parenting FINAL EXAM

imaginary audience

--adolescents typically believe that they are the center of everyone's attention and that every move they make is under the scrutiny of an imaginary audience --this contributes to self-consciousness about appearance, what they say, and with whom they are seen --it contains strong elements of egocentrism

co-regulation

--exerted by parents --appropriate parenting can guide children towards regulation of emotions in socially appropriate ways, because the parent can anticipate difficulties and mediate outcomes

adolescence mental health and pregnancy

--early studies of adolescent pregnancy reported many adverse physical complications for the young mother which tend to be directly linked to lack of prenatal care, often because the mother is secretive about the pregnancy --other factors contributing to increased health risks are poverty and lack of access to health care --obtaining adequate prenatal care is likely if the girl is open about her condition and has family support --inadequate nutrition also presents significant problems --mental health can be negatively affected by early childbearing --teen mothers have less social support and personal resources for coping w/ stress --the accumulation of major, potentially traumatic events could precipitate other mental health conditions --substance abuse further jeopardizes the unborn child --many adolescent girls become pregnant because no birth control was used --for some, pregnancy is the result of rape --basic reasons why teenagers become pregnant are: -increased frequency of sexual intercourse at earlier ages -increased social acceptance of teen pregnancy -lack of adequate knowledge of contraceptives and non-use by sexually active teenagers -personal attitudes about sexuality, pregnancy, and parenthood -serious emotional problems, lack of adequate social adjustment, isolation, loneliness and low self-esteem -embarrassment about sexual matters; reluctance to obtain information about contraception -religious beliefs associated w/ guilt, enhancing a reluctance to be informed about sexual matters -eagerness to participate in sexual activity, impulsivity, and peer pressure -feelings of resentment and anger toward a parent, which can facilitate a desire to punish the parent -a desire to prove one's masculinity or femininity, and adult social status -an attempt to create a captive love or to "trap" a mate -perceiving a baby as a substitute for parental, partner, or marital love -behavioral problems, e.g. conduct disorders, delinquency, criminal activity, acting-out behavior, substance abuse -certain social background markers, e.g. single-parent family of origin, level of parental education, early sexual activity by a parent or older siblings, low parental supervision, and low educational involvement -adolescents' cognitive and emotional development usually lags behind physical development. For example, cognitive distortion may give them a sense of invulnerability -the family of origin is influential in shaping a teenager's attitudes about sexual activity, as it models behaviors that influence the adolescent's choices concerning sexual behavior -peer influences may affect a teen's sexual involvement. Many feel a great deal of social pressure to become sexually active, especially girls, who may be particularly susceptible to coercion by males --sociocultural factors, such as religious participation, ethnic background, or the family of origin's socioeconomic status, may influence the probability of a teen's participation in sexual activity

lead parent, co-parent

LEAD PARENT: --a lead-parent or primary parent is the parent who is most readily available to meet the day-to-day needs and demands of the child --it is the parent who can respond to the call from school, who can support the child's extracurricular activities, and may spend more hours of the day with the child --fathers who choose to be the lead-parent in terms of parenting may have more flexible work schedules that allow for this involvement --being lead parents doesn't mean stay-at-home --another variation on the term that is sometimes used is the breadwinner parent, although clearly all these roles can overlap and have flexible boundaries --lead parents can also shift and change depending on work schedules --fathers who are lead parents are slowly gaining momentum in making their parenting needs heard --for instance, they are asking for baby changing stations in men's bathrooms they participate in parent support groups and they are challenging the stereotype that tends to put women into caretaking roles --also seem to flourish in networking with other men who act as lead-parents and generally exhibit competence in their parenting roles CO-PARENT: --coparents can come in various guises and in several contexts --refers to people who team up or collaborate to parent --legitimate form of parenting and can occur in many settings --can have legal implications concerning parental rights and responsibilities --two factors distinguish coparenting from other serious and ongoing commitments to children --first ability to make decisions for the child, which, hopefully, contribute to the child's well-being --the coparents can make things happen for the child; there is financial, legal, educational, health-care or other responsibility that places the coparent in an executive role, where this parental can and should take charge --the coparent may have "ultimate decision-making authority for the child" --second factor has to do with relationship --emotional investment, a mutual bonding and caring --not only does the coparent have a serious interest and commitment to the child, but the child has formed or is forming a significant relationship in return --there is "central attachment and socialization" with the coparent --ideally coparents are emotionally involved w the children they coparent --at the heart of coparenting lies ongoing commitment to a child's well-being in a parental-like manner --coparents can be biological parents in binuclear families who take on parenting roles from two different households because of divorce or separation --coparents can be adults who significantly support parents in the parenting role, or may take over the parenting role for an absent or incapacitated parent --grandparents, supportive family members, friends, and foster parents could act as coparents if they take on permanent and semi-permanent roles w a serious commitment to a child's upbringing --the adults could have a biological link to the child but they need not have this connection --term co-parenting has also been used to describe the roles of a married couple in raising the children, although both parents need not be biological parents as well as of members of intact families fulfilling these roles --the role of coparenting has a lot of flexibility and just as any other significant relationship the quality of the coparenting can vary to reflect a continuum of attitudes ranging from collaborative and supportive to outright uncollaborative and unsupportive --****

developmental stages of adolescence (age groups)

EARLY ADOLESCENCE: --encompasses puberty and involved a variety of physical changes associated w/ sexual maturation --onset of puberty varies --average age at which breast development in girls begins is age 10 but can be as early as age 8 --average age of menarche (first menstrual period) is about 12, or earlier --average age for male puberty is 12 but onset as young as age 9 is w/in the normal range --typically ends at age 16 LATE ADOLESCENCE: --begins at age 16 and continues until age 18 , involves many psychosocial changes as individuals seek increasing.,/

eating disorder and adolescence

--some adolescents have a distorted body image and experience low self-esteem related to concerns about weight that may make them vulnerable to eating disorders --eating disorders can be played out in the family system as a means of control --eating disorders are increasingly recognized as a mental health disorder and should be treated seriously --anorexia nervosa and bulimia are serious eating disorders that affect the health, well-being, and lives of teenagers --both conditions present predominantly in teenage girls, although young men especially those with gender role concerns have also been subject to these conditions --eating disorders have serious consequences that can disturb normal adolescent behavior and development, and anorexia nervosa can result in death --anorexic teenage girls appear to be obsessed with their body weight and have a distorted body image --the condition begins w/ dieting to achieve a particular weight , but continues to a point where it threatens their health and well-being --controlling their weight and what they eat is the focus --strong cultural pressures emphasize slim figures --w/in family system, girls may react against strict, overprotective parents, the lack of adequate personal boundaries, or their inability to individuate and attain personal autonomy --ANOREXIA is a psychological disorder that can have fatal consequence if left untreated -- therapy can involve hospitalization to treat malnutrition and individual psychotherapy to help a teenage girl become more autonomous in less self-destructive ways --family therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy can be helpful in resolving enmeshed familial relationships, improving communication, and helping the family system acquire healthy ways of resolving conflict --BULIMIA involves consuming huge amounts of food that are then purged from the body by vomiting or using excessive amounts of laxatives --consumption occurs in periodic binges and during stressful situations as a means of coping --unlike w/ anorexia, ppl w/ bulimia know that their behavior is not appropriate --they binge and purge in secret to avoid discovery and suffer from feelings of shame and guilt --condition is similar to anorexia because it too revolves around the need to control one's eating and is motivated by a distorted body image --bulimia common method of weight control among adolescent girls, usually are clinically depressed and tendency toward perfection --described as having an obsessive desire to control and manage themselves as well as others in their lives --considered to be heavy dependent on approval of others as basis of self-worth --cultural and family values influence the development of eating disorders, especially among female children --factors can combine in a family ecology to produce a behavioral problem in adolescence --critical family environment, coercive parental controls, and a dominating discourse about body weight within the household can work together to increase the likelihood of an adolescent developing an eating disorder --research also points to biological influences that may cause a genetic predisposition

preschoolers and developmental characteristics (language, brain)

