting training programs on safe food handling. Federal and state health agencies and commercial and private organizations have videotapes, films, slides, posters, and manuals available free or at low cost. Many foodser-vice organizations also have developed comprehensive manuals for training and as a reference for their personnel.

standardization advantages

Promote uniform quality of menu items. All products should be the same high quality. • Promote uniform quantity of menu items. Recipes should produce a specific, designated quantity. • Encourage uniformity of menu items. Servings of the same menu item should have the same size and appearance. • Increase productivity of cooks. Clarifying procedures on recipes improves the efficiency of cooks. • Increase managerial productivity. Recipes eliminate guesswork in food ordering and questions asked by cooks, thus freeing managers to concentrate on satisfying the customer. • Save money by controlling overproduction. Waste is controlled if only the estimated num-ber of portions is produced. • Save money by controlling inventory levels. More just-in-time purchasing is possible, thus increasing cash flow. • Simplify menu item costing. Precise calculation of serving costs is vital in establishing selling prices. • Simplify training of cooks. Recipes with detailed procedures provide an individualized training program for new cooks and chefs. Introduce a feeling of job satisfaction. Cooks know that menu items will always be the same quality. • Reduce anxiety of customers with special dietary needs. A nutrient analysis can be done on each recipe and ingredients can be identified for those with allergies or other health concerns.

facilities

Proper cleaning of food production and service surfaces and equip-ment is an important component of any food safety program. The Food Code (2009) stipulates that room temperature food contact surfaces used in the preparation of TCS foods need to be cleaned at least every 4 hours.

plumbing

Proper plumbing is important to prevent mixing of potable and nonpota-ble water. Cross-contamination of the water supply can occur when contaminants from drains, sewers, and so forth enter the potable water supply. It can occur when the pressure of the potable water supply drops below that of the contaminated supply, such as when a hose connected to a faucet is left submerged in a mop bucket. Cross-contamination is prevented by either installing a backflow-prevention device such as a vacuum breaker on a water line, or by leaving an air gap between the bottom of a faucet in a sink and the highest point of water in the sink (NRA Educa-tion Foundation, 2014).

quantity food pro 2

Quantity food production involves control of ingredients, production methods, quality of food, labor productivity, and energy consumption, all of which are critical to controlling costs. The true test of the production plan is whether the food is acceptable to the customer, produced in the appropriate quantity, microbiologically safe, and prepared within budgetary constraints. Quantity is the primary element that introduces complexity to food production in the food-service system. Producing food for 100 people requires much more careful planning and large-scale equipment than does preparing food for a small group at home. In operations serving several thousand, the complexity is drastically increased. Large-scale equipment and mechanized pro-cesses are requisites to producing vast quantities of food to serve large numbers of customers. The foodservice manager must understand the principles of quantity food production. Ex-pertise in food preparation techniques and equipment usage will enable the manager to perform competently in planning and evaluation of foodservice operations. As one expert in foodservice management stated, quantity food production is the nuts and bolts of the foodservice industry.

quick service

Quick service is used to describe service situations where the customer comes to a central ordering/pickup location to order and pay for food. Service staff take the order and collect pay-ment for the order and then the order is assembled and given to the customer. In some cases the service staff assemble all or parts of the order; in other situations separate staff are used to take orders/collect payment and assemble orders. In some quick-service operations, the guest is given a number and their order is delivered to their table. Drive-through service is a form of quick ser-vice in which the customer places an order from their vehicle and "drives through" a designated area to pay for and pick up their order.

radiation

Radiation pertains to the generation of heat energy by wave action within an object. The waves do not possess energy but induce heat by molecular action upon entering food. Infrared and microwave are the two types of radiation used in food production. Infrared waves have a longer wavelength than visible light does. Broiling is the most familiar example of infrared cooking. In a broiler, an electric or ceramic element heated by a gas flame becomes so hot that it emits infrared radiation, which cooks the food. High-intensity infrared ovens are designed to heat food even more rapidly. Infrared lamps are commonly used in foodservice operations for holding food at a temperature acceptable for service. For example, in restaurants, infrared lamps are frequently placed over the counter where cooks set the plates of food for pickup by servers.

Large portion

Recipes for production greater than the 48 portions in the lasagna example could be written entirely in standard measures without the use of teaspoons, cups, and other household units. Many computer software programs have the capability of calculating quantities in met-ric, but, so far, these measures are not commonly used in the United States. Some programs will calculate only in weights, some only in measures, but the majority of the large programs calculate in both. In small foodservice operations, measures may be used rather than weights, even though weighing is more accurate than measuring, for determining the proper amount of an ingredient.

Coils

Refrigerator compressors and condensing coils generate a lot of heat. The amount of air-conditioning can be decreased by 5 to 10% in the kitchen by placing compressors and condensing coils in remote locations outside the building or in the basement. The EPA (2010) estimates that installing electronically commutated motors (ECMs) on evaporator and condenser fans of refrigeration equipment can reduce energy consumption by approximately two-thirds.

Agencies in emergencies

Regulatory and accrediting agencies often specify expectations related to service of food in emergency situations. The Joint Commission, for example, stipulates that hospitals should have supplies to sustain operations for at least 96 hours. To determine the quantity of food, supplies, and water needed for an emergency situation, foodservice managers consider the num-bers of people (patients, staff, students, public) expected to be served, how often meals will be served, what the basic components of each meal will be, and the ease in preparing the meals in situations of potential utility failure and staff shortages. In hospitals the need for special items such as texture-modified foods and tube feedings also must be considered. Resources by the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (Puckett & Norton, 2003) and the National School Food Service Management Institute (2003, 2009) provide excellent guidance for managers to assist in development of emergency preparedness plans.

risk

Risk managers usually are charged with identifying potential areas of risk for an organization and then planning strategies to help reduce the likelihood of that risk. John Pinkerton, the person in charge of the risk management for Hard Rock Café, indicates that his unit's role is protection of people, property, and profits (Carlino, 2002). Employee training is critical to the reduction of risks in an organization. Lack of proper employee training is the primary cause of injuries and the resulting damages, whether fiscal, physical, or mental (King, 2002). Employee training should include not only how to perform required aspects of the assigned job safely, but also how to be observant for situations that could cause harm to others, such as spills on floors and unprotected hot or sharp edges. The role of risk management does not belong only to the person in an organization identi-fied as the risk manager. All managers should be observant of their operation and of the poten-tials for loss or injury that might be in their operation. The Foodservice Industry Risk Management Association (FIRMA) is the trade association that provides management support for risk, claims, and safety professionals in the restaurant, food production, retail, and hospitality industries. The organization sponsors regional meetings and provides information and support to those involved with risk management.

ovens

Roasting or baking uses a combination of all three modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation. Heat is conducted through the pan to the food, and natural or forced convection circulates the air. Heat also radiates from the hot walls of the cooking chamber. A wide range of oven types is used in foodservice operations. The three main categories are hot-air ovens, infrared broilers, and microwave ovens. The first questions to ask before buying an oven are: • What are we cooking? • Where are we cooking it? Many ovens worked fine for a specific type of food 15 or 20 years ago, when most menu items were prepared from scratch. Today in many foodservice operations, more pre-pared foods and frozen ingredients that require a different type of preparation are being used. Many types of ovens are available, and finding the right one for the operation takes hours of research (Figure 6-15).

managing service

Romm (1989) stated that the business of the restaurant takes place in the social space cre-ated between the guest and the server. Improving the consistency and quality of the service staff and treatment of customers can be a problem facing the foodservice industry. Manag-ers would like to generate friendly behavior that will be perceived as authentic between the waitstaff and customers. This process requires two steps. First, more attention must be fo-cused on service employees, and their place in the business structure should be reexamined; and second, techniques being used to change employees' behavior need to be examined. Service employees are expected to nurture and entertain customers, but management seldom nurtures employees. The most common response to a need for increasing profits is to reduce payroll expenses by reducing labor hours; yet the employee is expected to deliver good ser-vice to customers.

Percentage method steps

STEP 1 Convert all ingredients from measure or pounds and ounces to tenths of a pound. Make desired equivalent ingredient substitutions, such as frozen whole eggs for fresh or pow-dered milk for liquid. STEP 2 Total the weight of ingredients in a recipe after each ingredient has been converted to weight in the edible portion (EP). For example, the weight of carrots or celery should be the weight after cleaning and peeling. The recipe may show both AP (as purchased) and EP weights, but the edible portion is used in determining the total portion weight. STEP 3 Calculate the percentage of each ingredient in the recipe in relation to the total weight. (Note: The sum of all percentages must equal 100.) Individual ingredient weight /Total weight * 100 = Percentage of each ingredient

Factor method

STEP 1 Convert all ingredients from measure to weight in pounds and ounces. Whenever possi-ble, state liquid measures in weights; however, liquid measurements may be converted to decimal equivalents of a quart or gallon. STEP 2 Convert ingredient quantity to whole numbers and decimal equivalents and round to one decimal place unless the original amount is less than one pound; that is, 2 lb 10 oz would be converted to 2.625 lb, but rounded to 2.6 lb for use. For amounts less than one pound, two places would be shown (e.g., 0.62 lb). Table 6-3 provides data for convert-ing ounces into decimals of a pound and cups and quarts into decimal parts of a gallon. STEP 3 Divide the desired yield by the base recipe yield to determine the conversion factor. STEP 4 Multiply all recipe ingredients by the conversion factor. STEP 5 Reconvert the new ingredient quantities back into pounds and ounces or quarts and cups. STEP 6 Round off amounts to quantities simple to weigh or measure and within an acceptable margin of error

percentage steps 3

STEP 6 Handling loss must be added to the weight needed and may vary from 1 to 10%, depending on the product. Similar items produce predictable losses that with some experimentation can be accurately assigned. The formula for adding handling loss to a recipe is as follows: Desired yield Total weight needed = 100 percent - Assigned handling loss percent Example: Yellow cake has a 1% handling loss. Desired yield is 80 lb of batter for 600 servings. 100% - 1% = 99% or .99 Total weight needed =80/.99 Total weight needed equals 80.80 lb of batter.

Percentage steps 4

STEP 7 Multiply each ingredient percentage number by the total weight to give the exact amount of each ingredient needed. After the percentages of each ingredient have been established, any number of servings can be calculated and the ratio of ingredients to the total will be the same. As in the factor method, one decimal place on a recipe is shown unless the quantity is less than 1 pound, in which case two places are shown. STEP 8 Unless scales are calibrated to read in pounds and tenths of a pound, convert to pounds and ounces or to measure. Reviewing the process of expanding a recipe will help illustrate recipe adjustment by this method. Tables 6-6, 6-7, and 6-8 demonstrate how to expand a recipe using the percentage method. The result is a devil's food cake recipe for 50 portions of 0.10 lb each.

food safety in production

Safety of the food supply during production and service needs to focus on food products and how they are handled. Also of importance are the hygiene and practices of employee and cleanliness of facilities and equipment.

accuracy of model

The quality of a forecasting model must be judged primarily by the accuracy of its predictions of future occurrences. An expensive model that yields accurate forecasts might not be as good a choice as a cheaper and less accurate model. This is a decision the foodservice manager must make.

