Patterns for College Writing Exam
identifying phrase
also called a signal phrase; what you use to introduce paraphrases, summaries, and quotation; identifies source and author
invention
also called prewriting; deciding what to write about and gather information to support or explain what you want to say
formal definition
brief, succinct explanation
contributory cause
less important cause
Photos That Change History by Karen Miller Pensiero
cause and effect essay (ch. 10)
Why Rational People Buy Into Conspiracy Theories by Maggie Koerth-Baker
cause and effect essay (ch. 10)
On Dumpster Diving by Lars Eighner
combining the patterns essay (ch. 15)
body paragraphs
develops the thesis and presents the support that convinces your audience that your thesis is reasonable
straw man
distorting an opponent's argument by making it seem weaker than it actually is
Thirty-Eight Who Saw Murder Didn't Call the Police by Martin Gansburg
narration essay (ch. 6)
objective source
not unduly influenced by personal opinions or feelings
effect
noun; a result
dashes
occasionally used to set off and emphasize information within a sentence
tense to use for a process that was performed in the past
past tense
an extended definition does not follow a set:
pattern of development
argument from analogy
this fallacy frequently ignores important dissimilarities between the two things being compared
jumping to a conclusion
this fallacy occurs when a conclusion is reached on the basis of too little evidence; often called a hasty or sweeping generalization
non sequitur (it does not follow)
this fallacy occurs when a statement does not logically follow from a previous statement
misleading statistics
this fallacy occurs when data is misrepresented or distorted in an attempt to influence the audience
red herring
this fallacy occurs when the focus of the argument is shifted to divert the audience from the actual issue
equivocation
this fallacy occurs when the meaning of a key term changes at some point in the argument
post hoc, ergo propter hoc
this fallacy occurs when the writer assumes that because two events occur close together in time, the first must be the cause of the second
colons
used to introduce lists, examples, and clarifications
exemplification
uses one or more particular cases, or examples, to illustrate or explain a general point or an abstract concept
quoting
using a writer's exact words as they appear in the source, including all punctuation, capitalization, and spelling
ways to expand the body of your definition
using synonyms, enumeration, negation, origin and development, and visuals
introduction paragraphs
transports readers from their world into the world of your essay
accurate and consistent verb tenses
unintentional shifts in verb tense can be confusing to readers
ways to correct run-ons
use a period to separate two sentences; join the sentences with a comma and coordinating conjunction; join the sentences with a semicolon; join the sentences with a semicolon and a transitional word or phrase; create a complex sentence by adding a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun to one of the sentences
revision strategies
use an outline, checklist, instructor's written comments, conference, peer-edit group/worksheet
faulty parallelism
using items that are not parallel in a context in which parallelism is expected
paraphrasing
using your own words to restate a source's ideas in some detail. presenting the source's main idea, its key supporting points, and possibly and example or two
to explain a process to readers, you need to use consistent:
verb tense (past or present), person (first, second, or third), voice (active or passive), and mood (statements or commands)
affect
verb; to influence
metaphor
compares two dissimilar things without using "like" or "as"
Grant and Lee: A Study in Contrasts by Bruce Catton
comparison and contrast essay (ch. 11)
I'm Your Teacher, Not Your Internet Service Provider by Ellen Laird
comparison and contrast essay (ch. 11)
specialized encyclopedias
contain articles that give you detailed information about a specific field
well developed paragraph
contains the support that readers need to understand its main idea
current source
contains up-to-date information
implied thesis
conveys an essay's main focus, but does not do so explicitly
subjective description
conveys your personal response to your subject
dangling modifier
cannot logically describe any word in the sentence
A Peaceful Woman Explains Why She Carries a Gun by Linda A. Hasselstrom
cause and effect essay (ch. 10)
comprehensive source
covers a subject in sufficient breadth and depth
arrangement
deciding how to organize your ideas
The Dog Ate My Tablet, and Other Tales of Woe by Carolyn Foster Segal
classification and division essay (ch. 12)
The Three Types of Happiness by Olga Khazan
classification and division essay (ch. 12)
The Ways We Lie by Stephanie Ericcson
classification and division essay (ch. 12)
the three main characteristics that an effective thesis has
clearly expresses your essay's main idea, communicates you essay's purpose, and is clearly worded
immediate cause
closely precedes an effect and is therefore relatively easy to recognize
statistical study
collecting and interpreting numerical data representing a great many examples
synthesizing