--young brains seem to have an infinite capacity for soaking up information and developing new skills --before mid adolescence, young child can learn another language seemingly by osmosis; absorbing it if she is immersed in a context where the language example is adequately available --during late adolescence and adulthood this window of language opportunity is markedly smaller --the younger child can learn a language w/ a native speaker accent, the older adolescent and adult are likely to carry the accent of their mother tongue into the next language they acquire --if parents want to encourage their child to learn a second or even a third language, middle childhood is the golden decade to do so --attention to the development of special talents should occur during the middle childhood period --older learners may face greater hurdles to master certain skills --school-age increasingly use mental skills as part of their daily lives, many of them involving school activities --children not able to think logically of all the time and that they are learning the basics of various cognitive processes --parents can customize the ways that they provide structure and nurture at an appropriate developmental level --by the time children reach their school-age years, they can understand relationships between events and things --using and comprehending these relationships, children interact w/ objects, symbols, and concepts --their abstract thinking abilities are increasing and they are increasingly able to internalize the environment by using symbolic thought --the begin to understand the functioning of systems by learning that certain inputs elicit certain outcomes --they are now able to use imagery to perform mental actions --CLASSIFICATION improves as children can attend to several attributed or details of a task simultaneously. this may explain why children at this age are attracted to collecting objects such as dolls, model airplanes, buttons, baseball cards, and the like --REVERSIBILITY allows child to understand operations such as addition and subtraction. school-age children learn that subtraction is the reverse operation of addition. science lessons also incorporate this concepts when sunlight is split into its color components using a prism, and by removing the prism, the sunlight is as before --CONSERVATION problems become better understood during this period. Piaget tested this by pouring cup of water into differently shaped containers. preschool-age children would think that a tall, thin container holds more water than a wide, flat one. school-age children understood that the volume did not change and that it had been conserved. additional experience w/ the use of mental imagery helps children to work w/ these concepts --SERIATION is an extensions of classification problems where school-age children become able to scale object according to the concepts of greater than less than --UNDERSTANDING TIME is important in our culture and has bearing on daily behavior. school age children become capable of telling time by reading a clock, and they know the days of the week, the months, and this year. they become more knowledgable regarding what constitutes the past and the figure. an increased ability to understand cause-and-effect relationships helps children to predict what say will occur 3 days from now

sandwich generation

-- the SANDWICH GENERATION refers to adults who are looking after their own parents, as well as their offspring; they are the middle generation with a generation on each side --the middle generation is sandwiched between the needs and demands of the previous, as well as the following generation --many employed parents experience role overload and role strain as they continue to perform family roles in addition to work roles --fueling the problems is the significant role reversal that takes place as the adult-child caregiver assumes greater responsibility, especially if chronic illness and disability is present --burnout contributes to poor-quality caregiving --when the adult-child caregiver works full time, tries to maintain a marital relationship, seeks to conduct their own parent-child relationships, and receives little assistance from siblings or a spouse, they are overburdened --they are referred to as the SANDWICHED GENERATION because of the demands from both the older and younger generations

belsky's process model

--1984 --wanted to throw more light on what was ,at that time, perceived as a neglected area of research. namely socialization of children and contributing influences --he was also interested in factors that facilitated child maltreatment, abuse, and neglect --"the determinants of parenting: a process model" is the title of the historic work by belsky and refers to the reciprocal influences between parents, their children, and a given context --belsky identified three sets on influences or "domains of determinants" as he called them --these were "the personal and psychological resources of the parents, the characteristics of the child, and contextual sources of stress and support" --context included sources that contributed to support, as well as stress; positive and negative influences --of these three domains, belsky thought that the parental personality was the most influential --parents who fulfill their parenting obligations well, require a balanced and competent personality, good impulse control, and they feel satisfies and secure within their own lives --belsky formulated a hierarchy of influences: - the effectiveness of a parent is influences by several factors - these contextual factor include stress and support -these, in turn, affect the parent's psychological well-being -this, in turn, shapes the parenting behavior -the personal psychological resources of the parent are important buffers to ward off stress -these parental qualities are more effective in mitigating stress than the characteristics of the child --in present day parenting is that the adult member of the relationship holds the greater responsibility concerning the outcome of that parenting relationship --in pre-adolescent parenting years, the outcome depends mainly on the parent not the child, as the young child is developmentally not equipped to solely determine that relationship outcome --parents can act as a shield, in that they can envelop their children with their parental love to give them greater resilience --the opposite is also true, as in maltreatment cases; parents acting out with children as their victims, putting those children at great risk physically, emotionally, and socially --parents who maltreat and abuse their children should not place the blame squarely on the children to excuse themselves --think of previous historical times when children were unjustly subjected to extreme punishment because children were thought to be "evil" and in need of correction from their innate "sinful" natures --at that time, the children were blamed for the acts of atrocity committed by the grownups, under the guise of "discipline" --according to belsky, three domains interact, and among these the competence and inner resources of the parent may play the greater role

non-parental child care

--48% of all married couples in the U.S. , both adults are employed outside the home --most single parents are employed --important element of nurturing behavior from caregivers is sensory stimulation that communicates love and nurture to an infant --touching, handling, and stroking express affectionate attention and care --from earliest beginnings, individuals learn to experience love and to express it to others --in infancy, this is thought to occur in relation to the development of an attachment between parents and infants --early experiences in relation to the type of care given to an infant appear to play an influential role in determining later behavior and development --changing structure of American families has resulted in dramatic increases in the number of single-parent families in which the mother is the primary economic provider and in the numbers of dual-earner families in which both adults are gainfully employed --about 56% of all married women over 18 years of age were employed outside the home --about 75% of all children in the U.S. living w/ two parents had at least one parent who was gainfully employed year-round --about 60% of all children in the U.S.under the age of 5 had been in some type of childcare arrangement since they were born --even if a mother is not employed outside the home. many families use child care and non parental child care as enrichment experiences for children and to provide time for the parents' personal enrichment --many families are finding in-home childcare arrangements difficult and prefer nonparental licensed and accredited child care settings --in some young families, the fathers are the primary caregivers, staying home w/ young children to reduce the very high costs of child care and because they like the experience of raising their children, combines w/ a situation that the mother may have the preferable work environment --the quality of the care provided and the continuity of caregivers are among the most important considerations when trying to determine the desirability of non parental child care --nonparental care of infants can offer an enriching experience that enhances and stimulates developmental progress --quality care for infants has the greatest impact on infants from disadvantaged families --most of the studies have found beneficial effects of non parental infant care, but it always has to be seen in the context of the quality and the continuity of the care provided --one of the main sources of nonparental care of infants today is a non relative in a private home, or what is known as family child care --kinship care refers to care provided by a family member --the employment status of mothers contribute significantly toward choosing a childcare provider who is a relative --49% of employed mothers tend to have a relative rather than a non relative provide care for their babies --the stability or consistent use of a nonparental care provider for infants is a major concern for both parents and researchers --changes in the nonparental care provider occur less frequently for infants than for older children --in all, only about on fourth of the families change non parental care providers within a year --changes are more likely to occur when the provider is not a relative