Safety Sanitation of Maintenance

Safety, sanitation, and maintenance are critical in a foodservice operation. As a future foodservice manager, you will be responsible for ensuring the safety of your employees and customers. An important component of this safety will be the sanitation and maintenance of your equipment and facility. In this chapter, we will discuss the safety, sanitation, and maintenance subsystem of the foodservice system model. Emphasis will be placed on food safety and techniques that you as a manager can implement to help ensure food safety in your operation. Concepts such as risk management and solid waste management also will be discussed.

risk mgt

Safety, sanitation, and maintenance are important components in preventing accidents and ill-ness in foodservice operations. They also are key components of what has become known as risk management. Risk is defined as the possibility of loss or injury. Risk management is a discipline for dealing with the possibility that some future event will cause harm to an organization. According to Tom Cippolone, director of risk management for Darden Restaurants, the role of the risk man-ager is to create the safest environment possible for employees and customers (Carlino, 2002). A risk manager often is responsible for overseeing operational security, ensuring workplace safety for workers and customers, managing litigation, and helping improve the bottom-line perfor-mance of the organization. The Nonprofit Risk Management Center (2002) suggests that risk management basically involves answering three questions: • What can go wrong? • What will we do (both to prevent harm from occurring in the first place and to deal with the aftermath of an "incident")? • If something happens, how will we pay for it?

functional subsystem

Safety, sanitation, and maintenance is the last major functional subsystem in the foodservice system, and it permeates all other subsystems (Figure 8-1). Ensuring safety in a foodservice operation is a major responsibility of the manager of that operation. This responsibility includes the safety of employees and guests of that operation and the safety of the food served. Risk management activities often focus on safety issues.

kitchen and dining

Sanitation of all foodservice facilities and equipment requires constant diligence on the part of the foodservice staff and management. Regularly scheduled training programs on proper clean-ing procedures should be established. Design for sanitation must begin when the facility is being planned. Floors, walls, and ceilings must be constructed for easy maintenance, and the arrangement and design of the equipment and fixtures should facilitate cleaning. Having equipment on wheels and us-ing quick disconnects on gas equipment will facilitate movement of equipment for cleaning. Facilities for proper disposal of trash and garbage are necessary to avoid contaminating food and attracting pests. In general, the following procedures should be followed regularly in cleaning of floors: • Spills should be wiped up promptly to avoid tracking and to eliminate a safety hazard. • Regular schedules for cleaning floors should be established. Floors subjected to heavy traffic and food spills, such as in the production areas, must be scrubbed at least daily and hosed, stripped, and steamed periodically for more thorough cleaning. • Floor care equipment, including brooms, mops, and vacuums, should be cleaned regularly.

sanitization

Sanitization is critical for any surface that comes in contact with food, which includes, of course, all dishes, utensils, pots, and pans. Sanitizing can be done using heat or chemical sanitizers. Some sanitizing agents are toxic to humans as well as to bacteria and are, therefore, ac-ceptable for use only on nonfood contact surfaces. Other agents may not be toxic but may have undesirable flavors or odors, which make them unacceptable for use in foodservice operations. The three most common chemicals used in sanitizing in foodservice operations are chlorine, iodine, and quaternary ammonia. Table 8-4 summarizes the properties of these sanitizers and outlines procedures for their use. A sanitizer's effectiveness is impacted by the concentration of the sanitizer, the hardness, temperature, and pH of the water, and the contact time on a surface. Chemical sanitizers are reg-ulated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

Scales and slicers

Scales of many kinds are used throughout a foodservice because weight control is essen-tial from the time the food enters the operation from the supplier until it is served. The use of scales during receiving and production has been discussed in previous chapters. Portion scales are an important tool in quantity control in both the production and service units. Cooks and servers should have portion scales available for checking serving sizes. Slicers are a valuable piece of equipment to assist in ensuring portion control because foods can be sliced more evenly and uniformly than can be done by hand. An example of a slicer is shown in Figure 6-19. A device on a slicer permits adjusting the blade for the desired degree of product thickness. Portion control guides in a foodservice operation should include the correct setting on the slicer for various food items. Automatic slicers are available that do not require the operator to return the food holding device manually, which frees the worker to continue other tasks while food is being sliced. The slicer is used most commonly for meat and meat products; however, it can also be used for vegetables, cheese, bread, and many other items. It is important, however, to clean and sanitize a slicer thoroughly between food products. In portioning sliced foods for service, a portion scale should be readily available for a periodic check on portion size.

histamine

Scombroid poisoning occurs when persons consume scombroid and related species of fish (tuna, mackerel, mahi mahi) that have been time/temperature abused and bacteria on the fish have produced high levels of histamine. This histamine is a toxin that causes allergic reactions such as headache, burning in throat and mouth, reddening of the face and neck, and sweating.

Forecasting models

Selecting a forecasting model for a foodservice operation can be a difficult task for a manager. The easiest method is to guess how many people are expected or how much of each menu item is needed. Amazingly, many chefs and cooks can guess quite accurately, especially if the cus-tomer count is approximately the same at each meal or the menu is static. But when customers can choose where or what they want to eat, guessing does not always work. A more scientific method for forecasting is needed. Forecasting models are available and should be researched before deciding which one to use.

yersini enterocolitica

Yersiniosis, the illness caused by Yersinia enterocolitica and Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, is characterized by fever and abdominal pain, often mimicking an appendicitis. The exact cause of the contamination is not known but the organisms are commonly found in soil and water. It is more common in Northern European and Scandinavian countries and Japan than in the United States.

Self service

Self-service foodservice operations cover a wide spectrum; cafeteria service is one of the most commonly used forms. In self-service, the customer chooses what they want from displayed food items or service counters and goes to a central point to pay for the items. Other self-service operations include buffets, vending machines, refreshment stands in recreational and sports facilities, and mobile foodservice units that range from the small hot dog cart rolled down the street by the operator to sophisticated operations in motorized vans equipped for preparing a variety of menu items. Today's round-the-clock eating patterns in every imaginable place have created a demand that self-service satisfies.

categories of service

Service can be categorized in a variety of ways; in fact, a number of combination services exist. Service will be categorized as table service, counter service, quick service, self-service, tray ser-vice, takeout service, and delivery for discussion in this text. The table service restaurant with a self-service salad bar is an example of a combination of service types. Service of food and beverages is one of the most diverse activities imaginable, assuming many forms and occurring in a wide range of places, at all hours of the day and night. Because of today's lifestyles, options can range from fine service with tableside preparation, to coffee and doughnuts in the factory, to hot dogs at the beach.

service management

Service management is a philosophy, a thought process, a set of values and attitudes, and a set of methods, according to Albrecht and Zemke (1995). Transforming an organization to a customer-driven one takes time, resources, planning, imagination, and tremendous commitment by management.

service

Service takes many forms in a foodservice establishment, from that in the upscale fine dining restau-rant involving several highly trained employees to that in the many self-service operations—cafeteria, vending, or buffet. The method, speed, and quality of the services provided impact the success of a foodservice establishment.

factors

Several factors will affect the cleaning process. • Type and condition of dirt—certain types of dirt require special cleaning methods • Water hardness—cleaning is more difficult with hard water as the minerals in the water react with the cleaning detergent and decrease its effectiveness • Water temperature—hot water aids in dissolving detergent and loosening dirt • Surface to be cleaned—some surfaces require special cleaning supplies and techniques • Agitation or pressure—additional pressure may be needed to remove dirt • Length of treatment—longer exposure to detergent makes cleaning easier Cleaners are chemicals that are used remove food, dirt, and other deposits. Four types of cleaners are commonly found in foodservice operations (NRA Education Foundation, 2013): • Detergents—used to remove dirt from surfaces (floors, walls, counters, equipment) • Abrasive cleaners—contain abrasive agent(s) to help more difficult to remove dirt • Degreasers—used to remove grease from surfaces (ovens, grills, hoods) • Delimers—used to remove mineral deposits (dishmachines, steam wells)

Cyclospora cayetanensis

Several parasites are found in feces of contaminated individuals or contaminated water, including Cyclospora cayetanensis, Cryptosporidium parvum, and Giardia duodenalis (G. lamblia or G. intestinalis). These para-sites sometimes are transmitted when improperly treated water is used to irrigate produce and that produce is not washed properly before eating. Infected individuals also can transmit the parasite to others, if proper handwashing practices are not used.

carts

Several types of carts have been developed for maintaining both the hot and cold tempera-tures of food items. In some, often termed split-tray carts, all of the food items are placed on a single tray with hot foods on one half of the food tray and cold items on the other. This tray is inserted into a special cart that will maintain heat to half of the tray and refrigeration on the other half. Match-a-tray types of carts require that hot food items be placed in a heated compartment separate from the refrigerated portion of the tray. Tray delivery personnel then need to "match" the hot food items with the correct cold food tray prior to serving the meal tray.

sustainability

Shanklin (2001) reported that foodservice operations generate 8 to 16 ounces of waste per meal served. The volume of this waste can be a gallon and a half or more. Approximately three-fourths of this waste is packaging waste. To reduce the amount of waste in food production sev-eral waste reduction efforts have been implemented, including production monitoring, recycling, composting, pulping, and food donation. Overproduction generates excess food that often cannot be reused and thus is disposed of as trash. Keeping production records to clearly document amount prepared, amount served, and amount disposed and adjusting future production based on these records can help reduce the amount of food waste. The LeanPath company created a ValuWaste program that incorporates equipment and processes for weighing food waste at the end of each meal and includes an employee recognition program for recognizing reduction in waste efforts.

shigella

Shigella spp. is a bacteria that causes the foodborne illness, shigellosis, sometimes called bacillary dysentery. It is an infection that occurs 1 to 7 days after the ingestion of the bacteria. Humans are the prime reservoir for Shigella. Carriers excrete Shigella in their feces and transmit the bacteria to the food if they do not wash their hands properly. Flies also are thought to carry the bacteria. Foods involved are raw produce and moist-prepared foods, such as potato, tuna, turkey, and macaroni salads that have been handled with bare hands during preparation. Shigellosis can be prevented if employees wash their hands after using the toilet, if food is rap-idly cooled, and if flies are controlled.

Staph

Staphylococcus aureus, a bacterium commonly referred to as staph or S. aureus, is the principal causative agent in the foodborne illness, Staphylococcal gastroenteri-tis. The staph bacteria can produce a toxin when allowed to grow in large numbers. Staphylo-coccal intoxication is a fairly frequent cause of foodborne illness, with foods high in protein the usual culprits. Cream pies, custards, meat sauces, gravies, and meat salad are among the prod-ucts most likely to be involved in foodborne intoxication. The appearance, flavor, or odor of the affected food items are not noticeably altered. Temperatures must be carefully controlled to pre-vent multiplication of staphylococci in food. The organism multiplies even under refrigeration if temperatures are not sufficiently low or if the cooling process does not proceed rapidly enough.

steam jack kettle

Simmering or stewing means cooking in a liquid that is boiling gently, with a temperature of 185°F to 205°F. Most foods cooked in liquid are simmered even though the word boiled may be used as a menu term, such as boiled corned beef and cabbage. These production methods are frequently done in a steam-jacketed kettle (Figure 6-10). The steam-jacketed kettle works like a double boiler. One bowl is sealed inside another with a 2-inch space between them. The jacketed area provides space between the two bowls into which steam is introduced, which provides the necessary heat to cook the product in the kettle. The amount/ pressure of the steam is adjusted with a knob; the more pressure, the hotter the surface and the faster the food product will cook. Most kettles today are self-contained with boilers to make their own steam rather than being direct-steam models connected to a building steam supply. Steam-jacketed kettles also can be connected to a chilled water supply that will fill the jacketed area with chilled water to help quickly cool ingredients in the kettle. Steam-jacketed kettles of-ten are designed with a pouring lip and mounted on trunnions to allow the contents of the kettle to be easily poured into serving pans. To poach is to cook in a small amount of liquid that is hot but not actually bubbling. The temperature range is about 160°F to 180°F. Poaching is used to cook delicate food, such as fish, eggs, or fruit. Because poached foods are bland, the chef has to create maximum flavor without using high-calorie, high-fat, and high-sodium sauces for healthful cooking.

total customer value

Since World War II, the world has been embracing a quality paradigm. Albrecht (1993) defines a paradigm as a mental frame of reference that dominates the way people think and act. The quality movement has focused primarily on zero defects in a product and very little on service quality. In the twenty-first century, the distinction between product and service will become obsolete. Those terms will be replaced by total customer value, the combination of the tangible and intangible experienced by customers at the various moments of truth that become their perception of doing business with an organization (Albrecht, 1993). Quality must start with the customer, not with the product or work process that creates it. A paradigm shift, which Barker (1992) defined as a new set of rules, from a quality to a total customer value paradigm is occurring in organizations.

solid waste

Solid and semisolid products, such as food waste, paper, cardboard, metal, and plastic, that are being discarded from a foodservice are termed solid waste. Some of these products can be recycled; others will be disposed of in landfills or incineration units. Pollution prevention or reduction at the source was declared America's top priority in the Pollution Pre-vention Act passed by Congress in 1990. A goal to recycle at least 25% of the solid waste in America was established as part of this act. The Environmental Protection Agency developed a hierarchy of priorities for addressing solid waste management. The goal is to prevent pollution before it occurs (Mason, Shanklin, Hee Wie, & Wolfe, 1999). The hierarchy includes: • Source reduction • Recycling, including composting • Landfilling • Incineration Managing solid waste efficiently and effectively requires planning. An integrated solid waste management program includes the following: • Menu design and planning • Purchase specifications • Food production practices • Service methods • Portion control • Waste-product disposal methods • Consumer education • Employee training

Food borne infections

Some bacteria produce toxins in food as they grow and die. The toxin often cannot be de-stroyed by heating or freezing and can cause illness or death. Foodborne infections are caused by the activity of large numbers of pathogenic bacterial cells carried by the food into the gastrointestinal system of the victim and causing illness. Food-borne intoxications are caused by toxins formed in the food prior to consumption. Consump-tion of the toxins causes the illness. The symptoms from ingesting toxin-containing food may occur within as short a period of time as 2 hours. The incubation period of an infection, however, is usually longer than that of an intoxication. Tables 8-1 and 8-2 summarize information about various pathogenic bacteria that can cause foodborne illness or intoxication. Symptoms of each are frequently severe and commonly include nausea, cramping, vomiting, and diarrhea.

