Nutrition: The Carbohydrates (Ch. 4)

stevia

a South American shrub whose leaves are used as a sweetener; sold in the United States as a dietary supplement that provides sweetness without kcalories.

condensation

a chemical reaction in which two reactants combine to yield a larger product.

lactose intolerance

a condition that results from inability to digest the milk sugar lactose; characterized by bloating, gas, abdominal discomfort, and diarrhea.

acidophilus milk

a cultured milk created by adding Lactobacillus acidophilus, a bacterium that breaks down lactose to glucose and galactose, producing a sweet, lactose-free product.

sucrose

a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose; commonly known as table sugar, beet sugar, or cane sugar. It also occurs in many fruits and some vegetables and grains.

lactose

a disaccharide composed of glucose and galactose; commonly known as milk sugar.

maltose

a disaccharide composed of two glucose units; sometimes known as malt sugar.

diabetes

a disorder of carbohydrate metabolism resulting from inadequate or ineffective insulin.

viscous

a gel-like consistency.

dental plaque

a gummy mass of bacteria that grows on teeth and can lead to dental caries and gum disease.

epinephrine

a hormone of the adrenal gland that modulates the stress response; formerly called adrenaline.

insulin

a hormone secreted by special cells in the pancreas in response to (among other things) increased blood glucose concentration. The primary role of this hormone is to control the transport of glucose from the bloodstream into the muscle and fat cells.

glucagon

a hormone that is secreted by special cells in the pancreas in response to low blood glucose concentration and elicits release of glucose from liver glycogen stores.

lactase deficiency

a lack of the enzyme required to digest the disaccharide lactose into its component monosaccharides (glucose and galactose).

glycemic index

a method of classifying foods according to their potential for raising blood glucose.

invert sugar

a mixture of glucose and fructose formed by the hydrolysis of sucrose in a chemical process; sold only in liquid form and sweeter than sucrose. It is used as a food additive to help preserve freshness and prevent shrinkage.

tagatose

a monosaccharide structurally similar to fructose that is incompletely absorbed and thus provides only 1.5 kcalories per gram; approved for use as a "generally recognized as safe" ingredient.

fructose

a monosaccharide. Sometimes known as fruit sugar or levulose, it is found abundantly in fruits, honey, and saps.

galactose

a monosaccharide; part of the disaccharide lactose.

glucose

a monosaccharide; sometimes known as blood sugar or dextrose.

serotonin

a neurotransmitter important in sleep regulation, appetite control, and sensory perception among other roles.

phytic acid

a nonnutrient component of plant seeds; also called phytate (FYE-tate). It occurs in the husks of grains, legumes, and seeds and is capable of binding minerals such as zinc, iron, calcium, magnesium, and copper in insoluble complexes in the intestine, which the body excretes unused.

maple sugar

a sugar (mostly sucrose) purified from the concentrated sap of the sugar maple tree.

corn syrup

a syrup made from cornstarch that has been treated with acid, high temperatures, and enzymes that produce glucose, maltose, and dextrins.

carbohydrates

compounds composed of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen arranged as monosaccharides or multiples of monosaccharides. Most, but not all, have a ratio of one carbon molecule to one water molecule: (CH2O)n.

polysaccharides

compounds composed of many monosaccharides linked together.

Name 3 monosaccharides.

-Glucose -Fructose -Galactose

Name 3 polysaccharides.

-Glycogen -Starches -Fibers

What are the four main types of atoms found in nutrients?

-Hydrogen -Oxygen -Nitrogen -Carbon

Name 3 disaccharides.

-Maltose -Sucrose -Lactose

What makes sugars taste differently?

Their structure.

resistant starches

starches that escape digestion and absorption in the small intestine of healthy people.

What does "saccharide" mean?

sugar

honey

sugar (mostly sucrose) formed from nectar gathered by bees. An enzyme splits the sucrose into glucose and fructose. Composition and flavor vary, but it always contains a mixture of sucrose, fructose, and glucose.

turbinado sugar

sugar produced using the same refining process as white sugar, but without the bleaching and anti-caking treatment. Traces of molasses give it its sandy color.

artificial sweeteners

sugar substitutes that provide negligible, if any, energy; sometimes called nonnutritive sweeteners.

corn sweeteners

corn syrup and sugars derived from corn.

granulated sugar

crystalline sucrose; 99.9% pure.

dental caries

decay of teeth.

confectioners' sugar

finely powdered sucrose, 99.9% pure.

fibers

in plant foods, the nonstarch polysaccharides that are not digested by human digestive enzymes, although some are digested by GI tract bacteria. They include cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectins, gums, and mucilages and the nonpolysaccharides lignins, cutins, and tannins.

soluble fibers

indigestible food components that dissolve in water to form a gel. An example is pectin from fruit, which is used to thicken jellies.

insoluble fibers

indigestible food components that do not dissolve in water. Examples include the tough, fibrous structures found in the strings of celery and the skins of corn kernels.

simple carbohydrates

monosaccharides and disaccharides (sugars).

disaccharides

pairs of monosaccharides linked together.

starches

plant polysaccharides composed of glucose.

complex carbohydrates

polysaccharides composed of straight or branched chains of monosaccharides (starches and fibers).

white sugar

pure sucrose or "table sugar," produced by dissolving, concentrating, and recrystallizing raw sugar.

brown sugar

refined white sugar crystals to which manufacturers have added molasses syrup with natural flavor and color; 91 to 96% pure sucrose.