Mildred Parten Newhall's stages of development**

--Mildred Parten Newhall (1902-1970) an American sociologist and researcher of play in the late 1920s and early 1930s, described various dimensions and stages of play in her thesis of 1929 --these came to be known as the "Parten's stages of play" --describes the learning and worked dimensions of play as well as the progression through certain stages as observed from children at play --identified six types of play: unoccupied play, solitary or independent play, onlooker play or onlooker behavior, parallel play, associative play, and cooperative play --each type of play elicited a slight variation of social engagement and reflected the developmental stage of the child --younger children were more likely to play independently and the social, collaborative, or interactive components of play were added later, in synch with the social, emotional, and cognitive development of the child --sometimes children enjoyed being observers in play, and probably learned from their observations --children's play could also be influenced by factors such as how well they knew each other, whether they were comfortable interacting , and whether they had played together before --in a preschool setting for instance, children in one class are likely yo form preferences concerning playmates and types of play activities --despite the historic context of her work, martens stages of play have maintained relevance

responsive parenting

--RESPONSIVE CARE is expressed when a parent determines what a child's needs are, but this determination can only occur because of the feedback loop between parent and child --the parent acts in a trusting and loving manner that generated a sense of trust --it involves noticing and listening to the child and understanding the cues and requests that the child offers --an example would be when the parent notices the child is getting overtired and initiates the bedtime routine, even though the child protests --the parents asserts the right to implement the intervention that is appropriate while considering the best interests of the child --another example would be the parent who notices that the child is running a fever, and responds by giving the medically indicated intervention or seeking professional help --ideally both parent and child interact in an ongoing bidirectional manner and the parent is sensitive to the needs of the child --the care is derived from love that is unconditional --this means that love is given freely , without expectations, limits, or measure --the parent's message to the child is "I love you because you are who you are." --unconditional love and acceptance does not mean that negative or harmful behavior is sanctioned and condoned --instead there is a clear differentiation between the unacceptable behavior, and the unconditional respect for the person --this means that if little Sven scribbles on the white leather couch with an indelible marker, we express our frustration clearly pointing out that the couch is not the drawing board --clearly, we do not want a reoccurrence of the event so we need to guide and point out the boundaries --"this behavior is unacceptable because it destroys the couch that we all like to sit on. If you want to draw, use the paper on your drawing board." --this is a more constructive approach that also guides towards a solution --commentaries about the bad character and meanness of the child are inappropriate as this situation is about the act of drawing in an inappropriate place --it should not be a judgement of character

stages of attachment (all age groups)

--SECURE ATTACHMENT: regarded as successful attachment. provides a sound basis for current and later relationships --ANXIOUS-AMBIVALENT ATTACHMENT: the child is anxious in the presence of strangers, even if the primary caregiver is in the room. child displays some insecurity --ANXIOUS-AVOIDANT ATTACHMENT: the child tends to ignore the caregiver and not display much emotion. limited display of emotion regardless of who is present in the room --DISORGANIZED /DISORIENTED ATTACHMENT: disruption of attachment and freezing. this seems to be the "strategy of desperation" as the child feels overwhelmed

preschoolers and prosocial behavior

--SOCIALIZATION refers to the process of acquiring personal values, attitudes, and behaviors that reflect the demands of the cultural environment --parents and caregivers take an active role in teaching a young child --some lessons are formally taught but majority are modeled and imitated --young children learn the patterns and adopt the rules, expectations, and boundaries that the family system establishes --a child gradually learns to distinguish appropriate from inappropriate behavior --depending on the nature of a particular family system, certain standards may be promotes more than others --despite the diversity of today's families, almost all teach similar behaviors and values to children --part of appropriate socialization is learning social skills --prosocial behaviors promote helpfulness, empathy, and concerns for others, as well as controlling impulsiveness, gaining self-control, and limiting aggression --these altruistic behaviors show an awareness of others people's feelings and appropriate ways of reacting to those feelings --gradually the social skill of empathy is developed which is the ability to accurately comprehend the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others --preschoolers have been documented as having the ability to demonstrate empathy towards peers --in early childhood, empathic responsiveness can be seen when children share belongings or attempt to comfort or help others --these behaviors are not performed as spontaneously or as frequently as parents and others would like to think --when children have opportunities to observe such behaviors, they tend to model them

blended families and conflicts between stepfamily members

--additionally the factors that affect siblings in the first marriages, can potentially be perpetuated in a subsequent marriage --events from the first marriage can infiltrate and have an effect on the second or subsequent marriages --for instance, problems in custodial arrangements, financial responsibilities, and alimony to spouses from previous marriages, can influence the tone of the subsequent marriage --in blended families the nonbiological or stepparent may find it particularly challenging to provide guidance to children who may not see this stepparent as having any authority --new relationships need to be forged before parental responsibilities and privileges of the stepparent gain the same legitimacy as interventions initiated by the biological parent --when blended families are formed, the children in that family have several trajectories of how their relationships w/ the new stepparent might play out --these relationships can vary from being warm and welcoming, to being hostile and rejecting

invincibility

--adolescents typically fall under the spell of a belief in their personal invincibility --they think that bad things happen only to other people and that they are protected or exempt from harm or injury when they take chances w/ risky behaviors --this cognitive flaw perhaps explains why some adolescents undertake risky experimentation w/ drugs, sexual activity, and reckless driving --cognitive neuroscience indicates that the adolescent brain is not yet fully mature, which explains some of the irresponsible behavior and the sense of invincibility

research regarding attachment (all ages: infancy, middle childhood, adolescence)***

--attachment is an attraction to someone that is based on psychological bonding --described as a strong affectional tie between an infant and his or her primary caregivers --tie affects both the parents and the infant --one of the few developmental phenomena that appear to be found universally in all humans and in all cultural settings essential for infant's survival and well-being --when infant fails to attach properly to caregivers, consequences are damaging to his or her emotional. physical, social, and psychological well-being --an infant who is experiencing normal developmental progress behaves in ways that signal a desire to be near caregivers, and the behaviors usually serve to attract the caregivers' attention --infant behaviors that stimulate attachment to caregivers include crying, smiling, clutching, and touching --attachment between infant and primary caregivers believed to occur in four phases and progresses developmentally --it is this progression that caused subsequent researchers to recommend earlier rather than later age of adoption of children --children who spent longer times in orphanages and child homes w/out the ability to attach to a constant set of loving caregivers, are at risk of developing attachment disorders --infants who had been neglected and ignored in early childhood as was the case in some international orphanages, displayed self-mutilating and rocking behavior in an attempt to self soothe INFANTS: 1. UNDISCRIMINATING SOCIAL RESPONSIVENESS: -2 to 3 months of age -stage characterized by infant's orientation toward all humans as seen in the baby's visual tracking, visual exploration, listening and becoming quiet when being addressed by someone, and becoming relaxed when held -opportunities to examine the faces of caregivers appear to facilitate this phase of attachment 2. DISCRIMINATING SOCIAL RESPONSIVENESS -4 to 5 months of age -characterized by infant's recognition of familiar persons , by smiling in response, and by restless behavior when the person leave its field of vision -indicative of this stage is anxiety when encountering unfamiliar people 3. ACTIVE PROXIMITY SEEKING -seeking physical proximity and contact w/ familiar people-occurs at about 7 months of age -at this stage, an infant clings to, crawls toward, and actively seeks to touch and have contact w/ a familiar person 4. GOAL-CORRECTED PARTNERSHIP -occurs at about age 3 and completed attachment process -child has learned to predict behavior of caregivers and adjust his or her own behavior to maintain some degree of physical closeness to them --attachment is important in establishing an infant's sense of basic trust in people and the environment, and in helping the infant feel secure in exploring the environment --children who successfully attach to caregivers learn to express curiosity in their work, which helps promote mental and social growth throughout their lifespan --children who have successfully attached during infancy appear to have a greater capacity to deal q/ novel situations, cope w/ failure, exert greater perseverance w/ others, and maintain healthy self-esteem --attachment is bidirectional MIDDLE CHILDHOOD: -- many benefits in acquiring secure attachments in infancy and early childhood, including higher levels of social competence and self-esteem, the ability to function independently, empathy, leadership skills, and problem-solving abilities in novel situations --children coming from disadvantaged family systems and inadequate caregiving environments are at a higher risk for developing insecure attachments and the likelihood of problems in these areas --those parents who developed secure attachments during their own infancy tend to be more responsive to their own children's signs of distress and to respond appropriately --developmental trauma disorder --can result when children are exposed to prolonged multiple, complex traumas --DSM has had several revisions, and fifth major revision reflects current approaches in the field of psychiatry --attachment disorders present as one main disorder if the DSM-5 approach is used, or as two distinct disorders if the ICD-10 approach is used --mental health and related child and family professionals tend to follow the DSM-5 --ICD refers to the "international classification of diseases" --"insufficient care" represent inadequate caregiving environments --conditions that could facilitate the development of disrupted attachments were labeled as "pathogenic care" and "parental abuse, neglect or serious mishandling" --DSM-5 requires that children who are diagnosed in this manner are at least 9 months of age or older in terms of cognitive age, so that children who are developmentally not capable of displaying focused attachment are not erroneously identified --children who have been traumatized in early childhood through severe neglect or abuse or who spent the early months or even years of their lives in circumstances of severe neglect may present w/ reactive attachment disorder --this condition has been observed in some children who were adopted internationally and who may have spent the first months of life in orphanages, w/out opportunities for appropriate attachment --many of these children may ultimately exhibit either inhibited or disinhibited attachments --disinhibited social engagement disorder ;groups of behaviors tends to focus more on aberrant social behaviors --the children may display disinhibited behavior w/ unfamiliar adults --in familiar settings w/ familiar caretakers their attachment behaviors can seem more appropriate --children w/ a known biological syndrome do not qualify for this diagnosis, and there is some controversy among experts concerning lead characteristics --these conditions have been most extensively studied in young children but longitudinal studies are required to determine long-term outcomes