Advantages of ingredient assembly

Some type of issuing is used in most foodservice operations. The ingredient room contributes to cost reduction and quality improvement by stopping production employees from withdrawing large quantities of products from storage whether or not they are needed. Use of the ingredient room has many advantages, including the redirection of cooks' skills away from the simple tasks of collecting, assembling, and measuring ingredients to production, garnishing, and portion con-trol. By limiting access to ingredients, over-and underproduction of menu items can be elimi-nated, thus controlling costs. The concept of an ingredient room dates from the late 1950s. Flack (1959), one of the first to implement a central ingredient room, reported reduced labor cost as a major benefit. In recent years, as competition has increased and the available labor pool has shrunk, managers have shown an increased interest in quality, cost controls, and more efficient use of labor. As a result, many are adopting the ingredient control concept within their foodservice operations (Buchanan, 1993).

Information of recipe

Specific information should be included on each recipe to simplify its use by those prepar-ing and serving the food. Generally, recipes include the following information: • Name of food item • Total yield • Portion size and number of portions • Cooking time and temperature, if required • List of ingredients in order of use • Amount of each ingredient by weight, measure, or count • Procedures • Panning or portioning information • Serving and garnishing suggestions • Food safety (HACCP) guidelines

standardization

Standardization requires repeated testing to ensure that the product meets the standards of quality and quantity that have been established by management. Food cost and selling price cannot be correctly calculated unless recipes are standardized to use only specific ingredients in known amounts to yield a definite quantity. A standardized recipe must be retested whenever a small change is made in an ingredient, such as substitution of frozen or dehydrated vegetables for fresh in a recipe for beef stew. Standardizing recipes is a time-consuming task. Probably the best example of the use of standardized recipes is in the multiunit limited-menu chains. Each batch of hot biscuits, pizza dough and toppings, fried chicken, and french fries is the same in each unit of the chain every day. This essential uniformity often is assured by recipes available to only a few employees in the main ingredient room of the corporate commissary. The packaged ingredients are sent to each unit throughout the region, the nation, and even the world. Without this stringent control, these operations could not maintain national and international reputations for quality.

production scheduling

Supervisors in each unit assume the responsibility for the action stage by preparing a pro-duction schedule. Each item is assigned to a specific employee and the time to start its prepara-tion is recorded on the schedule. Careful scheduling assures that the food is prepared for service without lengthy holding and deterioration in quality. Supervisors give feedback to the manager by writing comments on the production schedule. In small operations in which only one cook and perhaps an assistant are on duty at a time, the foodservice manager might also need to assume the responsibility for the action stage. Every foodservice operation, however small, must have a daily production schedule to control both labor and food costs

table service

Table service is a very common form of service in the commercial segment of the industry. Table service can be very simple or extremely elaborate; its distinguishing characteristic is service by a waitperson. In most table service operations, a hostess, host, or maître d'hôtel is responsible for seating guests in the dining room. Waitstaff personnel take orders from customers and deliver meals. Often separate bus staff are responsible for refilling beverages and clearing and cleaning tables.

apha and nsf

The American Public Health Association (APHA), a professional society representing all disciplines and specialties in public health, has a standing committee on food protection that establishes policies and standards for food sanitation. Several other associations for profession-als in the area of food protection and sanitation also promote standards and enforcement proce-dures in food safety and sanitation. The National Sanitation Foundation International (NSF) is one of the most influen-tial semiprivate agencies concerned with sanitation. The NSF, organized in 1944 by a group of industrial leaders and public health officials, is a nonprofit, noncommercial organization whose mission is to protect and improve global human health (see www.nsf.org). NSF, along with in-dustry officials, businesses, federal and state regulatory agencies, and the public, develops na-tionally uniform and voluntary consensus standards for products and services, including: • Drinking water treatment units • Foodservice equipment • Vending machines • Swimming pool equipment • Refuse compactor systems • Waste water treatment equipment • Plastic piping system components • Water conservation systems Manufacturers may request that the NSF evaluate their equipment, and they will receive an NSF Testing Laboratory Seal of Approval for equipment meeting NSF standards.

food borne pathogens

The CDC is expanding its prevention efforts to focus on heading off new foodborne pathogens, specific causes of diseases such as bacteria or viruses that can be spread globally by foods tainted with low-level contamination. The CDC has developed the PulseNet system, which will help public health experts determine whether the illnesses are from the same strain or from a common exposure source. PulseNet is a national network of public health laboratories that per-form a "fingerprinting" on bacteria that may be foodborne. PulseNet provides an early warning system for outbreaks of foodborne disease by having bacteria "fingerprinting" data on a central CDC computer that is linked to state and local health departments (see www.cdc.gov/pulsenet).

food safety

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) warns that the mishandling of food has caused many foodborne outbreaks in the foodservice segment of the industry where food is prepared and served to the public. Food protection began in the early 1900s when the U.S. Public Health Service (PHS) studied the role of milk in the spread of disease. Model codes were developed to help state and local governments start and maintain effective programs for the prevention of foodborne illnesses. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), and CDC jointly published the Food Code (2013) (see www.fda.gov). It is a reference document for regulatory agencies responsible for overseeing food safety in retail outlets such as restaurants, grocery stores, and institutions (nursing homes, hospitals, schools, childcare centers, etc.). It may be adopted and used by agencies at all levels of government that are responsible for managing food safety risks. The model Food Code provisions are designed to be consistent with federal food laws and regulations and are written for ease of legal adoption at all levels of government. Since publication of the first version of the Food Code in 1997, important progress has been made in efforts to monitor and prevent foodborne diseases and ensure that consumers are provided the safest possible foods.

energy star

The ENERGY STAR® program reported a savings in energy bills of $34 billion in 2014 because of organizations and consumers taking advantage of low-cost energy efficiency oppor-tunities (www.energystar.gov). Figure 6-22 provides tips from ENERGY STAR®'s Guide for Restaurants (2010) to reduce energy use in foodservice operations. As shown in Figure 6-21, one-third of energy used in foodservice operations is for foodservice equipment. Managers can conserve equipment energy use by purchasing ENERGY STAR®—rated equipment and training staff to limit preheating times, follow designated cooking temperatures, use timers, and turn on only equipment needed for pro-duction. High-efficiency gas burners in energy-efficient equipment produce more Btus from the same amount of gas; infrared heating in fryers has the same results. Induction heating in electric equipment promises not only more efficiency but also lower kitchen temperatures. A heat pump water heater uses not only heat generated by cooking equipment but also re-turns cool air to the kitchen.

EIA

The Energy Information Administration of the U.S. Department of Energy (www.eia.doe. gov) tracks energy use in the United States. Figure 6-21 details their reported figures for food-service energy. The United States uses a mix of primary energy sources to heat, cool, illuminate, and power its commercial, industrial, residential, and transportation sectors. According to U.S. Department of Energy data (www.eia.doe.gov), in 2013 petroleum provided approximately 36% of the U.S. energy, natural gas 27%, coal about 18%, nuclear energy-generated electricity about 8%, renewable energy about 8%, and liquid biofuels 1%. Energy resources are sold and billed by different units: electricity in kilowatt-hours (kWh), natural gas in therms or millions of cubic feet (MCF), and fuel oil by the gallon or barrel. To compare these units for energy content and cost, the British thermal unit (Btu) is used. One Btu contains enough energy to heat 1 pound of water 1°F. A common yardstick measures in millions of Btus (MMBtus). The total primary energy consumption in the United States in 2013 was 97.1 quadrillion Btu. The consumption of energy by industrial and commercial users (below) suggests shifts in energy use:

sanitarian

The FDA developed the Food Code to assist health departments in developing regulations for a foodservice inspection program (US DHHS FDA, 2013). Some state and local agencies de-velop their own codes. The FDA recommends inspections at least every 6 months, although the frequency is determined by the local agency. A sanitarian, often referred to as a health official or inspector, is an individual trained in sanitation principles and methods and public health (NRA Educational Foundation, 1992). The foodservice manager and unit head should accompany the sanitarian during inspection. They should take advantage of the experience and expertise of the sanitarian by asking questions; employees should be encouraged to do the same. They should take notes during the inspection and be willing to correct problems. Problems should be discussed with employees and corrected immediately. Foodservice managers and employees should welcome a visit from the sanitarian and not resent it if they are truly dedicated to serving safe food to customers.

gov 2

The FDA directs its efforts toward protecting the nation's health against unsafe and impure foods, unsafe drugs and cosmetics, and other potential hazards. The FDA has been established as the regulatory agency with responsibility for food safety in the United States, and the Food Safety and Inspection Service has the same responsibility under the USDA. The FDA uses lab-oratory analysis of foods to detect microbiological and chemical toxicants, adulteration, and incorrect labeling; the USDA does onsite inspections of meat and poultry operations and checks animal health, sanitation, and product labeling (Cody & Kunkel, 2002). The FDA is responsible for regulating interstate shipment of food, as discussed in Chapter 5, and for inspecting foodservice facilities on interstate carriers such as trains, planes, and ships operated under the U.S. flag. In addition, although local agencies have the primary responsibility for inspecting foodservice establishments, the FDA assists these agencies by de-veloping model codes and ordinances and providing training and technical assistance. The FDA enforces the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic (FD&C) Act and its amendments, Pesticides, Food Additives, Color Additives, and Labeling. The FDA's jurisdiction has been redefined as new concerns have arisen. The FDA also administers the Bioterrorism, Fair Packaging and La-beling (FPLA), and Tea Importation acts. The FSIS administers the Poultry Products Inspection, Egg Product Inspection (EPIA), and Federal Meat Inspection (FMIA) acts.

FIA

The Foodservice Institute of America hosted a national conference of foodservice indus-try professionals to discuss the concepts of experience economy and authenticity and how they might be incorporated into foodservice operations. A white paper published from the conference (Barsamian & Hammar, 2009) details strategies for foodservice operators to provide more au-thentic experiences for customers including: • Craft and stage memorable customer experiences • Customize product and service offerings for each customer • Be authentic in products and services provided • Train employees to provide the desired experience for customers • Use technology • Resolve customer complaints quickly being sincere and genuine.