What does "lysis" mean?

Breaking

What chemical reaction makes a disaccharide?

Condensation

Which two monosaccharides make-up a Sucrose disaccharide?

Glucose & Fructose

Which two monosaccharides make-up a Lactose disaccharide?

Glucose & Galactose

Which two monosaccharides make-up a Maltose disaccharide?

Glucose & Glucose

What chemical reaction breaks a disaccharide?

Hydrolysis

high-fructose corn syrup

a syrup made from cornstarch that has been treated with an enzyme that converts some of the glucose to the sweeter fructose; made especially for use in processed foods and beverages, where it is the predominant sweetener. With a chemical structure similar to sucrose, it has a fructose content of 42, 55, or 90%, with glucose making up the remainder.

hypoglycemia

an abnormally low blood glucose concentration.

glycogen

an animal polysaccharide composed of glucose; manufactured and stored in the liver and muscles as a storage form of glucose. It is not a significant food source of carbohydrate and is not counted as one of the complex carbohydrates in foods.

sucralose

an artificial sweetener approved for use in the United States and Canada; it is made from sugar that has had three of its hydroxyl (OH) groups replaced by chlorine atoms.

acesulfame potassium

an artificial sweetener composed of an organic salt that has been approved for use in both the United States and Canada.

alitame

an artificial sweetener composed of two amino acids (alanine and aspartic acid); FDA approval pending.

aspartame

an artificial sweetener composed of two amino acids (phenylalanine and aspartic acid); approved for use in both the United States and Canada.

neotame

an artificial sweetener composed of two amino acids (phenylalanine and aspartic acid); approved for use in the United States.

saccharin

an artificial sweetener that has been approved for use in the United States. In Canada, approval for use in foods and beverages is pending; currently available only in pharmacies and only as a tabletop sweetener, not as an additive.

cyclamate

an artificial sweetener that is being considered for approval in the United States and is available in Canada as a tabletop sweetener, but not as an additive.

amylase

an enzyme that hydrolyzes amylose (a form of starch). It is a carbohydrase, an enzyme that breaks down carbohydrates.

lactase

an enzyme that hydrolyzes lactose.

maltase

an enzyme that hydrolyzes maltose.

sucrase

an enzyme that hydrolyzes sucrose.

levulose

an older name for fructose.

dextrose

an older name for glucose.

ketosis

an undesirably high concentration of ketone bodies in the blood and urine.

monosaccharides

carbohydrates of the general formula CnH2nOn that consist of a single ring.

sugar replacers

sugarlike compounds that can be derived from fruits or commercially produced from dextrose; also called sugar alcohols or polyols. Sugar alcohols are absorbed more slowly than other sugars and metabolized differently in the human body; they are not readily utilized by ordinary mouth bacteria. Examples are maltitol, mannitol, sorbitol, xylitol, isomalt, and lactitol.

added sugars

sugars and syrups used as an ingredient in the processing and preparation of foods such as breads, cakes, beverages, jellies, and ice cream as well as sugars eaten separately or added to foods at the table.

nutritive sweeteners

sweeteners that yield energy, including both sugars and sugar replacers.

protein-sparing action

the action of carbohydrate (and fat) in providing energy that allows protein to be used for other purposes.

acid-base balance

the equilibrium in the body between acid and base concentrations.

Acceptable Daily Intake

the estimated amount of a sweetener that individuals can safely consume each day over the course of a lifetime without adverse effect.

glycemic response

the extent to which a food raises the blood glucose concentration and elicits an insulin response.

fermentable

the extent to which bacteria in the GI tract can break down fibers to fragments that the body can use.

satiety

the feeling of fullness and satisfaction that food brings.

raw sugar

the first crop of crystals harvested during sugar processing. It cannot be sold in the United States because it contains too much filth (dirt, insect fragments, and the like).

type 1 diabetes

the less common type of diabetes in which the person produces no insulin at all; formerly known as insulindependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) or juvenile-onset diabetes (because it frequently develops in childhood), although some cases arise in adulthood.

gluconeogenesis

the making of glucose from a noncarbohydrate source.

type 2 diabetes

the more common type of diabetes in which the fat cells resist insulin; formerly called noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) or adult-onset diabetes.

ketone bodies

the product of the incomplete breakdown of fat when glucose is not available in the cells.

molasses

the thick brown syrup produced during sugar refining. It retains residual sugar and other by-products and a few minerals.