personal fable***

--belief held by many adolescents telling them that they are special and unique , so much so that none of life's difficulties or problems will affect them regardless of their behavior

Glenn Holl Elder's parenting styles

--best known for his historic work, children of the great depression --studied human development against the backdrop of changing environments, and he showed how these changes in the environment could change lives --examined how the chronosystem affected the outcomes of development over the life span --conducted a classic demographic study that described the styles commonly used by parenting adolescents --at a time when mainstream thinking undervalued the role of fathers as parents as parents, and parent-child interaction was thought to be predominantly unidirectional, he studied the dimensions of parenting on a large scale -AUTOCRATIC: teens are allowed no freedom to express their opinions or to make any decision that affects how they conduct their lives -AUTHORITARIAN: teens are allowed to express their opinions, but parents continue to make decisions that affect their lives -DEMOCRATIC: teens and parents share power, but parents have veto power over the decisions made by teens -PERMISSIVE: teens take an increasing degree of responsibility for their decisions and actions, but with the understanding that parents continue to have input into the decision-making process -EGALITARIAN: teens and parents have equal power and status, and they make decisions through joint effort -LAISSEZ-FAIRE: teens take complete control and responsibility for making decisions about their lives and conduct. Parents understand that they can contribute information and opinions, which teens can freely disregard -IGNORING: parents take no part or have no interest in adolescent's behavior --most parents in this study used democratic or egalitarian styles --stricter styles were more prevalent in larger family systems, among those w/ low incomes, and among those who had younger adolescents --stricter parenting styles may be used more commonly in larger family systems because adults have greater time and reserve management pressures --contemporary family life is hectic when adolescents are present --stricter methods among larger groups may facilitate family functioning to a certain degree, but this may occur at the expense of an adolescent's achievement of high-level individuation

percolator effect

--blended family consists of children from previous partnerships --some newly partnered couples have a child together, and that child is said to cement or solidify their relationship --this child born into this blended family unties the parties as the child is genetically linked to both the mother and the father --the children in these blended families have various roles and influence the family in subtle as well as overt ways --the "percolator" effect refers to the brewing at the base of the family system, which then bubbles to the top, resulting in either negative or positive impacts --in context of stepfamilies, the parenting may be influenced strongly by the children, in other words, come from the bottom up, as children influence and express their needs to their parents --this is in contrast to the original two parents families where some of the parenting initiatives flow from the parent toward the child, or from the top down to the bottom --in this manner, the children can gain a fairly dominant power base within the stepfamily --the PERCOLATOR EFFECT can also be maintained by the relationships between step siblings --in other words, in these step families, the children can play a decisive role in contributing to the climate within the stepfamily --this has been describes]d by Ganong and Coleman, who are leading researchers in the field of stepfamilies and the intricacies of their relationships

infants feeding and breastfeeding

--breastfeeding recommended --has been steady rise in exclusively breast-fed infants especially 3-6 months --implies that mothers are nursing longer and both the mothers and the infants receive the health benefits --stats for U.S. are encouraging and indicate that about 75% of children have been breastfed at some time, meaning that some nursing occurred, supplemented w/ formula --at least a third of all mothers have managed to exclusively breastfeed until the baby was 3 months old; in several states, this figure was as high as 50% meeting one of the goals of healthy people 2020 --there are distinct cultural variations w/ 80% of Hispanic/Latina mothers initiating breast-feeding --initial decisions in providing infant care is to commit to breastfeeding for at least 4-6 months so that the mother's antibodies (proteins that fight infection) can be transmitted to the infant through her breast milk --helps infant to develop increased immunity against disease --almost all fathers are supportive and encourage breastfeeding for their newborns because they have been educated regarding the many benefits to both the mother and the infant --hospital lactation specialists can guide mothers in establishing good lactation patterns and coping w/ nursing --lactation specialist will also counsel mothers concerning pumping breast milk for feeding when she is not available to nurse and supplementation w/ formula, if needed --ideally the mother will produce as much milk as the infant requires --optimal to exclusively breastfeed for 6 months, followed by addition of complementary age-appropriate foods --benefits of nursing extend well beyond the actual infant feeding process --infants who have been breast-fed are less likely to become obese and develop diabetes in later life --mothers who have nursed lower their risk for breast cancer, diabetes and heart disease --mothers who nose lose the weight gained during pregnancy faster --time spent nursing is an excellent bonding opportunity for the infant and the mother --childcare regulations have been adjusted nationally to supports nursing mothers, and it is regarded as a best practice --under certain medical conditions a mother should not nurse because infectious agents can be transmitted via the breast milk (e.g., hepatitis, untreated tuberculosis, and HIV) --certain medications and other substances can be excreted in the milk of lactating mothers --lactating mothers should abstain from nicotine and alcohol and greatly limit their caffeine intake --unscreened human milk should not be fed to another mother's child; an infant should receive the milk from its own biological mother --breast milk purchased and the donor mother will have been screened and the milk pasteurized --some hospitals maintain milk banks that adhere to strict guidelines --nursing mothers can donate their extra milks to milk bank depots --sucking reflex is one of the earliest reflexes to appeal during prenatal development and is exceptionally well developed at birth in full-term newborns --this necessary reflex, easily elicited by almost any stimulation to the lips, cheeks, or mouth area, ensures that an infant can obtain nourishment before teeth emerge for chewing --the infant also has a rooting reflex, seeking out the mother's breast in order to nurse --most normal infants require feeding evert 2-4 hours during the first few months after birth --after adding solid foods to a baby's diet usually after about the sixth month, the number of feedings is reduced and continues to decline as the infant grows older --mothers can continue to supplement feedings w/ breast milk

preschoolers and temper tantrums

--children reveal a somewhat predictable rhythm that can be identified by the sound of the child's crying, as well as some other behavioral cues --two aspects to a tantrum, not necessarily sequential --they can occur together --there is intense frustration, which can be linked to kicking, yelling, screaming, throwing objects, or pulling things over --the second cluster of emotions has more to do w/ seeking comfort and can be recognized by whimpering and sadness --potegal and knutson concluded that parental intervention should match where the child is emotionally during the tantrum --trying to get beyond the angriest point is best done by not interrupting --trying to console children while they are angry and frustrated seems to prolong the tantrum and escalate the behavior --often the tantrum will suddenly "deflate" and be over --parents learn to recognize the rhythm of a tantrum and to console their child when the child is consolable --some children react w/ a tantrum when they are overstimulated or overtired --it may be tough for a parent, especially if the tantrum occurs in a public place --if that happens, it may be best to leave the public venue w/ the child as quickly as possible, and to deal w/ the outburst in privacy --as children learn to self-regulate, they are better able to deal w/minor frustrations --at the same time, parents become more competent at parenting appropriately, defusing inflammable situations, and anticipating their child's needs