HACCP

The Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) concept refers to a model developed initially for quality control in the food processing industry, with special emphasis on microbial control. Critical control points are those steps in production processing in which loss of control would result in an unacceptable safety risk. HACCP is a preventive approach to quality control, identifying potential dangers for corrective action. The HACCP program was developed in 1971 for the National Aeronautics and Space Ad-ministration (NASA) to be sure food fed to astronauts in outer space is absolutely safe. The system had to ensure zero defects in handling food during processing. It had to correct errors before they happened rather than sample finished products to identify those with high levels of contamination (Dulen, 1998).

national fire association

The National Fire Protection Association has identified ABC classes of fire, which are described in Figure 8-2 along with the types of extinguishers for each. The foodservice manager should know the differences among the extinguishers and purchase the proper kind. The local fire department usually is willing to demonstrate extinguishers. In addition to fire extinguishers, heat and smoke detection devices and some form of fire protection, such as dry/wet chemicals, should be installed over cooking equipment. Water mist operates from the building's water sprinkler, which has an unlimited supply of water, and is effective in suffocating most types of fires. Dry/wet chemicals in containers are piped to outlet nozzles above each piece of equipment; once the chemicals are discharged, they have to be replaced immediately to provide continuing fire protection. In many states, a state fire marshal has responsibility for approving the design and construction of buildings from a safety and fire protection standpoint.

reduce violence

The Occupational Safety & Health Administration (www.osha.gov) offers several sugges-tions to help reduce workplace violence: • Establish a zero tolerance policy toward workplace violence against or by employees • Provide workplace safety education to all employees including how to recognize work-place violence, what to do if they experience or witness violence, how to diffuse poten-tially violent situations, and how to protect themselves • Provide security for the workplace through deploying security personnel, installing sur-veillance cameras, restricting access to outsiders, and so on • Provide drop safes to limit the amount of cash on hand • Use a buddy system for potentially dangerous situations, at night, and so on

SNA and ICN

The School Nutrition Association (SNA), formerly the American School Food Service Association (AFSFA), has provided leadership in the school foodservice segment of the industry in promoting good sanitation practices and has been active in providing employee training. The SNA's Keys to Excellence (see www.schoolnutrition.org) details sanitation and safety standards. School foodservice directors can do an assessment of their operation using the keys at www. schoolnutrition.org. The School Nutrition Association also offers a variety of online food safety training programs for members. The Institute of Child Nutrition (ICN; formerly the National Food Service Management Institute) was formed to conduct research and provide education for those working in child nutrition. The ICN has published several food safety guidance materials such as Developing a School Food Safety Program and Food Safety for Summer Food Service Programs (see www.nfsmi.org).

role of gov

The United States Public Health Service (PHS) and its subdivision, the FDA, both of which are agencies within the United States Department of Health & Human Services (HHS), are charged specifically with protecting the health of all Americans and providing essential human services, especially for those who are least able to help them-selves. The PHS identifies and controls health hazards, provides health services, conducts and supports research, and develops training related to health. Two agencies within the PHS specifically related to sanitation regulations and standards are the CDC and the FDA. The CDC investigates and records reports of foodborne illness and is charged with protecting public health by providing leadership and direction in the control of diseases and other preventable hazards. The Bureau of Training within the CDC develops pro-grams for control of foodborne diseases in the foodservice industry. The CDC is responsible for providing assistance in identifying causes of disease outbreaks, including foodborne illnesses.

violence types

The University of Iowa Injury Prevention Research Center (2001) categorized workplace violence into the following four types: • Criminal intent. The perpetrator has no legitimate linkage to the business and its employ-ees; commits the violence as part of a crime such as a robbery • Customer/client. The perpetrator has a legitimate relationship with the business and be-comes violent while being served • Worker-on-worker. The perpetrator is an employee or former employee of the business and attacks or threatens another employee or former employee • Personal relationship. The perpetrator usually is not an employee of the business but has a personal relationship with an employee They reported that the majority of workplace homicides were a result of criminal intent; the majority of healthcare incidents of workplace violence were because of customer/client violence.

thermometer pg 240

The bimetallic stemmed thermometer is the most commonly used thermometer. It has a dimple on the stem indicating the length of thermometer that needs to be inserted in a food prod-uct to get an accurate temperature reading. The accuracy of the stemmed thermometer must be checked and recalibrated as needed on a regular basis. The easiest way to calibrate it is to place the thermometer in a glass of ice water for at least 30 seconds. If the thermometer is not reading 32°F, the calibration nut under the indicator head should be held with a wrench and the indicator head rotated until it reads the correct temperature.

safety principles

The campaign includes training materials and posters promoting four key food safety principles: • Clean (hands and surfaces) • Separate (to avoid cross-contamination) • Chill (refrigerate/freeze foods as appropriate) • Cook (cook foods to proper internal temperatures)

Characteristics of the product

The characteristics of the product or menu items depend upon the type of operation, such as short orders in a limited-menu restaurant or hotel coffee shop, individual item selections in a full-service restaurant, or a fixed menu in a school. For example, a ground meat patty might be served as a grilled hamburger on a bun for a limited-menu restaurant, a charbroiled ground steak for a full-service restaurant, or an oven-baked hamburger for a nursing home.

Cost of model

The cost of a forecasting model involves the expenses of both development and operation. The developmental costs arise from constructing the model, validating the forecast sta-bility, and often purchasing a computer forecasting program. In some cases, educating managers in the use of the model is another cost element. Operational costs, including the cost of making a forecast after the model is developed, are affected by the amount of data and computation time needed. More elaborate models require large amounts of data and thus can be very expensive.

anisakis simplex

The current popularity of raw seafood dishes, like sushi, sashimi, and ceviche, and undercooked fin fish has introduced a new source of tapeworm and roundworm infestation. Anisakis, a form of round worm, can be particularly devastating because the parasite attaches itself to the wall of the digestive organs and requires surgery to dislodge it. Consumption of the Anisakis parasite results in an illness termed anisakiasis. The Anisakis parasite is destroyed by cooking or freezing. The Food Code (2013) indicates that fish that is not to be cooked thor-oughly must be frozen to -31°F and stored at -4°F or below for 24 hours, frozen to -31°F or below, and stored for 15 hours or frozen to -4°F or below and stored for 168 hours (7 days). In addition, the foodservice operator must keep a record of the process on file for 90 days.

pH

The degree of a food's acidity or alkalinity, expressed as pH value, also affects bacterial growth. The pH value represents the hydrogen ion concentration and is expressed on a scale from 0 to 14, with 7 expressing neutrality. Values below 7 indicate acidity; those above 7 indi-cate basic or alkaline materials. Bacteria vary widely in their reaction to pH. Although some are quite tolerant to acid, they generally grow best at a pH near neutral, so acid is frequently used in food preservation to suppress bacterial multiplication. Multiplication of the organisms causing food infections and foodborne illnesses are supported in slightly acidic, neutral, and slightly alkaline food materials (Longrée & Armbruster, 1996). The pH of some common foods is listed in Figure 8-4. Microorganisms have specific temperature requirements for growth. At its optimum tem-perature, a cell multiplies and grows most rapidly, but a cell will also grow within the minimum and maximum temperatures around its optimum. Foods that require time and temperature control because they are capable of supporting growth of pathogenic microorganisms or toxin formation are termed Time/Temperature Control for Safety Food (TCS) (Food Code, 2013). TCS foods typically contain protein and moisture, have a neutral or slightly acidic pH, and require time and temperature controls to prevent growth of microorganisms. TCS foods include products such as milk and dairy products, meat, poultry, pork, lamb, fish and shellfish, eggs, raw sprouts, baked potatoes, tofu, and sliced melons.

Quality demand

The desire for an efficient foodservice operation requires that the production manager knows the estimated number of customers or the number of servings of each menu item in time to order from the procurement unit. Good forecasts are essential for managers in planning smooth transi-tions from current to future output, regardless of the size or type of the foodservice (i.e., schools, hospitals, or restaurants). Forecasts vary in sophistication from those based on historical records and intuition to complex models requiring large amounts of data and computer time. Choosing a forecasting model that is suitable for a particular situation is essential.

handling trash

The following general rules apply to trash and garbage handling in the foodservice operation: Garbage and trash containers must be leakproof, easily cleanable, pest-proof, and durable with tight-fitting lids. Today, plastic bags frequently are used for lining containers to facil-itate disposal. • Garbage and trash should not be allowed to accumulate anywhere but in containers. • Garbage and trash should be removed from production areas on a frequent basis for appro-priate disposal. • Garbage storage areas should be easily cleanable and pest-proof. If long holding times for garbage are required, these areas should be refrigerated to prevent decomposition, odor, and infestation by vermin. • A garbage can washing area with hot water and a floor drain should be located away from food production and storage areas.

adapting recipes example

The following suggestions are given for ex-panding recipes from home to quantity size: • Know exactly what ingredients are used and in what quantity. • Make the recipe in the original home-size quantity following instructions exactly and not-ing any unclear procedures or ingredient amounts. • Evaluate the product for acceptability to determine if the recipe has potential for expansion. • Proceed in incremental stages in expanding the recipe, keeping in mind the quality and appearance of the original product. Evaluate quality at each stage, deciding if modifications are necessary as the recipe is adjusted. • Determine handling or cooking losses after increasing the recipe to an amount close to 100 servings; usually 5 to 8% loss is typical. The actual yield of the recipe should be reviewed carefully. Mixing, cooking, and preparation times should be noted, especially for produc-ing the item in quantity, because these items increase substantially for quantity production. • Check ingredient proportion against a standard large quantity recipe for a product of simi-lar type to assess balance of ingredients. • As with standardized recipes, evaluate products using taste panels and customer acceptance assessments before recipes are added to the permanent file.

sources of energy

The foodservice industry is as dependent on steady sources of energy as are many manu-facturing industries. The final product, food that is ready to eat, depends greatly on energy-consuming equipment: refrigerators, freezers, ovens, ranges, fryers, holding equipment, dish machines, water heaters, and air-conditioning. The space in which personnel work and customers are served must be lighted, heated, cooled, and ventilated. In many foodservice operations, transportation also may be a major consumer of energy. The commissary foodservice, for example, is highly depen-dent on transportation, and any boosts in gasoline costs will increase the total meal cost. In the foodservice systems model discussed in Chapter 1, the elements of the foodservice system were outlined, identifying utilities as an operational resource or input into the system. Obviously, heating, cooling, and lighting are important in each of the functional subsystems: procurement, production, distribution and service, and sanitation and maintenance. The qual-ity of the products and services, or the outputs, requires energy-dependent equipment and pro-cesses. As with any resource, control measures are needed to ensure effective use of energy in the foodservice system (the control element). Various records (the memory element) are needed to monitor energy use.

tipping 2

The foodservice manager must be aware of federal and state legislation and regulations that have provisions covering tipping and tipped employees. Employee tips are a source of in-come. This income must be reported to all applicable agencies. Although ultimately the respon-sibility of tip reporting is an employee's, foodservice operations can be required to pay payroll tax on tip income if unreporting is found. The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) has established three types of voluntary compliance agreements for reporting tips: Tip Reporting Alternative Commitment (TRAC), Tip Rate Deter-mination Agreement (TRDA), and Employer-designed Tip Reporting Alternative Commitment (EmTRAC). Each varies according to whether employees sign agreements, what type of em-ployee training is needed, how tips will be reported, and what information is provided to the IRS. Additional information is available at www.irs.gov.

Time series model

The frequently used time series forecasting model involves the assumption that actual occurrences follow an identifiable pattern over time. Although time series data have a specific relationship to time, deviations in the data make forecasting difficult. To reduce the in-fluence of these deviations, several methods have been developed for smoothing the data curve. The time series models are the most suitable for short-term forecasts in foodservice operations. Actual data may indicate a trend in a general sense but not give accurate forecast informa-tion. To make the past data useful, variations must be reduced to a trend line that can be extended into the future. Two time series models, moving average and exponential smoothing, are used more frequently in forecasting for foodservice than any other type, although causal models may be used as well.

Recipe standardization

The ideal of every manager is to have recipes that consistently deliver the same quantity and quality product when followed precisely. Printed recipes from various sources will not guar-antee uniform products in every foodservice. Variations in ingredient characteristics, customer demands, personnel, and equipment may require alterations to the recipe or even preclude its successful use. Production procedures are complicated and difficult to establish because many people are involved, each of whom has definite ideas about how a product should be prepared. Recipe standardization, or the process of tailoring a recipe to suit a particular purpose in a specific foodservice operation (Buchanan, 1993), is one of the most important responsibilities of a production manager.

Information

The important basic information pertaining to the detailed recipe is shown in the heading of the lasagna recipe (Figure 6-8). It includes the yield, portion size, oven temperature, and bak-ing time. Ingredients are listed in order of use in four procedural groups. Amounts are given to the right of the ingredients. Standard U.S. weights and measures are generally used for all ingre-dients except small amounts of spices and oil, which are given in the common household units of teaspoons (tsp) and tablespoons (Tbsp). Nutritive values per portion are provided. Production, service, and storage procedures that will prevent or reduce the hazards of potentially hazardous foods are included. In addition, food safety standards are given for the menu items in the notes on the bottom of the recipe.