combining paraphrases, summaries, and quotations with your own ideas
A Modest Proposal by Jonathan Swift
combining the patterns essay (ch. 15)
two types of run-ons
comma splices and fused sentences
imperative mood
commands
clear pronoun references
every pronoun should clearly refer to a specific antecedent, and they must agree in number
singular indefinite pronouns
ex. another, anyone, everyone, one, each, either, neither, anything, everything
plural indefinite pronouns
ex. both, many, few, several, others
visual text
ex. photograph, advertisement, diagram, graph, chart
verbal signals
ex. phrases that signal emphasis, repeated words and phrases, words that signal addition, words that signal time sequence
indefinite pronouns that can be singular or plural
ex. some, all, many, more, most, none
types of support
examples, reasons, facts, statistics, details, expert opinions, personal experiences, and visuals
Ten Ways We Get the Odds Wrong by Maia Szalavitz
exemplification essay (ch. 8)
Why Looks are the Last Bastion of Discrimination by Deborah L. Rhode
exemplification essay (ch. 8)
Why the Post Office Makes America Great by Zeynep Tufekci
exemplification essay (ch. 8)
analogy
explains an idea or thing by comparing it to a second, more familiar thing
process essay
explains how to do something or how something occurs; presents a sequence of steps and shows how those steps lead to a particular result
conclusion paragraph
last chance to influence your readers, to demonstrate the importance of your ideas, and to suggest the broader implications of your thesis
during the prewriting stage, the most important elements to consider after you understand the assignment
length, purpose, audience, occasion, and your own knowledge of the subject
subordinating conjunctions
link dependent and independent clauses that express ideas of unequal importance, and they also indicate how those ideas are related
enumeration
listing of characteristics
extended definition
longer, more complex definition
proofreading
looking for spelling errors, typos, incorrect spacing, or problem's with your essay's format
deductive reasoning
proceeds from a general premise or assumption to a specific conclusion
inductive reasoning
proceeds from individual observations to a more general conclusion and uses no strict form
Getting Coffee Is Hard to Do by Stanley Fish
process essay (ch. 9)
How to Build a Monster from Spare Parts by Piven & Borgenicht
process essay (ch. 9)
The Embalming of Mr. Jones by Jessica Mitford
process essay (ch. 9)
editing
searching for grammatical errors, checking for punctuation, and looking over sentence style and word choice
minor premise
second part of a syllogism; related but more specific statement
person to use in instructions
second person
you also (tu quoque)
this fallacy asserts that an opponent's argument has no value because the opponent does not follow his or her own advice
begging the question
this fallacy assumes that a statement is true when it actually requires proof
false dilemma
this fallacy occurs when the writer suggests that only two alternatives exist even though there may be others
appeal to doubtful authority
this fallacy occurs when when individuals cited have no expertise on the issue
personal attack (Ad Hominem)
this fallacy tries to divert attention from the facts of an argument by attacking the motives or character of the person making the argument
range of examples
a cross-section of examples to represent the full range of a topic
evidence
facts and opinions that support your position
simple sentence
has one independent clause
tense to use for a process that is performed regularly
present tense
plagiarism
presenting the ideas or words of others as if they were your own
causal chain
A causes B, B causes C, C causes D, and so on
coordinating conjunctions
join two independent clauses that express ideas of equal importance, and they also indicate how those ideas are related
opinions
judgements or beliefs that are not substantiated by proof
revision
a continuing process during which you consider the logic and clarity of your ideas as well as how effectively they are presented
summary
a brief restatement, in your own words, of a passage's main idea
nonrestrictive clause
a clause that does not supply information that is essential to the sentences meaning
restrictive clause
a clause that supplies information that is vital to the sentence's meaning
when colons are used to introduce categories, the colons must be preceded by:
a complete sentence
persuasion
a general term that refers to how a writer influences an audience to adopt a belief or follow a course of action
sentence
a group of words that contains a subject and verb and expresses a complete thought
argumentation
a logical way of asserting the soundness of a debatable position, belief, or conclusion; the appeal to logos
literacy narrative
a personal account focusing on your experiences with reading and writing
hypothesis
a question to be answered or a tentative answer to such a question
allusion
a reference to a person, place, event, or quotation that the reader will recognize
inductive leap
a stretch of the imagination that enables you to draw a sound conclusion
Toulmin Logic
a structure of argument that is divided into three parts: the claim, the grounds, and the warrant