infants' language acquisition and cognitive development

--cognitive development is initially predominantly judged by physical development and reaching developmental milestones --parents and caregivers play an important role in facilitating cognitive development through their interactions w/ infants and the experiences that they provide --they provide the serve and return loop, which engages the toddler in a mutually satisfying interaction --parents guide an infant to learn cues for appropriate behavior, to understand that it is appropriate to experience the world via their senses, and to be curious about exploring their environment --parents "serve" experiences to the toddlers, who then "return" that serve in a bidirectional manner --essentially, when playing with their baby, parents begin to socialize the child into their family values system, their cultural system and the importance of social interactions --as development takes place and interactions continue , an infant will look for an object thats been covered up w/ a cloth by searching for it --the time-honored game of peek-a-boo is a classic exercise in helping infants to learn object permanence --an understanding develops that an object or person continues to exist even though it cannot be seen --in vygotsky's terms it was described as the zone of proximal development --parents can support and guide infants in activities and interactions that they could not achieve on their own --research also points to the ability of parents to stimulate their baby's brain development through what are termed enrichment activities --these interactions include a variety of play equipment, sensory experiences, the use of language, and social interactions --rewarding or praising the baby when it is responsive to such activities is also important --in addition, when infants are securely attached to parents their cognitive and brain development are enhanced as well --the role of language emerges during this period as the basis for learning and development during the later stages of cognitive development --language acquisition is a crucial foundation in development and communication, and parents perform a significant role in helping infants to communicate --historical work of Chomsky presumed that there is a basic brain pattern and anatomy to support language development at birth, and this is shaped and influenced by parents when they talk to and interact with their baby, regardless of the particular language spoken in the home --babies initially babble in universal sounds but as they are exposed to role models, they imitate the sound ranges found within their mother tongue --the presence of mirror neurons in the brain is thought to contribute to language acquisition --important to talk to babies and infants in order to provide them w/ communication cues so that they learn the turn-taking behavior in the communication process and can model the language --receptive language is acquired a little ahead of expressive language; in other words, a child will understand more than the child can verbalize --receptive refers to the comprehension of a language, whereas expressive refers to producing speech and communicating meaning or intent -- by 18 months , children can usually use two-word combinations, and by age 3 the basics of a language system are in place-truly a developmental miracle --linguistic ability forms one of the cornerstones of intelligence testing, and in typically developing children, verbal skills can be a good indicator of mental ability --it is tempting to use "baby talk" but it may be helpful to use simple, correct language, thereby modeling desirable language --bilingualism enhances brain development because the child will engage additional potential --children can become bilingual if exposed to the second language consistently and preferably before adolescence --a linguistic window of opportunity that should be used during childhood if the child is going to have the privilege of bilingualism, or even multilingualism --languages should be separated by person or place --mixing languages within one sentence or providing a poor example of the language is not helpful --language acquisition is a perfect example of the "serve and return" principle -expose infants to language by speaking to and with them -give infants and young children models of verbal expression --respond to them when they baby, coo, or communicate in any form -encourage speaking by listening and initiating verbal interaction -encourage interactive activities and stories -read stories; expose children to books -expose children to another language in a consistent manner, if possible

conservation

--conservation problems become better understood during this period --piaget tested this concept with children by pouring a cup of water into differently shaped containers --preschool-age children would think that a tall, thin container holds more water than a wide, flat one --school-age children understood that the volume did not change and that it had been conserved --additional experience with the use of mental imagery helps children to work with the concepts

LGBT and adolescent

--during adolescence, gender roles become more clearly established --sexual orientation serves as the foundation of sexual identity --sexual orientation is influenced by interacting genetic, biological, and environmental factors beginning prenatally --as a society, we have become more understanding of the continuum on which sexual identity may be expressed, and our social values have adjusted accordingly --adolescents who identify themselves as LGBT or who expresses gender dysphoria, require the same emotional acceptance and support offered to any adolescent in each of their identity --likewise, adolescents who identify as LGBT should be afforded equivalent types of social experiences available to heterosexual teens --young adolescents are similarly concerned about peer acceptance and tend to relate to a supportive peer group --family rejection as one of the most harmful risk factors for LGBT young adults and young people expressing gender dysphoria --encouraging though, is that family, friend, and peer group support can be tremendously influential and can be identified as a predictor to positive outcomes and a protective factor --of all the forms of support, the strongest overall influence is exerted by family acceptance --there is a very important lesson in this; the home and the family are the closest layers of love and support enveloping an emerging adult --as parents, we need to get it right and create an environment of unconditional acceptance of our children, including their sexual orientation --ultimately, with individual and societal support, a fully integrated personal identity and related positive life outcomes should be the desired outcome for all adolescents, irrespective of their gender identity

children with exceptionalities

--exceptionalities can involve visual, auditory, speech and motor abilities, or providing self-care, together known as activities of daily living --these special needs can create unusual demands on family systems and parents --in some situations, children have unique developmental challenges that label them as exceptional --in addition to educational program in schools, community-based programs for assisting children w/ exceptionalities and their families have been developed as a result of legislation at the state and federal levels --the definition of exceptional children was formerly restricted to those w/ emotional, developmental, or intellectual disabilities that placed them at a disadvantage in their ability to function w/in the larger society --recently meaning of exceptionality has been broadened to include individuals w/ learning disorders and other disabilities --exceptionalities include: -autism spectrum disorders -blindness -deafness -emotional disturbance -hearing impairment -intellectual disability -multiple disabilities -orthopedic impairment -other health impairments -specific learning disability -speech or language impairment -traumatic brain injury -visual impairment --children w/ special needs served under IDEA represent about 13% of the student population for U.S. --another category of exceptional children and youth are those who demonstrate high potential and are identifies as gifted and talented --nationally 6.7% of children and youth are identified as gifted and talented --males w/ special needs outnumber females --process for including a child in any of the categories of disabilities involves extensive, comprehensive evaluation by a variety of medical, psychological, and educational professionals --some children have special needs because of chronic, potentially life-threatening conditions, such as diabetes or cancer --these children may miss school while undergoing treatment and may need some accommodations in the school environment

research regarding frequency and proximity of contact

--geographic proximity is an additional factor influencing frequency of contact --the variety of electronic communication possibilities may make it easier to bridge the long-distance communication gap, if the oldest generation is able and willing to become or remain technologically engaged --the research indicates that frequency of contact is more important than proximity in determining the emotional closeness between the older and the youngest generations --a wise adage concerning parenting also applies to grand parenting: "if there isn't enough quantity, there can't be enough quality" --sustaining a meaningful and rewarding intergenerational relationship requires an investment of (especially) time, reflected in frequency of contact --admittedly, geographical closeness may facilitate frequency of contact and support mutual assistance --even so, the frequency with which the grandparental generation interacts w/ other generations will be mediated by other factors such as cultural and ethnic value systems, gender, and social class, and it is possible that the dimension of expression of closeness between the generations is overemphasized --generally, the research indicates that grandmothers tend to initiate and maintain greater frequency of contact than grandfathers --of all the dyads, grandmothers and granddaughters report the closest bonds and this has been referred to as the "matrifocal tilt" --there may be a gender-based role definition in this older generation that shapes this generation's perception of the demands of the grandparental role