TTC of products

The integral nature of time-temperature relationships is perhaps best illustrated with baked products in which accurate timing and temperature control are critical to producing high-quality products. For example, a cake baked at too high a temperature will cook too quickly on the out-side before the baking powder or soda has produced expansion in the batter. As a result, the cake will crack and become too firm before it is baked internally.

ingredient room clerk

The job description for an ingredient room clerk depends on the activities included in the procedures for the ingredient room. An example of a job description is shown in Figure 6-7. The following factors are among those to consider in scheduling personnel for ingredient assembly: • Size of operation • Frequency and time of deliveries • Size of ingredient room and location of other storage areas • Type, number, and complexity of menu items to be assembled • Number of workstations to be supplied • Schedule for delivery of ingredients to production and serving areas • Extent of prepreparation performed in ingredient assembly area The larger the operation, the more complex the menu; and the greater the amount of prepa-ration work, the more employees that are needed.

Exponential smoothing

The judgment factor, a, is a number between 0 and 1 and is used to adjust for any errors in previous forecasts. a is the weight assigned to the most recent customer demand and 1 − a is the weight for the most recent forecast. When a has a value close to 1, the new forecast will include a substantial adjustment for any error that occurred in the preceding forecast. Conversely, when a is close to 0, the new forecast will not show much adjustment for the error from the one before. The value of a has been tested in foodservice, and if no major changes occur in the data, customer demand for succeeding weeks is not expected to differ greatly from the past (Messersmith & Miller, 1992). An a of 0.3 is commonly used for demand, leav-ing 0.7 for the forecast. The most recent forecast values are multiplied by the 1 − a quantity, which places a greater weight on recent values. The 1 − a quantity acquires exponents in in-creasing order as the forecast is repeated, thus decreasing weights of older values and having a lesser influence on the trend curve than more recent data. The mathematical expression for this smoothing model is

dry heat

The major methods of cooking without liquid are roasting, baking, oven frying, broiling, grill-ing, barbecuing, rotisserie cooking, and frying, including sauteeing, pan frying, and deep fat frying. Some foodservice managers contend that including foods cooked in oil as dry cooking does not make sense because oil is wet. Perhaps three methods of cooking should be recognized: cooking in liquids, cooking in dry heat, and cooking in oil. In this text, however, frying in oil will be included under dry heat (Spears, 1999).

Food code

The model Food Code is neither federal law nor federal regulation. Rather, it represents the FDA's best advice for a uniform system of regulation to ensure that food is safe and properly protected. Each state, county, and city health department has the option to adopt all or part of the code, thus food safety regulations often vary in different health department jurisdictions. Food safety information included in this chapter will reflect recommendations in Food Code (2013). Those using this text should check with their local health department to determine specific regulations for local foodservice operations. Without question, public awareness has made consumers more cautious about the handling of food at home (Featsent, 1998). Nationwide recalls of meat and produce items have created increased customer awareness and scrutiny of the food supply. Foodservice managers must eliminate any perception of food safety risk in their operations.

Moving average forecasting model

The most common and easiest of the time series models is the moving average forecast-ing model. The process begins by taking the average of the number of portions sold for the last five or more times the menu item was offered as the first point on the trend line. The second point on the line is determined by dropping the first number and adding the most recent number of portions sold to the bottom of the list and then calculating another average. The repetitive process continues for all data.

combustion 2

The most common items being recycled were cardboard (84%), aluminum (79%), cooking oil and grease (79%), and paper (78%). The most common source reduction method reported was a reusable mug or cup program (74%). In addition, operators were decreasing the use of disposables and purchasing in bulk. Challenges noted by operators included lack of recyclers in the area (39%) and lack of customer interest (32%). Regionalization occurs when two or more counties or governments combine resources to site a landfill or develop a system for waste disposal for their communities. Some communi-ties use transfer stations to manage their solid waste. After being collected and compacted at a transfer station, the solid waste is taken to a landfill in another area of the state or in a nearby state. Some communities are now transporting garbage more than 100 miles for legal disposal (Mason, Shanklin, Hee Wie, & Wolfe, 1999). Bioremediation companies take advantage of a technological breakthrough to offer a biolog-ical solution to an old and nagging restaurant problem, clogged drains and grease traps (Yaffar & Dibner, 1992). Restaurant managers can use a drain-cleaning company or a plumber whenever an emergency occurs or can hire a bioremediation company that can establish a chemical or biological preventive maintenance program. The biological solution is to use bacteria to break down animal fats and food products that clog drains. Naturally occurring organisms that grow on grease, flour, and other foods have been isolated. Once the food source is depleted, the organisms die and the environment returns to its original natural state. Using chemical or biological solutions on a regular basis provides preventive maintenance for a serious problem and is a known fixed cost in the budget.

table service 2

The most common method of table service in the United States, often referred to as American-style service, involves plating the food in the kitchen or service kitchen and then pre-senting it to the guest. In more elaborate service, often referred to as French style, food is pre-pared at the table—as with bananas Foster or steak Diane. Another type of table service is called family style, in which food is brought to the table on platters or in bowls by the waitstaff and then passed around the table by guests. Restaurants featuring country fried chicken or barbecue ribs will frequently feature family-style service, as do some elementary schools, residential psychiat-ric facilities, and nursing homes. A well-trained and courteous waitstaff and other service employees are the keys to suc-cessful table service operations. In upscale restaurants offering sophisticated service, the job of the waitstaff is highly specialized and truly an art.

moist heat

The most common moist heat methods of cooking are boiling, simmering, stewing, poaching, blanching, braising, and steaming. These methods are similar with only slight differences (Spears, 1999). To boil, simmer, stew, or poach means to cook a food in water or a seasoned liquid. The temperature of the liquid determines the method. To boil means to cook in a liquid that is boiling rapidly. Boiling generally is reserved for certain vegetables and starches. The high temperature toughens the proteins of meat, fish, and eggs, and the rapid movement breaks delicate foods.

regression analysis forecasting models

The most commonly adopted causal models are called regression analysis forecasting models. Following standard statistical terminology, the items being forecast are called depen-dent variables, and the factors determining the value of the dependent variables are called the independent variables. Regression models require a history of data for the dependent and independent variables to permit plotting over time. Once this is done, the regression process involves finding an equation for a line that minimizes the deviations of the dependent variable from it. Two principal kinds of regression models are linear and multiple.

HACCP 2

The original HACCP model was modified for use in foodservice operations by Bobeng and David (1978) to include not only microbiological but also nutritive and sensory quality. They applied the model to quality control of entrée production in conventional, cook-chill, and cook-freeze hospital foodservice operations. HACCP models were developed during three phases: selection of control points, using flow diagrams; identification of critical control points; and establishment of monitors for control. In 1988, the National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods (NACMCF) was formed to provide guidance and recommendations to the Secretary of Agri-culture and the Secretary of Health and Human Services regarding the microbiological safety of foods. The NACMCF, an advisory committee chartered under the U.S. Department of Agriculture, includes participants from the USDA (Food Safety and Inspection Service), the Department of Health and Human Services (U.S. Food and Drug Administration and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention), the Department of Commerce (National Marine Fisheries Service), the Department of Defense (Office of the Army Surgeon General), academia, industry, and state employees. In November 1992,

pod tray

The pod tray assembly process deconstructs the traditional trayline assembly process into several small units that each are involved in assembling trays. A pod typically is T-or U-shaped with a steam table at its tip, one or two work tables and portable refrigerated units running perpendicular to the steam table. The pods are typically staffed by two or three people, one to dish hot food items and one or two to assemble trays. Often those who pass trays are the ones to assemble the trays. Schilling (2009) describes use of the pod tray assembly system at WakeMed Health & Hospitals, Shands at the University of Florida, NYU Langone Medical Center, and Saint Peter's University Hospital. Foodservice directors at these facilities indicate that the pod system reduces time to assemble trays and increases staff accountability as fewer people are re-sponsible for assembling a tray.

Function of ingredient room

The primary function of the ingredient room is to coordinate assembly, prepreparation, mea-suring, and weighing of the ingredients to meet both the daily production needs and the ad-vance preparation needs of recipes for future meals. Specific activities vary among foodservice operations, but ingredient rooms generally operate 24 hours in advance of production needs (Buchanan, 1993).

procedural dimensions of service

The procedural dimension of service quality focuses on the type and timing of service and in-cludes timeliness, incremental flow, anticipation, communication, feedback, accommodation, and organization and supervision. The personal dimension focuses on the style of service and includes three key indicators: attitude, verbal skills, and behavior. Martin (2002) suggests a six-step approach to quality customer service. The desired out-come is not only the proper service knowledge and attitude but also server behavior patterns necessary for providing quality service. Martin's six-step approach is as follows: 1. Understand customer procedural and personal service expectations. 2. Establish a quality service culture and leadership climate. 3. Institute clear and concise service-delivery standards. 4. Incorporate service standards into organizational systems. 5. Assess progress and reward successes. 6. Continually work on improving quality service.

production schedule

The production schedule generally is posted on a bulletin board in the unit. The name of the employee in the left-hand column readily enables personnel to find designated duties. The menu item column identifies the recipe by name. Often the unit supervisor will distribute the recipes, either in card form or as a computer printout, to the appropriate employees at the time the schedule is posted. The quantity to prepare is the forecast amount for each menu item. The actual yield is the portion count produced by the recipe. Standardized recipes should include portion size and count on the recipe. This information also may be placed on the production schedule. Note that the actual yield could indicate overproduction for some items and underproduction for others. The comments column, completed by the unit supervisor, gives special information and com-ments on equipment to be used and service instructions. In addition, this column should contain any specific information not included in the recipe, such as for hard cooked eggs, "Do not hold for more than 30 minutes on line," and for bacon, "Use convection oven."

TTC 2

The proper control of temperature often is dependent on thermostats, which control tem-perature automatically and precisely. A well-designed thermostat should not be affected by changes in ambient temperatures but instead should respond quickly to changes on the sensing element and be easily set. The functioning of the thermostat should be checked periodically. Standardized recipes should state temperatures for roasting and baking. Tables should be developed for cooking time and temperature for items on the menu, including end-point tem-peratures for various products. For example, the degree of doneness for meat is best stated in terms of end-point temperature.

government sanitation

The protection of the food supply available to the consumer is the responsibility of governmental agencies at the federal, state, and local levels. Trade associations and institutes, professional so-cieties, and private associations and foundations are especially concerned about microbiological standards of food products. The Los Angeles County Department of Health Services' food-handler certification pro-gram, for example, specifies that all employees involved in food preparation, storage or service must hold a food-handler card, which involves a minimum of 3 hours of training approved by the county health department and successful passing of an food-handling exam. Under their health inspection rating system, restaurants with scores of 90% or higher would receive an "A" grade, 80 to 90% a "B" grade, and 70 to 79% a "C" grade. Detailed inspection cards and grade must be posted in the facility and are available for public view online. The law also requires restaurants to post the location and phone number of the local health department office, permitting custom-ers to file complaints about sanitation.