brainstorming
a way of discovering ideas for your topic
clustering/mapping
a way of visually arranging ideas so that you can tell at a glance where they belong and whether or not you need more information
origin and development
a word's derivation, original meaning, and uses
annotate
act of carrying on conversation with the text
skim
act of focusing only on the title, the first paragraph, and the last paragraph
preview
act of trying to get a sense of the writer's main idea, key supporting points, and general emphasis
voice to use when emphasizing the person performing the action
active voice
active reading
actively participating in the reading process; approaching an assigned reading with a clear understanding of your purpose and marking the text to help you understand what you are reading
refutation
addressing the objections to your position
conceding a point
admitting the point is valid
fragment
an incomplete sentence, one that is missing a subject, verb, or both, or has a subject and a verb but does not express a complete thought
cause and effect
analyzes why something happens; links situations together in time like narration
pathos
appeals based on emotion
logos
appeals based on logic
ethos
appeals based on the character reputation of the writer (ethics)
misplaced modifier
appears to modify the wrong word because it is placed incorrectly in the sentence
Is Majoring in Liberal Arts a Mistake for Students? by Vinod Khosla
argumentation (ch. 14)
Letter from Birmingham Jail by MLK Jr.
argumentation (ch. 14)
Perhaps Culture is Now the Counterculture: A Defense of the Humanities by Leon Wieseltier
argumentation (ch. 14)
Public Universities Should Be Free by Aaron Bady
argumentation (ch. 14)
The Case against Free College by Matt Bruenig
argumentation (ch. 14)
The Declaration of Independence by Thomas Jefferson
argumentation (ch. 14)
The Obligation to Endure by Rachel Carson
argumentation (ch. 14)
syllogism
basic form of a deductive argument; consists of a major premise, minor premise, and a conclusion
arranging examples in order of importance
beginning with those that are less significant and moving to those that are most significant or persuasive
credibility
believability
visual signals
besides previewing and skimming, another place to look for clues to the writer's message ex. headings, italicized/boldfaced words, numbered/bulleted list, etc.
I Want a Wife by Judy Brady
definition essay (ch. 13)
On Plagiarism by Richard Posner
definition essay (ch. 13)
"Hope" is the thing with feathers by Emily Dickinson
definition poem (ch. 13)
Ground Zero by Suzanne Berne
description essay (ch. 7)
Once More to the Lake by EB White
description essay (ch. 7)
The Hidden Life of Garbage by Heather Rogers
description essay (ch. 7)
formal outline
detailed, multi-level, constructions that indicate the exact order in which you will present your key points and supporting details
evaluating a source
determining the suitability of a source
indefinite pronoun
does not refer to a specific person or thing
concise sentence
efficient and not overloaded with extra words and complicated contructions
Rogerian Argument
emphasizing points of agreement, trying to find common ground
set of instructions
enables readers to perform a process
post-hoc reasoning
equates a chronological sequence with causality
comma splice
error that occurs when two independent clauses are connected by just a comma
fused sentence
error that occurs when two independent clauses are connected without any punctuation
person to use in process explanations
first or third person
major premise
first part of a syllogism; a general statement
fallacies
flaws in reasoning that undermine your argument's logic
objective description
focuses on the object itself rather than your personal reactions to it
editing and proofreading
focusing on grammar and punctuation, as well as sentence style and word choice; also correcting spelling, mechanical errors, and typos and check your essay's format
documentation
gives readers the ability to evaluate sources you cite and consult them if they wish
complex sentence
has an independent clause and at least one dependent clause
compound sentence
has two independent clauses
apostrophes
have two uses: to indicate missing letters in contractions and to show possession or ownership
process explanation
helps readers understand how a process is carried out
format
how your paragraphs, sentences, and words look on a page
mood to use for set of instructions
imperative mood
general encyclopedias
include articles on a wide range of topics
sufficient evidence
includes enough facts, opinions, and examples to support your claims
parenthetical reference
includes enough information to guide readers to a specific entry in your works cited list
mood to use for process explanations
indicative mood
slang terms
informal expressions whose meaning may vary from from locale to locale or change as time passes
common knowledge
information you could easily find in several reference sources
the writing process
invention (prewriting), arrangement, drafting and revising, editing and proofreading
main cause
most important cause
Shooting an Elephant by George Orwell
narration essay (ch. 6)
remote cause
occured in the past; less obvious
items on a list or in a series are always expressed in ______ terms.