middle childhood and parental employment

--in almost all families, one of the parents is gainfully employed and acts as the lead breadwinner --stay-at-home parent can be either the father or the mother, depending on the job opportunities , earning potential, and the psychological temperament concerning the parenting role --significant increases in fathers who choose to spend the early years raising their children, and cherish this privilege --important outcome of these more recent family and work configurations is that stereotypical gender roles have undergone drastic revisions --new generation of fathers are proud to be able to care for their young children as competently as the mothers, and they want to be actively involved as parents --both fathers and mothers contribute unique parenting skills to have two actively uninvolved parents focused on their well-being --increasingly parents seek a work-family balance that allows for family time and makes it a priority --both parents may want or need to be gainfully employed, yet parenting and family responsibilities are important --many parents, especially mothers, would like to re-enter the workforce when their children reach school age because it is easier to coordinate work and school schedules --the re-entry or return of a parent to the workforce can contain rewarding as well as challenging aspects --challenging aspects of gainful employment pertain to the juggling of several roles and demands, and finding high quality yet affordable childcare --the change in a parent's employment status affects patterns within family functioning --when one aspect of a system is altered, other aspects have to be adjusted to restore or maintain homeostasis --family systems strive to maintain equilibrium --change in one parent's role produces a ripple effect in the behavior and functioning of the other family members --adjusting to these changes can be challenging --job-related stress can have a negative impact on parent-child relationships --economic and self-actualization factors that accompany employment contain several positive elements that can affect the family system in rewarding ways --gender roles have become more equal --women are fulfilling their aspirations for higher education, society is increasingly creating family-friendly workplaces, and a greater choice of child-care arrangements has become available --most women balance work outside the home with more traditional domestic responsibilities --many families need the additional economic benefits provided by dual incomes, but many stay-at-home parents have found that full-time domestic roles contain their own challenges --depression is high among stay-at-home mothers with preschool children --many have college degrees and wish to utilize their educational training

trends in remarriage

--in past, many married adults became widowed and remarried after the death of a spouse --in recent decades, divorce has become the leading cause for single status after a first marriage --remarriage is more likely to occur if an adult has been divorced rather than if they were widowed --women who were under age 25 at the time of the divorce are more likely to remarry than women older than age 25 --remarriage is more likely if divorced women live in communities w/ lower rates of male unemployment, poverty, and welfare dependence --women living in non-urban areas are more likely to remarry than those living in cities; possibly because in rural communities the sense of community may be stronger --these patterns may be explained in part by the age of the individuals when they become single --people who are widowed are usually in late adulthood and especially the women are less likely to remarry because of their advances age --divorced individuals tend to be younger demographic --remarriages are considered to be high-risk relationships as they have an even greater chance of ending in divorce --our knowledge of all factors that lead to second and even third divorces are limited --the couples who have stable, functional remarriages report having satisfaction and greater pride in their new relationship than first-marriage couples --their developmental lifespan stage may also contribute to this subsequent success --being more mature, and having learned from a previous marriage they may be more motivated to improve communication and conflict resolution, supporting enhances marital outcomes --almost two thirds of the persons who divorce each year in the U.S. eventually remarry --in the typical divorcing couple, the man is in his late thirties, whereas the woman is in her early thirties, and they have at least one child --this suggests that many men and women remarry when they are about 10 years older than when they are about 10 years older than when they were first married --generally, remarriage is more likely to occur among younger, rather than older, individuals --the median interval between divorce and remarriage is about 3 years for women, w/ about half remarrying within 5 years of their divorce

the age of infancy

--infancy is the period of the life span that extends between the birth and the first year following the birth --recent research findings about the nature of infant development depict an infant as showing highly competent behaviors and being actively involved in learning to master interactions w/ the environment --most people are aware that infants require much attention, supervision, and care to grow and develop --theorists and researchers also acknowledge infancy as a landmark stage in the human lifespan

relationship between step-grandparents and step-grandchildren

--legal status of step grandparents is not clear --stepgrandparents are more likely to view young step grandchildren as a welcome addition to the family when an adult child remarries --when step grandchildren live w/ the adult child, the likelihood of a relationship between stepgrandparents and stepgrandchildren increases --research suggests that stepgrandparents can improve their relationship w/ their stepgrandchildren by increasing their active participation, including establishing a closer relationship w/ their adult child and increasing their visits w/ the stepgrandchild at family gatherings and during the holidays --the quality of the stepgrandparent-stepgrandchild relationship appears to be influenced to a greater extent by the adult child than by any factors that are exclusive to the stepgrandparent-stepgrandchild relationship --stepgrandchildren perceived the quality of the relationship w/ their biological grandparents to be stronger than their relationship w/ their stepparents --stepgrandparents may have limited legal rights, depending on the context of their precise family situation

middle childhood parents and educational practices

--parenting used to be an authoritarian affair and likewise schooling and educational contexts tended to be driven by authoritarian teaching approaches --children often disliked school with the stereotypical image of compliance, conformity, homework, punishment, rigor, and the like --parents are aware of "responsive" and "responsible" parenting --in this approach there is the "serve and return" of an ongoing interaction, in which the child receives attention, is responded to, and feels the positive feedback that comes from communication --this enhances learning and early brain development --early learning and school environments have adopted similar practices --natural curiosity and willingness to learn is used by responding to the curiosity and willingness to learn is used by responding to the curiosity of children --children are valued, respected and encouraged to participate --counseling, early learning, and brain development, schools aim to create responsive classrooms as well --represents social-emotional learning which focuses on educational practices and encourages teachers to modify how they interact w/ the children they teach --approach is based on principles from developmental psychology --the change has to be instigated by the teachers, as they are the more powerful figures in the teaching-learning relationships --parents are required to initiate the behavior that will ring about the change --up to parents and teachers to create an environment that is learner friendly and rewards curiosity and exploration, setting up the intrinsic motivation that will fuel lifelong learning --all contain an element of active learning so, that the pupil takes co-responsibility for, and becomes vested in, her own learning --some schools support peer group formation through looping, a practice that allows children to remain w/ the same cohort for several years, and the teacher may remain w/ the same group for more than a year --this provides the stability of ongoing attachments and contributes toward a positive outcome for students, teachers, and families

substance abuse and binge drinking in adolescence

--parents and other members of society are extremely concerned about adolescent drug, prescription meds, and binge drinking episodes --the extent of drug and prescription drug abuse and illegal underage drinking of alcohol among teenagers is considerable --the misuse of prescription drugs and accidental fatal overdoses from these substances is on the ride and has become a new health endemic among teens and older age groups --developing teenage brain is more vulnerable to the effects of these substances --an episode of binge drinking or drug use does more harm to the developing brain of an adolescent than it would do to an older person --teenagers should be informed and know that they are not as invulnerable as they would like to think they are and they need to be proactive in protecting their brains --adolescents who have been raised by parents who rely on an authoritative style appear to have stronger internalized values that help to insulate them from peer pressure --teens do care what parents think about smoking and drinking and are less likely to drink alcohol, smoke cigarettes, or use drugs if the parental role models are appropriate --adolescents are also at increased risk for injury and death from accidents involving alcohol and/or drug use and automobiles --such accidents are still the leading cause of death among teenagers in the U.S., resulting in much grief when the lives of friends, siblings, and children are cut short --teen text messaging while driving is taking its toll