Sanitation during storing

The receiving area should be designed for ease in cleaning. The floor should be of material that can be easily scrubbed and rinsed and have adequate drains and a water connection nearby to permit hosing down the area. Storage for cleaning supplies should be located conveniently. Because insects tend to congregate near loading docks, adequate control must be provided at this entrance. Floors in the dry storage area must be easy to clean and slip resistant to prevent accidents. External walls and subfloors should be well constructed, insect-and rodent-proof, and insu-lated. Walls and ceilings should be painted light colors, have a smooth surface that is impervious to moisture, and be easy to wash and repair. Products must never be stored on the floor; they should be stored on shelves or pallets to permit frequent floor cleaning. If steam lines, ductwork, and hot water lines must pass through the dry storage area, they should be insulated. Cleanability that promotes sanitation is a significant need in walk-in refrigerators and freezers. Hard-surface, easy-to-clean floors, walls, and fixtures should be of smooth, nonabsorbent material. Special floor cleaning products are available for cleaning and drying floors in cold storage units. Drains to remove scrubbing water and condensate should be located inside walk-ins. Finally, uniform ventilation and adequate lighting should be provided in these units as an aid in maintaining sanitary conditions.

recipe adjustment method

The recipe adjustment method varies with the computer software program, which should be checked at the time of purchase. Research, using various computer programs for recipe ad-justment, has shown a great variation in the quantity of each ingredient and, therefore, the qual-ity of the product (Lawless & Gregoire, 1987-88; Lawless, Gregoire, Canter, & Setser, 1991). The factor method is most commonly used for recipe adjustment in a computer program. Careful evaluation is important in adjusting home-size recipes to quantity production. Some recipes that are suitable for service at home are simply not practical to make in quantity because of the time constraints of large-scale operations. If extensive labor time is required, a product may be too costly for most foodservice operations.

Format on paper

The recipe name is generally in bold letters, either in the middle or to the side, at the top of the recipe card. In most operations, a file coding system is established for quick access to each recipe. For example, major categories can be established for menu items, such as bever-ages, breads, cakes, cheese, cookies, eggs, fish, meat, pies, poultry, salad, sandwiches, soups, and vegetables. Each recipe can be coded with a letter designating the menu item category and a sequential number that identifies the individual recipe. Whatever system is developed should be easy for employees to follow. Methods of maintaining a master file of recipes vary with the foodservice operation. Many organizations have implemented computerized foodservice management systems that provide a database of recipes and allow for recipe adjustments, purchase orders, and costing to be com-pleted quickly. The importance of keeping a backup file of all recipes in a computerized opera-tion cannot be emphasized enough.

Spoilage

The safety of food can be impacted by both spoilage and contamination. Spoilage denotes unfitness for human consumption due to chemical or biological causes. Longrée and Armbruster (1996) identified the following criteria for assuring foods are fit to eat: • The desired stage of development or maturity of the food • Freedom from pollution at any stage in production and subsequent handling • Freedom from objectionable chemical and physical changes resulting from action of food enzymes; activity of microbes, insects, and rodents; invasion of parasites; and damage from pressure, freezing, heating, or drying Freedom from microorganisms and parasites causing foodborne illnesses

Scripting

The staff serving meals often have limited contact with customers, so training of service staff is important. Often this service training includes scripting, the use of predetermined text designed for particular situations. For example, employees may have preset scripts for what to say when entering a patient room, when greeting a customer in the cafeteria, and so on. Training should focus on ways to create a positive experience for the customer during this brief encounter.

bioterrorism

The terrorist attacks in the United States on September 11, 2001 prompted legislation and changes in operational practice to better protect the U.S. food supply. Congress passed and President Bush signed into law on June 12, 2002 the Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act of 2002 (the Bioterrorism Act). Title III of the act focuses on protecting the safety and security of the food supply. Bioterrorism is the intentional use of biological agents or germs to cause illness. A U.S. Department of Homeland Security was formed as part of the Homeland Security Act of 2002 in part to help reduce the vulnerability of the United States to terrorist attacks. The nation's food and water were identified as potential targets for terrorist attacks. In September 2005, the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Drug Administration, and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) be-gan collaborations with private industry and the states in a joint initiative termed the Strategic Partnership Program Agroterrorism (SPPA) Initiative, which is designed to protect the nation's food supply.

Direct reading measurement table method

The third method of recipe adjustment uses direct reading measurement tables. These tables have the advantage of being simple and quick to use and require no mathematical calculations. Tables have been developed for both measured and weighed ingredients.

operational practices

The ultimate goal of a foodservice manager is to assure that a safe food product is served to customers to protect them from foodborne illness. The role of the foodservice manager is to take responsibility for purchasing, producing, and serving safe food to customers and for training employees on a continual basis. Control of the safety of food must focus on the food itself; the people involved in handling food, either as employees or customers; and the facilities and equipment. The legal fees, medical claims, lost wages, and loss of business associated with foodborne illness can be overwhelming (NRA Educational Foundation, 2004).

Recipe verification

The verification phase includes four major processes that should be completed before the product is evaluated: • Review components of the recipe. ◾ Recipe title ◾ Recipe category ◾ Ingredients ◾ Weight/measure for each ingredient ◾ Preparation instructions ◾ Cooking temperature and time ◾ Portion size ◾ Recipe yield ◾ Equipment to be used • Make the recipe. • Verify the recipe yield. • Record changes on the recipe.

mushrooms

There are four categories of mushroom toxins: protoplasmic poisons (amanitin, gyromitrin, orellanine), neurotoxins (ibotenic acid, muscimol, psilocybin), gastrointestinal irri-tants, and disulfiram-like toxins. These toxins are produced naturally by a variety of types of mush-rooms. The toxins cannot be destroyed by cooking or freezing and depending on the type of toxin can cause gastrointestinal distress, neurological impairment, organ failure, and even death. Poison-ing by mushroom toxins most often occurs when eating mushrooms found growing in the wild.

E coli

There currently are four classes of enterovirulent Escherichia coli or E. coli: enterotoxigenic E. coli, enteropathogenic E. coli, enterohemorrhagic E. coli O157:H7, and en-teroinvasive E. coli. The most common is E. coli O157:H7, which is a shiga toxin-producing form that causes Hemorrhagic colitis. E. coli O157:H7 most often has been transmitted by eat-ing raw or undercooked ground beef, and has caused serious illness and death. This bacterium is found in the intestinal tract of cattle and is transferred to the surface of meat during the slaugh-tering process. The bacteria on the surface of cuts such as steaks and roasts are killed when these pieces of meat are grilled or roasted (McCarthy, 1993). Grinding meat, however, transfers the bacteria from the surface to the inside of the product, making E. coli more difficult to kill prompting recommendations by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) (www.usda.gov) that hamburgers and ground meat mixtures be cooked to at least 160°F. Several national recalls have occurred related to ground beef found to be contaminated with E. coli O157:H7.

Scheduling

This text emphasizes production scheduling because it is an important element of produc-tion control that affects the cost of materials, labor, and energy. Regardless of the perfection of the schedule and the assignment of employees to implement it, however, the production employ-ees are the ones who make the schedule work. Realization of this simple fact implies the value of production employee meetings.

PPE 2

Those working in healthcare facilities who may enter patient or resident rooms will need to be familiar with use of transmission precautions and need for PPE when entering rooms of those with droplet, airborne, or contact transmitted illnesses. Depending on the illness, employees entering the room may be required to wear protective gowns, gloves, and/or masks. In some cases food may need to be served on disposable dishes and trays that can be disposed of in the room to prevent the potential of transmission of disease. Healthcare facilities will have charts identifying the precaution needed.

biological contamination

Thousands of species of microorganisms have been identified. Many are harmless, but others, termed pathogens, are harmful and can cause illness or death. Biological contamination occurs when harmful microorganisms contaminate food and cause foodborne illness. Today, foodborne illnesses are recognized as a major health problem in the United States. The CDC estimates that 48 million people get sick, 128,000 are hospitalized, and 3,000 die of foodborne disease in the United States each year (information from www.cdc.gov, 2014). According to the CDC, more than half of all reported foodborne outbreaks were caused by mis-handling food in commercial and onsite foodservices where ready-to-eat (RTE) food is prepared and served to the public. According to economists of the Economic Research Service (ERS) (see www.ers.usda.gov), the most costly foodborne bacterial pathogens are Salmonella, Toxo-plasma gondii, Listeria monoytogenes, Norovirus, and Campylobacter. The ERS estimates the economic costs of medical care, productivity losses, and premature death from these five patho-gens is nearly $14 billion a year (www.ers.usda.gov).

Quantity adjustment

Three procedures have been developed for the quantity adjustment of recipes: the factor method, the percentage method, and direct reading measurement tables. Computer software programs for recipe adjustments are being used in many foodservice opera-tions today to help simplify the quantity adjustment process. Factor Method To increase a recipe using the factor recipe adjustment method, the following steps are followed:

TTC

Time and temperature are critical elements in quantity food production and must be controlled to produce a high-quality product. Excess moisture loss will occur in most products if the cook-ing time is extended even with a correct temperature. Most food production equipment today has timing devices as an integral part of construction. Equipment is available with computer controls that can be programmed by the manufacturer or operator to control cooking times. Temperature is recognized as the common denominator for producing the correct degree of doneness. To assure this degree, temperature gradations vary dramatically for different food categories, depending on the physical and chemical changes that occur as food components reach certain temperatures. When foods are subjected to heat, the physical state is altered as moisture is lost. Chemical changes are complex and differ greatly among various food products. An area in which progress is being made is the development of more sophisticated ways of mea-suring "doneness," such as moisture readings, vapor-content analyzers, and optical sensors to detect color (Riell, 1992).

tipping 1

Tipping waitstaff has been a common practice in table and counter service restaurants and for hotel room service delivery in the United States. In Europe, a common practice is to add a ser-vice charge to restaurant or hotel bills. Tipping is becoming more common for employees who deliver foods to office or home locations. Tips are voluntary; service charges are not. The service charge is a predetermined amount added to each customer's check and is considered part of the restaurant's gross receipts subject to income tax; it is not a tip. The employer is under no obli-gation to give the service charge to the waitstaff. In most cases, however, all employees benefit from it by increases in wages. Tips left in addition to service charges belong to the waitstaff and are treated the same as all voluntary tips by wage and tax laws.

Lack of control

To illustrate how lack of control can create food shortages and drive up food cost, assume the server is not careful in serving the chicken and vegetable stir-fry entrée and heaps, rather than levels off, the product in the ladle. The result of yielding only four ladles per quart and not the intended five has several ramifications. The recipe calculated to serve 600 will serve only about 480, and the desired food cost of $1.00 per serving will increase to $1.25. If a product is substituted because of the 120-portion shortage, additional cost may be incurred; the substitution may be a quickly prepared item that is more expensive than the chicken and vegetable stir-fry entrée, resulting in further cost overruns. Foodservice operations should develop portion control guides to be used by production and service personnel. Table 6-14 shows typical portion sizes for selected menu items served in an employee cafeteria. Training and supervision are necessary to ensure that proper tools and techniques are followed.

different dish machines 246

To illustrate some of the differences in dishmachines, the Hobart brand will be used as an example (Figure 8-13a-c). Dishmachines generally are classified by the number of tanks they have and dishes are moved through the machine in racks or on a conveyor belt. • Single tank. For plates, cups, silverware, or glasses. Scrapping is a dishwasher term used for disposing of fragments of discarded or leftover food. The single tank model shown in Figure 8-13a has two doors that can be manually opened and one combined wash-and-rinse tank. It holds a rack of dishes that does not move. A tall version of this machine is available that can hold 18 in. 3 26 in. sheet pans or up to a 60-quart mixing bowl. • Rack conveyor. Dishes are still racked to be cleaned in the rack conveyor dishmachine models shown in Figure 8-13b. After dishes are scrapped and sorted, they are placed in racks and the racks with soiled dishes are put on a conveyor that moves the racks through the dishmachine. Rack conveyor dishmachines have one, two, or three tanks. The two-tank machine has prewash and power-wash tanks, and the three-tank machine has a heavy-duty power prewash, power-wash, and power-rinse. The prewash tank has powerful jets that use overflow detergent water from the power-wash tank to quickly strip soil from the dishes. • Flight-type continuous conveyor. This dishmachine is typically used in high-volume op-erations. As shown in Figure 8-13c, rather than being placed in racks, plates and trays are placed between rows of plastic pegs on a conveyor; smaller items such as glasses, cups, and flatware are racked before sending them through the machine.

crisis manager

To illustrate the dependence of the foodservice system on energy, consider the crisis a manager faces when confronted with a power failure at a critical time during production or ser-vice. Loss of power, if prolonged, also has tremendous implications for loss of food in refriger-ators or freezers. An abundance of energy resources has been available in the United States through most of its history. However, an ever-increasing demand for energy has led to increased reliance on an imported supply, particularly for crude oil.