parallel
voice to use when emphasizing the action itself
passive voice
magazine
publication aimed at general readers
journal
publication aimed at readers who know a lot about a particular subject
evaluate
purpose that calls for a comparison and contrast essay
critical reading
reading to evaluate the ideas of others, to form judgements, and to develop original viewpoints
distributed (major premise)
referred to by the minor premise and covers all of the items in the class it denotes
undistributed (major premise)
referred to by the minor premise but only covers some of the items in the class it denotes
pronoun
refers to key nouns in previous sentences
evidence should be:
relevant, representative, sufficient
representative evidence
represents the full range of viewpoints, not just one side
negation
saying what a word is not
flashbacks
shifts into the past
comparison
shows how two or more things are alike
contrast
shows how two or more things are different
informal outline
simply suggests the general shape of your emerging essay
self-evident
so obvious that it needs no proof
accurate source
source contains factual, up-to-date, detailed, and correct information
personification
speaks of concepts or objects as if they had life human characteristics
inference
statement about the unknown based on the known
antithesis
statement that asserts the opposite position
indicative mood
statements
facts
statements that people generally agree are true and that can be verified independently
thesis and support
stating your thesis and developing ideas that explain and expand it
questions for probing
strategy for moving from a general subject to a specific topic that reflects how your mind operates
freewriting
strategy for moving from a general subject to a specific topic where you write for a fixed period of time without stopping or paying attention to grammar, spelling, or punctuation
subject-verb agreement
subjects and verbs must agree in number
relevant evidence
supports thesis and is pertinent to your argument
debatable
takes a stand
narration
tells a story by presenting events in an orderly, logical sequence
description
tells readers about the physical characteristics of a person, place, or thing
definition
tells what a term means and how it differs from other terms in its class
highlight
the act of marking the text
connotations
the emotional associations a word evokes
warrant (Toulmin logic)
the inference that connects the claim to the grounds
denotation
the literal meaning of a word
thesis
the main idea of your essay
claim (Toulmin logic)
the main point of the essay
grounds (Toulmin logic)
the material a writer uses to support the claim
dominant impression
the mood or quality emphasized in the piece of writing
chronological order
the order in which events happen in time
division
the process of breaking a whole into parts
classification
the process of sorting individual items into categories
principle of classification
the quality your items have in common
parallelism
the use of matching nouns, verbs, phrases, or clauses to express the same or similar ideas
antecedent
the word a pronoun replaces
valid argument
when a conclusion follows logically from the major and minor premises
unified paragraph
when each sentence relates directly to the main idea of the paragraph
coherent paragraph
when the sentences are smoothly and logically connected to one another
sound conclusion
when the syllogism is logical and true
basis for comparison
when two things have enough in common to justify the comparison; needs to exist
purpose
why you (the reader) are reading
transitions
words or expressions that show chronological sequence, cause and effect, etc.
modifiers
words or phrases that describe other words in a sentence
synonyms
words that have similar meanings
conjunctions
words that join other words or groups of words
drafting and revising
writing several drafts as you reconsider your ideas and their organization and refine your style and structure
expressive writing
writing that conveys personal feelings or expressions
informative writing
writing that informs readers about something
persuasive writing
writing that tries to convince the readers to act or think in a certain way
authoritative source
written by an expert