sex education and adolescence

--puberty has made them capable of reproduction, sexuality is no longer an abstract idea --exploration and experimentation during adolescence are behavioral components that support identity formation --compounding the need for sex education is the fact that teens do not think logically about hypothetical concerns --sexual choices involve some of the same abstract decision-making skills --teens may obtain information in sex education courses --some adults fear that if teens are given information about sexual behavior or methods of birth control, they will become more curious, which may encourage sexual activity; but in reality, the research does not support this response --exposure to sexual information may delay the age at which adolescents become sexually active and support safer decisions --parents are an important link in providing teens w/ the skills to make healthy sexual decisions by creating trusting relationships and modeling responsible behavior --for some parents, this means helping their teen understand the reasons for sexual abstinence --for other parents, it means being sure that their adolescent understands the importance of safer sex practices --each family system needs to determine how it will deal w/ this aspect of an adolescent child's identity development --in a study on first exposure to explicit sexual images, the researchers found that young adults in a human sexuality class recalled that their first early exposure to these types of images typically happened unsupervised, and w/ visual material that was available in the parental home --more alarming was how young the children were -- on average the events occurred when they were elementary school age --this in itself is a lesson for parents --be careful concerning unrestricted internet access, and preempt these occurrences by having age appropriate conversations about things in the big wide world that could be shocking or harmful to children --make your own home a safe zone and have discussions about cyber safety --it hardly needs to be said that pornography has no place in a child friendly environment --in fact, creating an environment that allows for inadvertent exposure to inappropriate material amounts to neglectful and harmful parenting

preschoolers and gender role

--rather than relating just to physiological functioning and behavior , sexuality refers to the broad aspects of sexual interests, attitudes, and activities that are an expression of a person's total being --sexuality plays a significant psychological role throughout an individual's lifespan, not just following puberty --young children commonly ask many questions as a means of gaining information about their world, and questions relating to sexual issues and bodily functions are an extension of this interest --common for sexual themes to emerge in dramatic play activities such as when young children play house or the proverbial scenario of playing doctor --parents are the primary source of sexual socialization and information for young children --most parents are aware of their responsibilities in this regard --gender roles can be modeled through what is observed in parental relationships --accuracy of the information that parents provide in addressing young children's sexuality is important, perhaps of greater importance is the emotional tone w/ which parents communicate --the child can sense if this is a "secret" topic, or one that is best avoided --the answers that parents provide need to match the cognitive developmental level of the preschooler --one way around this is to ask the child what he thinks, and then fill in some information at the appropriate developmental level --parents should understand that the messages they convey about sexuality, both verbal and non verbal will affect children's attitudes and values when they reach maturity --parents are encouraged to take an active role in shaping children's values and attitudes about sexuality in a developmentally appropriate way --parents can guide their children toward appropriate choices as they mature by establishing a trusting relationship that allows open communication

six patterns and characteristics of stepfamily development

--researchers have identified six patterns in stepfamily development: accepting of the stepparent, virtual immediate affinity or liking, ambivalent acceptance, changing feelings concerning the stepparent, and as the most hostile in this lineup openly rejecting and coexisting under the same roof under duress --children who are living in complex family arrangements with step siblings, and possibly half siblings, have to deal w/ family dynamics on numerous levels which can contribute to adjustment challenges within the blended family --these dynamics between step siblings and possibly half siblings are further influenced by the temperaments of the children and the general quality of the parenting that occurs within the blended family system

suicide and STIs in adolescence

--sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are also known as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) --the abbreviation STD is in common use and a matter of preference -- the tendency toward using the STI term is because it may have less stigma, and because many of these conditions may appear to be silent and not always present with what is commonly associated with a disease --the word disease implies that a person has a set of distinctive, identifiable symptoms, and most of the time, sexually transmitted infections do not present any symptoms --abbreviation STD commonly appears in much of the literature, and on websites, including the 2017 version of the website of the centers for disease control --high frequency of unprotected sexual encounters and multiple sex partners result in equally alarming rates of STIs among adolescents --adolescents represent about 25 % of all sexually active individuals --almost one-half of all new STIs reported are contracted among those between 15 and 24 years of age --the high incidence results from cognitive factors such as lack of information, ignorance, denial, and a misplaced sense of personal invincibility, as in "that won't happen to me" --social factors, such as coercion and peer pressure, are a reality --lack of planning and inappropriate shame associated w/ safer sexual practices play contributory roles --growing number of high schools have school-based health clinics that provide sex education, STI screening and treatment, and in some cases condoms --increased use of condoms may reflect the influence of more effective sex education programs that provide factual information, especially regarding the transmission of HIV --a vaccine protecting against some types of the human papilloma virus (HTP) is an option for both male and female adolescents --abstinence or responsible sexual practices , including condom use, contribute to safer outcomes --an informed teen can make better informed choices concerning their own health and well-being, and that includes sexual choices

styles of parenting for adolescence

--skilled parents adapt child-rearing strategies, methods, and interaction styles to meet the particular needs of the adolescent --parents have to alter their parenting style as well --parents become more authoritative, less authoritarian and eventually more permissive --parents must discover ways to help teens learn to make decisions that minimize the potential harm to themselves and others --communication between parents and teens requires patience and effort to achieve effective functioning in this microenvironment --parents must gradually relinquish control and place increasing amounts of personal responsibility onto teens so that they become self-regulating --some parenting styles are more common in subsets of society --middle-class families tend to use methods based on persuasion and negotiation, including democratic, egalitarian, and authoritative styles --under economic strain, stressful influences can contribute to parenting styles that emphasize control, especially by forceful, power-assertive methods --financial independence may be valued if families are struggling and they may expect that their adolescent children become financially independent at an earlier age --parents with college educations tend to encourage their children to pursue further education, and the parents serve as role models --conflicts between parents and young adolescents occur more frequently than when children were younger --these clashes can happen because of the intense focus of young adolescents on identity formation --predictably many parents initially react to such efforts by using styles that are strict and controlling --research consistently shows that parent-adolescent relations are best when decisions are perceives by both parties as being consistent, fair, and collaborative and the needs of all family members are respected --the authoritative parenting style continues to be associated with positive adolescent outcomes

infants and sleeping arrangement

--sleeping patterns are subject to wide variations --sleep during first few months after birth is interrupted only long enough for the babe to feed --round-the-clock pattern of alternating periods of sleep with feeding extends to longer intervals of wakefulness after the third month --during remainder of the time until the infant approaches age 2, sleep decreases to 10 to 14 hours daily --mothers who have missed a lot of sleep because of night time feeding sessions are cautioned not to fall asleep in armchairs, rockers, recliners, or couches while nursing a baby -- feeding in bed is less dangerous in terms of falling, but again mothers need to place the baby back in her basinette after the feed, and not fall asleep with an infant in bed --bedsharing w/ infants, especially babies under the age of six months could lead to asphyxiation and sleep related death --these deaths are associated w/ suffocation, asphyxia, strangulation, and SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome) --children younger than six months should sleep in a bassinet in the parents' room so that they are monitored at all times --pillows, soft toys, and crib liners or bumpers, may look attractive in a store display but they are not safe and should be removed from the crib --infants should sleep in sleep sacks on a relatively hard mattress w/ no loose bedding --mothers who nurse infants need to be careful that the infant does not fall if the mothers falls asleep while nursing --babies should sleep on their backs "back to sleep", in a prone position --daytime, supervised "tummy time" will allow infants to strengthen their backs and necks, but monitoring this carefully is crucial --co-sleeping is inadvisable --parents and siblings should never bedsore w/ a young infant or baby

intergenerational family characteristics

--the intergenerational or multigenerational family form is rapidly increasing in the U.S., due to longer life expectancy as well as economic, emotional, and social demands --historically, extended families were the norm and functioned as economic units, especially in rural and agricultural contexts --changing demographic patterns include dual-career, single-parent, adolescent parent, and deployed military family structures --these serve as incentives to access temporary or permanent intergenerational support systems, even to form intergenerational households --three generations can form a cohesive unit providing benefits from pooled resources --this family form can deal w/ childcare needs, which can solidify intergenerational relations --stressors increase when the middle generation in this triad feels sandwiched between caring for the older and younger generations --family dynamics change over the life span, especially in grandparents' interactions w/ adult grandchildren --research in the early twenty-first century emphasizes the influence of multigenerational family dynamics on participating parties, the sociological/psychological implications, and optimal intergenerational parenting outcomes