Factor method 1

To illustrate use of the factor method, assume a college residence hall foodservice has ham loaf on the menu. The recipe in the file is for 50 portions; however, the forecast production demand is 250 portions. Using the procedure outlined previously, the ham loaf recipe would be adjusted to the desired number of servings by first converting the ingredients, as appropriate, to decimal equivalents, as shown in Table 6-4. The conversion factor to adjust the base recipe from 50 to 250 portions would be determined by dividing the 250 by 50; the resulting factor is 5. The next step is to multiply the ingredient amounts by the factor. To assist the cooks in using the recipe, ingredients for 250 portions of ham loaf would be stated in pounds and ounces or quarts and cups, as shown in the last column in Table 6-5.

Temp 160

To prevent E. coli breakouts, hamburgers should be cooked thoroughly to 160°F. USDA's Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) emphasizes using a meat thermometer, based on research that indicates some ground meat may turn prematurely brown before a safe internal temperature of 160°F has been reached (USDA FSIS, 2015). New research shows that prema-ture browning may be more prevalent than originally thought and may occur under normal con-sumer handling conditions. Other research findings show that some ground meat patties cooked to 160°F or above may remain pink in color for a variety of reasons. FSIS alerts consumers that the color of meat is no longer considered a reliable indicator of ground beef safety. A meat ther-mometer is the most reliable way to reduce the risk of foodborne illness. An "instant read" ther-mometer should be used toward the end of the cooking time and register a temperature in about 15 seconds. The meat thermometer should penetrate the thickest part of the hamburger. If a beef patty is not thick enough to check from the top, the thermometer may be inserted sideways. Time and temperature are closely related elements in cooking. Some foods, like prime rib roast, can be cooked for a longer period of time at lower temperatures to achieve the de-sired degree of doneness; others, like strip steak, should be cooked for a shorter time at higher temperatures.

steamers

To steam is to cook foods by exposing them directly to steam. Steam, the gaseous form of water, is often used for cooking in foodservice operations because it is a very efficient heat transfer medium. The heat transfer rate of steam is 300 Btu as compared to 7 Btu in a con-vection oven and 38 Btu on a griddle. Pressure steamers (2-5 psi low pressure or 15 psi high pressure) work by trapping and removing air that causes steam pressure to build (Spears, 1999). The pressureless convection steamer (Figure 6-11) circulates steam in the cooking chamber to shorten the cooking time. Because the cavity is not under pressure, a pressureless steamer's door may be opened at any time during the process to check cooking progress or to remove or add food. In a pressureless convection steamer, heat transfer from steam to food is accomplished by forced convection caused by a fan inside that encircles the food, thus cooking it without pres-sure. Because of a continuous venting system in pressureless steamers, the result is fast, gentle cooking at a low temperature, 212°F. Pressureless steamers are well suited for a wide range of foods, from fresh to loose pack frozen or frozen block vegetables. Because the steam is continu-ously vented, unwanted flavor transfer from one food to another is eliminated.

Centralized ingredient control 1

Traditionally in foodservice operations, individual cooks obtain recipe ingredients from store-rooms, refrigerators, and freezers. Ingredients are issued in cases, boxes, or bags. In production areas, ingredients that are not currently being used generally are stored in storage bins or on shelves. For example, a cook may keep sugar and flour bins under the work counter and spices and condiments above on a shelf. Keeping track of unused portions of issue units, especially perishable products, provides a challenge for the cook or foodservice manager and leads to decreased control. For example, 5 pounds of frozen mixed vegetables left over from a 30-pound case must be held and used the next time mixed vegetables are on the menu. With the vast number of ingredients used in food-service operations today, controlling partially used packages of food items can become a major challenge. A cook may decide to add the extra mixed vegetables to the soup kettle rather than return the unneeded amount to storage. Such a practice alters the recipe and adds to cost. This is only one example of problems caused by the traditional method of issuing ingredients.

training in sanitation

Trained personnel who have good personal hygiene habits and follow recommended food-handling practices are critical to an effective sanitation program. Equally important are strong leadership by management, provision of appropriate tools and equipment, and continual follow-up. The time, money, and effort that go into a sanitation program are wasted if the foodservice staff is not knowl-edgeable about appropriate sanitation practices (Longrée & Armbruster, 1996). The education of foodservice managers should include microbiology and sanitation to equip them for leadership in design and implementation of inservice sanitation programs. Food Code (2013) stipulates that "based on the risks inherent to the food operation, during inspections and upon request the person in charge shall demonstrate to the regulatory knowledge of food-borne disease prevention, application of the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point prin-ciples, and the requirements of this Code." In many locations, a required certification such as ServSafe® is required to demonstrate this knowledge. Continuing education is needed to main-tain competency.

training 3

Training materials, mini-posters, and other training aids are available from many com-panies and organizations. The mini-posters shown in Figure 8-15 are examples of materials available from the Integrated Food Safety Information Delivery System (www.profoodsafety. org). The posters are available in nine different languages to help train foodservice employees whose first language is not English. Online food safety lessons are available for training employ-ees at the Iowa State University Extension's food safety Web site (www.extension.iastate.edu/ foodsafety). The Iowa State Extension Web site (http://www.extension.iastate.edu/foodsafety/ content/safefood-motivation-toolkit) also has a motivation toolkit that managers can use to help them better motivate employees on safe food practices. Online information is available at the U.S. government food safety Web site (www.foodsafety.gov). The Institute of Child Nutrition (www.nfsmi.org) has a variety of training materials and posters on food safety. The Partnership for Food Safety Education was formed to develop education materials and programs related to food safety for consumers. The Fight BAC!® campaign was developed by the Partnership for Food Safety Education (see www.fightbac.org) to promote food safety.

tray service 1

Tray service, in which food is carried on a tray to a person by a foodservice employee, is used primarily in healthcare institutions and for in-flight meal service in the airline industry. Room service, in which food is served on a tray or on a cart in a customer's hotel or motel room or hospital room, is a variation of tray service. In airline service, food is produced in a commissary by a food contractor that provides meals or snacks according to airline specifications. Specialized tray assembly equipment is tai-lored to the needs of the operation. In flight, thermal support is needed for heat processing of menu items and cold support for chilled items. Controls are required to ensure that the proper number of meals is provided and to monitor other items, ranging from dishes and flatware to in-dividual tea bags. As an illustration of the complexity of airline service, the food may be loaded onto a plane at its departure location and the empty trays unloaded at the destination.

thichinae

Trichinosis is a foodborne disease that affects the muscles of the body and is caused by the Trichinae parasite. Anyone who eats undercooked meat from infected animals can de-velop trichinosis. Although once common in pork and pork products, improved livestock pro-duction practices of using controlled feed rather than allowing pigs to eat garbage has nearly eliminated its existence in pork products. Wild animal meat is the primary sources of trichinella. This disease is preventable, however, if food is cooked to a proper end-point temperature. The USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service recommend that pork be cooked to an end tempera-ture of 160°F.

Ingredient room

Two major aspects of ingredient control are ingredient assembly and use of standardized recipes. An ingredient room, or ingredient assembly area, is designed for measuring ingredients to be transmitted to the various work centers.

verification

Typically a manager would work with one recipe at a time. The review of each of the recipe components should be completed before the recipe is made to help ensure that all necessary in-formation is available for the person who will make the recipe.

Underproduction

Underproduction, the production of less food than is needed for service, can increase costs as much as overproduction. Customers will be disappointed if the menu item is unavail-able, and they often have difficulty in making another selection. Furthermore, underproduction may involve both additional labor costs and often the substitution of a higher-priced item. A wise manager will insist that a similar backup item be available when underproduction occurs. For example, in a university residence hall foodservice, if the grilled meat patties run out, an excellent replacement would be frozen minute steaks, quickly grilled. Such a substitution certainly would increase customer satisfaction even though it hurts the bottom line.

direct energy

Unklesbay (1977) described foodservice labor as having two components: direct and in-direct energy. Direct energy refers to energy expended within the foodservice operation to pro-duce and serve menu items at safe temperatures. It is required for any storage, heating, cooling, packaging, reheating, distributing, or serving functions to be performed for any menu item pre-pared for service within a facility.

four realms of experience

Using these two dimensions, Pine and Gilmore propose four realms for creating an experi-ence: entertainment, education, escapism, and estheticism. Entertainment (passive participation and absorption connection) provides a way to help people enjoy themselves while eating. The animated stage characters that perform at Chuck E. Cheese's are one such example. Education (active participation and absorption connection) involves experiences that engage the mind. For example, signage in a hospital cafeteria sharing nutrition information and information about the local growers/producers who supplied the food being served are ways in which education can occur with a dining experience. A guest experiencing escapism would actively participate and be immersed in the experience. The Mars 2112 restaurant offered such an experience; guests were "transported" to the planet Mars for their dining experience. The final experience realm, esthet-icism, involves passive participation but immersion in the environment. A meal at Rainforest Café is an esthetic experience. Foodservice managers should consider ways to incorporate the four Es into their opera-tions. Moving beyond the service economy to the experience economy will require managers to consider ways to incorporate entertainment, education, escapism, and estheticism into their dining operation.

thermal death time

Various types of bacteria respond differently to temperature. In general, spores of microorganisms are more heat resistant than vegetative mature cells, which are dormant and asexual. Some bacteria form spores inside the wall of their cells when they mature. Spores are more resistant to high heat, low humidity, and other adverse conditions than are vegetative bacterial cells. They may remain dormant for long periods of time and germinate when conditions are favorable into new, sensitive, vegetative cells. The heat resistance of microorganisms is their thermal death time, or the time required at a specified temperature to kill a specified number of vegetative cells or spores under specific conditions. Thermal death depends on the age of the organism, temperature to which it is ex-posed, length of time for which heat is applied, presence of moisture, and nature of the medium. Thus, time and temperature are important in preserving microbiological quality in foods. Time also is a critical component in bacterial growth as a single cell can generate more than a million new cells in a few hours' time. Bacteria need about 4 hours to produce enough cells to cause illness.

Carry over cooking

Various types of thermometers are needed for determining end-point temperatures or for checking the temperature of foods being held. A meat thermometer, for example, should be used to determine the internal temperature of meat. The chart in Table 6-10 shows the internal temperatures of meats at three levels of doneness: rare, medium, and well done. In meat cook-ery, however, carry-over cooking must be taken into account, especially for large cuts of meat. Carry-over cooking means that the internal temperature of the meat will continue to rise even after the meat is removed from the oven. This phenomenon occurs because the outside of the roasting meat is hotter than the inside, and heat continues to be conducted into the meat until the heat is equalized throughout the piece.

vending machines

Vending machines, dubbed the silent salesperson with a built-in cash register, annually move billions of dollars of products and services to customers around the world. Selling items from machines is nearly as old as recorded history, but the impact of vending machines on the U.S. economy was not recognized before the middle 1940s. Even though the external customer communicates only with the vending machines, employees, the internal customer, work behind the scenes to ensure that customer needs are being met. Temperatures must be recorded daily on all perishable food, and strict adherence to the coding, product handling, and rotation procedures must be maintained. Sanitation procedures and schedules must be developed and checked. Em-ployees servicing the machines also must be trained in customer relations because they represent the vending operation when interacting with the customer

vibrio vulnifcus

Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Vibrio vulnificus are bacteria that grow in seawater and can contaminate shellfish such as oysters, clams, and crabs. Both bacteria can cause Vibrio gastroenteritis. Vibrio vulnificus can cause septicemia in diabe-tes. Illness, which results in diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, fever, and chills, occurs when infected shellfish are eaten raw; both bacteria are killed when shellfish is cooked.

viruses

Viruses are small pathogens that are not a complete cell. They multiply in the living cells of the host but not in cooked food. They are capable of causing diseases in plants, animals, and humans. Viruses can be carried in food and water, but they multiply only in the living cell. They are easily transferred between people and between food and people. In many respects, viruses resemble bacteria in that the right temperature, nutrients, moisture, and pH are neces-sary for effective growth and reproduction. Examples of human diseases caused by viruses are influenza, poliomyelitis, chickenpox, and hepatitis, some of which have been associated with foodborne outbreaks. Many viruses are inactivated by high temperatures (149°F-212°F) and by refrigeration. Information about viruses that cause foodborne illness is included in Table 8.3.

ware washing

Ware washing is the process of washing and sanitizing dishes, glassware, flatware, and pots and pans either manually or mechanically. Sinks, dishmachines, and pot and pan washing machines are the most common equipment for this process. Specialized equipment, such as flatware wash-ers and glassware washers, is available.