self-regulation**

--the long and gradual process that characterizes the utter dependence at birth and unfolds towards the relative independence during early adulthood, is like watching a carefully orchestrates symphony --as parents we are thrilled with each new subtle sign of the infant mastering her environment --emotional self-efficacy accompanies physical maturation --certain developmental markers will only occur once a level of physical strength and development has occurs to make these possible --SELF-EFFICACY refers to the ability of the child to manage certain tasks independently and age appropriately --SELF-REGULATION refers to the ability to start managing emotions, again age appropriately -- these qualities expand with maturity and in accordance with the developmental level of the child --self-regulation continues to develop and expand

preschooler: thinking, remembering, languages and cognitive development

--throughout this highly impressionable phase the young mind is developing, absorbing, modeling, and memorizing --the brain is shaping and being shaping into who we are --language becomes the vehicle for socializing --a preschooler learns and accomplishes monumental tasks during the years before formal elementary schooling --the power of language opens new worlds of interaction and communication --for parent, language allows an evolving understanding of the child's universe --for child, becomes a tool for socialization and personal expression --language and communication are the bridges that allow parents and their offspring to explore a shared world --language is also a complex, abstract, and rich set of symbols; a cognitive mode of meaning --language and meaning are inseparable; the symbols we use are so powerful because they are a shorthand for very complex thoughts and concepts --important of exposing young children to rich and varied vocabularies --by age 3 children from enriched or deprived environments already show marked differences in verbally skills --being aware of these challenged encourages us to seek equitable outcomes so that all children can be exposed to early learning situations that provide a language rich context for language --number of words and the level of sophistication of the words varied tremendously depending on the early care contexts of the children and that the gap between children from two socioeconomic groups widened as time continued --differences first noticeable at 18 months when most children begin to use two-word combinations and became pronounced by age of 3 --language and neurological development go hand in hand --can take advantage of the Neuroplasticity of the brain by providing stimuli enriched situations --follow "serve and return" can encourage brain to develop and grow and access the many resources locked within it --exposure to language also influences processing speed --children exposed to more language had richer vocabularies and faster language processing --emphasizes being engaged and attentive, talking more and using a wider range of words, and taking turns when talking, initiating and responding to talk-situations --child's basic skills of motion, communication, and interaction are expanding --time for learning the core skills required for socialization --young children learn through modeling and observation and increasingly they comprehend their parents' expectations and instructions --as they acquire physical and social skills, they become less self-oriented --expanding language skills, as well as increased social, emotional, cognitive, and physical abilities, contribute to increasing autonomy --self-efficacy and self-regulation are continuing to emerge and finding avenue of expression

developmental characteristics of middle childhood

GENERAL: -increasing independence -tends to be sensitive to criticism -enjoys privacy at times -becomes increasingly critical of adults -becomes more peer oriented PHYSICAL/MOTOR: -likes group activities and games -gender differences are observable in physical skills -well-established hand-eye coordination -high energy level -appearance of permanent teeth -changing body configuration SOCIAL/MENTAL: -prefers activities w/ same-sex peers -enjoys light competition -curious about the world at large -develops a series of close friendships -improves w/ regard to group participation -may construct self-concept based on social comparisons -develops reading and calculation skills -changes from intuitive to concrete though processes INTERESTS: -enjoys collecting or building on collections -enjoys silly jokes and humor -enjoys video and computer games and activities -likes adventure stories, movies, and biographies -likes creative activities and making things -acquires skills that display individual talents and abilities -enjoys sports, including organized and team sports -self-regulation -self-efficacy -co-regulation

adolescence and peer relationships

RAPID AND PSYCHOLOGICAL CHANGE: --adolescence is a period of metamorphosis in an individual's life that involves dramatic changes in body proportions and physical size, sexual maturation and personality shifts INDIVIDUAL EMANCIPATION: --western culture emphasizes the teenage years as the appropriate time for establishing independence as a mature person and assuming full responsibility EXPERIMENTATION, IDEALISM, AND UNCERTAINTY: --these changing and developing ideals often bring teens into conflict w/ adults, especially their parents --adolescence is a transitional period between childhood and adulthood that has few guideline for how to behave, what to expect, and how to remain secure about what the future holds --adolescents are known for unrealistic expectations and aspirations --these attitudes are expressed in relationships w/ peers and family members --high hopes for the future lead teenagers to create dreams and idealistic notions about their own abilities and skills in coping w/ the world --adolescents are known for self-exploration and self-expression, and tendency to experiment is seen in their choice of clothing, musical tastes, friendships, and awakening sexuality --specific developmental tasks and milestones that individuals encounter in adolescence focus on acquiring and refining more advanced skills, abilities, and attitudes that lead toward preparation for adulthood

soft skills, social comparison, self-regulation, co-regulation

SOFT SKILLS: --talking with children about their day provide support --structured family mealtimes can provide excellent learning and social opportunities for children --these conversations around the dining table are one way that children learn the many soft skills of social interaction that can be an expression of emotional intelligence --such interaction include behaviors and attitudes that facilitate social engagement including good manners, punctuality, work ethic, and respect and appropriate concern for others --parents play important role in encouraging their children's involvement in groups that foster civic engagement as well as participating in family's cultural and religious expressions --children benefit from appropriate role models and mentors who will expand their opportunities for learning social skills that will serve them well in adulthood --type of parenting style employed w/ children this age also contributes to school success --children who exhibit academic achievement are more likely to have parents who use an authoritative approach --these children tend to be independently motivated to learn and perform well in school --children who underachieve and have difficulties at school are likely to have parents who use either an authoritarian or a permissive approach to child rearing --children in authoritarian homes are likely to depend on extrinsic motivation provided by the parents to perform well academically, while parents in permissive homes do not appear to care how children fare in school SOCIAL COMPARISON: ----our culture is a composite of different subcultures, including various racial, ethnic, and age groups --middle childhood first and most important subcultures is peer group -- peer groups may be formed spontaneously as w/ neighborhood children who play together, or formally as when children are grouped by age in elementary school --peer group functioning is less structures and group adherence is loose in comparison w/ the latter part of this period --children learn a number of social lessons from the group politics that take place within these groupings d boundaries --also exhibit; developing companionships, especially play activities --creating testing ground for behaviors, acceptable and otherwise --transmitting information, accurate or inaccurate --teaching rules and logical consequences --promoting gender-role development --influencing children's self concept --there are many sources that influence the development of a child's self-concept --these include past experiences, hypotheses they generate about themselves, and input from family members and teachers --the feedback provided by a peer group is seen by many school-age children as having a greater degree of truth as compared to other sources --as school-age children grow older, they shift away from using absolutes to determine levels of accomplishment and rely more on social comparison based on how they fare in relation to other children their age --often, the children that serve as comparisons are considered to be less competent or successful, thereby protecting the self-image ; this is a self-serving bias --a healthy sense of self is promotes when children learn to appropriately explore their personality traits, their collective strengths, and their weaknesses --by not knowing any different it is natural for school-age children to agree with the criticism and negative input they hear from others their own age --some children can be very cruel in their comments and actions --parents and teachers are important as interferes of reality for children --a parent or teacher who can provide accurate interpretations of others' behavior and unkind words can counterbalance the negative impressions that children receive from peers --this healthy sense of self acknowledges both strengths and weaknesses --school-age children learn that everyone can be vulnerable and that other people have feelings and emotions too --the negatives and weaknesses attributed by peers do not cancel out the positive aspects and the strength of character but it may take an understanding adult to point that out SELF REGULATION AND CO-REGULATION: --continues to develop and expand but is also mediated by co regulation as exerted by their parents --appropriate parenting can guide children towards regulation of emotions in socially appropriate ways, because the parent can anticipate difficulties and mediate outcomes-these are useful testing grounds for middle age children --in middle childhood, youngsters are acquiring skills at rapid rate and sometimes perform some tasks at adult levels while emotionally still anchored in world of childhood --new found levels of self efficacy seem to know no boundaries and it is an excellent time for parents to invest in coaching and education as he children absorb new skills enthusiastically