Losses

When preparing food in quantity, these losses can have a cumulative impact on the number of portions available from a recipe. That loss must be considered when estimating production demand. Total yield and number of portions should be stated in a standardized recipe, taking into account changes in yield that occur from as purchased to edible portion to serving yield. Equipment and cooking procedures also affect food yield. As Table 6-11 shows, the cook-ing method can have a major impact on resulting yield. A russet Burbank potato baked in foil resulted in 94% yield by weight compared with 76% for one baked without foil. Fewer data are available, however, on handling losses during the production and service of food. Studies should be conducted to determine these data and thus have accurate information on production and service yields. In computer-assisted management information systems, data on yields from pur-chase to service are especially important if the computer is to produce reliable information for order-ing, recipe adjustment, production planning, cost, and nutrient composition of food items.

centralized ingredient control

With centralized ingredient control, the cook is issued only the 25 pounds needed for the forecast production demands on the day of service. The excess of 5 pounds is held in frozen storage in the ingredient room until the next time mixed vegetables are needed for a recipe or as a vegetable on a future menu. Control of unused portions is facilitated because storage is located centrally rather than in various work units throughout the kitchen. As Buchanan (1993) indicated, food production includes basically two functions: pre-preparation and production. Traditionally, cooks have performed both functions. Focusing the cooks' efforts and attention on direct production tasks and away from the simple tasks of pre-preparation, which can be assigned to less-skilled employees, can lead to operational efficiencies.

Workplace violence

Workplace violence is defined by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) as violent acts directed toward persons at work or on duty (www.cdc.gov/niosh). Workplace violence includes verbal or written threats, threatening body language, physical as-saults, or aggravated assaults. According to the U.S. Occupational Safety & Health Adminis-tration (OSHA) website (www.osha.gov), more than 2 million workers in the United States are victims of workplace violence each year. The likelihood of workplace violence is increased in organizations such as restaurants and similar foodservice operations that work with the public, have an exchange of money taking place in the organization, and deliver service.

product yeild

Yield is the amount of product resulting at the completion of the various phases of the procure-ment/production/service cycle. It usually is expressed as a definite weight, volume, or serving size. For most foods, losses in volume or weight occur in each phase, although a few foods, such as rice and pasta, increase in volume during production. As purchased (AP) is the amount of food bought before processing to give the number of edible portions required to serve a specific number of customers. The AP weight of meat, fish, and poultry decreases before being cooked for many reasons, such as the removal of skin and bones or trimming of fat. What results is the edible portion (EP), which is the weight of a menu item without skin, bones, and fat available to serve the customer after it is cooked. During cooking, shrinkage occurs, up to 35% for a roast. Carving subtracts another 5% before serving to the customer (Kotschevar & Donnelly, 1999). Buyers must factor in these losses to determine the as served (AS) yield, which is important for menu item pricing. Only delicatessen cold meat and poultry products are 100% edible; the cost of bones, skin, and cooking loss is included in the purchase price. The Food Buying Guide for Child Nutrition Programs (2002), published by the USDA for use in child nutrition programs, provides data on the edible yield percentages of various foods to assist food buyers in planning amounts to purchase. The cooked yields of selected meat, poultry, and fish products are listed next:

Exponential smoothing forecasting model

a popular time series model that can be set up on a computer spreadsheet. It is very similar to the moving average model except that it does not uniformly weigh past observations. Instead, an exponentially decreasing set of weights is used, giving recent values more weight than older ones. Also, the only data required are the weights, the alpha judgment factors, that are applied to the most recent values including the last customer demand and the last forecast, thus eliminating the need to store historical data (Makridakis & Wheelwright, 1989). Alpha-(a) is the judgment factor, or smoothing coefficient, and indicates how well the manager believes the most recent data represent current customer count or number of sales.

refrigerated carts with conduction heat units- cold thermal

benefits: Centralized supervision and control of the meal assembly process. No reassembly of tray components in service area. Good refrigerated temperature retention. Good reheating of hot food items. cons: Carts can be difficult to sanitize. Initial cost of carts is high and maintenance cost can be high. Hot beverages must be added just prior to service. All hot food items must fit on plate or bowl to be on conduction base.

split tray- hot and col thermal retention

benefits: Centralized supervision and control of the meal assembly process. No reassembly of tray components is required in the service areas. Good temperature retention of both hot and cold items. System accommodates late trays within a reasonable period. cons: Cart is heavy and bulky. A motorized version may be required if any ramps are to be negotiated. Carts are difficult to sanitize. Initial cost of the cart is high and maintenance costs can be high. Due to the relatively heavy weight and limited maneuverability, carts and wall surfaces are subject to damage.

Insulated components- hot and cold thermal

benefits: Only the dinner plate and food are insulated. No bases to heat. Hot and cold foods are placed in insulated containers. There is no burn hazard to the attendant or customer. Cold food items can be held longer than 30 minutes. No special insulated delivery cart is required. cons: Additional service ware pieces need to be inventoried, stored, transported, and washed. Attractive insulated components are often taken home by patients as useful mementos of their hospital experience. Hot food-holding time is limited to 30 minutes.

slit cart- cold thermal

benefits: Same as described for refrigerated carts with conduction units. All food items, including hot beverages, can be placed on tray in central assembly area. cons:Cart is heavy and bulky. Initial cost of cart and refrigeration/reheating units very high. Space needed near point of service for refrigerated heating units.

match a tray insulated tray- hot and cold thermal

benefits: Same as described for split tray except that decentralized assembly of meal trays is required prior to service. Maintains hot and cold zones well without external heat or refrigerant sources. Simplicity of transport is achieved. Does not require a heavy, enclosed delivery cart. Stacked trays protect and insulate food. Less load on the dishwashing facility due to disposables. No complex components to repair, replace, or maintain. cons: Same as described for split tray. Additional labor prior to service is needed to reassemble the complete patient meal. Purchase of special disposable dishes results in higher-operational costs. Food-holding time is limited to 45 minutes. Long-range cost could be substantially higher than other systems due to disposable and lease costs. Hot foods may take on a "steamed" appearance in the hot compartment due to relatively small volume and lack of venting. Possible adverse patient reaction to eating from a compartmentalized tray. Trays can be difficult to sanitize completely due to deep cavity construction. Top and bottom tray compartments do not nest; more storage area required. Rigid presentation and placement of dishes is a limitation of the system

covered tray- no thermal

benefits: Tray is a simple standard unit. Equipment cost of the system is low. cons: Requires an immediate and responsive transportation system. High-labor component is required for transportation process. No thermal support is available for entrée and other food items.

Classes of fires pg 219

class A- wood, paper cloth, cardboard, plastics, in a trash can, in drapes or cloth class b- flammable gas like propane or butane and flammable liquids like gas, oil, and paint. fire in butane cooking torch class c- electrical, motors, switches, cords, fire in toaster class d- combustible metals like K, NA, AL, MG, fires during construction work with metals class k- cooking oil and greases such as animal or veg fat, fire in deep fryer or on grill

Regression

in which a0 and a1 are numerical constants determined by the regression analysis. As shown in Figure 6-4, a0 is the intercept of the line on the Y axis and a1 is the slope of the line. In use, X will be a single independent variable quantity. Data points in the figure are the Y (dependent variable) values for specific values of X (independent variable). Preliminary plotting of the variables on graph paper would be advisable to ascertain if they could be represented reason-ably by a straight line. The forecasting value rests on the assumption that the linear relation-ship between the variables will continue for a reasonable time in the future, or quite simply that the line may be extended. Use of the equation requires only substitution of an anticipated future value for X and then solution for Y, which is the forecasting quantity. Examples of in-dependent variables in hospital foodservice are total number of patient trays served, patient census, cafeteria customer capacity, number of employees, number of patients on regular di-ets, and number of patients on each modified diet. For example, roast beef might be a popular item for a foodservice, and the relationship between the historic number of patient trays and the pounds of roast beef could yield a regression equation. To forecast beef demand, an anticipated future count of trays would then be inserted into the equation as X to solve for Y, the pounds of roast beef needed.

Batch cooking

is a variant of production scheduling but is not always done in foodservice operations. In batch cooking, the total estimated quantity of menu items, often vegetables, is divided into smaller quantities, placed in pans ready for final cooking or heating, and then cooked as needed. The example shown in Table 6-2 is a time schedule developed for steaming rice for the dinner meal in a university residence hall foodservice. It illustrates the way in which production can be scheduled to meet the customer demand throughout the meal service time with assurance that a fresh product is being served.

control 2

programs is responsible for making thermometers more sophisticated than they have ever been. The same thermometer often was used for finding out the temperature in a refrigerator or an oven, and results were seldom analyzed. Currently, thermometers are becoming very special-ized; for example, some models are designed for ovens, deep fat fryers, and coffee. All TCS foods should be prepared according to specific HACCP guidelines. The minimum number of thermometers needed in a foodservice operation are the bimetallic stemmed or digital pocket test, refrigerator/freezer/dry storage, hot holding, and meat thermometers shown in Figure 8-9. The third one, called the HACCP Manager, is an electronic device for recording and transmitting temperature, time, and location for any food preparation process that requires accurate record-keeping; a downloading feature allows the user to graph and chart data to review and analyze for corrective action or required recordkeeping. A newer option is infrared thermometers. These thermometers are not inserted into food; rather they use infrared technology to measure the tem-perature of the food on the surface.

Evaluation focus

• Is the visual appearance of the product acceptable? • Is the flavor of the product one that customers might enjoy? • Are the ingredients in the recipe easy to obtain? • Is the cost per serving within department guidelines? • Is the labor time needed to make the product within department guidelines? • Is the equipment needed to prepare the product available? • Do employees possess the skills needed to prepare the product? If foodservice staff members believe a recipe has potential for use in the operation, then a formal evaluation is conducted. A formal evaluation typically includes the following proce-dures (Gregoire & Henroid, 2002): • Selecting a group of staff members and customers as a taste panel • Choosing or developing an evaluation instrument • Preparing a sample recipe • Setting up the sampling area with drinking water, eating and drinking utensils, napkins, and evaluation forms and pencils • Having participants sample and evaluate products • Summarizing results • Determining future plans for the recipe based on evaluation results

types of multifunctional equipment

• The combi-oven, which looks similar to a convection oven, differs in that it directs the flow of both convected air and steam through the oven cavity to produce a super-heated, moist internal atmosphere. Meat, seafood, poultry, vegetables, and even delicate me-ringues, pastries, and breads with a crusty surface can be prepared in this oven. Four cook-ing methods are combined in one unit: convection, steam, convection plus continuous steam, and convection plus cycled steam. The advantage of this combination is its ver-satility, which permits menu expansion with a single piece of equipment, conservation of valuable floor space, and faster cooking with minimal shrinkage and maximum retention of flavor, color, and nutrients. When steam is added to convection-cooked roasts, the meat stays moister (Fellin, 1996). • The tilting skillet or tilting fry pan (Figure 6-16) is a floor-mounted rectangular pan with a gas-or electric-heated flat bottom, pouring lip, and hinged cover. It is considered one of the most versatile of all kitchen equipment, because it combines the advantages of a range, griddle, kettle, oven, stock pot, bain marie, and frying pan. These skillets can cook batches of food, such as pasta, stew, gravies, sauces, and multi-ingredient entrées, and individual orders of bacon and eggs, hamburgers, or steaks. • The convection/microwave oven (Figure 6-17), sometimes referred to as an accelerated cooking oven, is a multifunction piece of equipment with convection and microwave ca-pabilities. It can use convection air alone, microwave energy alone, or a combination of the two. It really is a convection oven that browns, bakes, and roasts and a microwave that steams and cooks foods. Hot-air jets from a convection oven provide surface color and texture, and microwave energy provides major thawing and heating of the product. By combining these two functions, food items can be cooked in a much shorter time than usual, and the product will be juicier on the inside and brown on the outside.