Period 1: AP US History Chapter 2
Because governing such a vast empire was difficult, describe the government structure that Spain created in the Americas
- Two agencies in Spain (the House of Trade and the Council of the Indies) set Spanish colonial policy - Within the colonies, Crown-appointed viceroys wielded military and political power in each of the four divisions of the empire - Each Spanish colony set up local governments (e.g. each town had a cabildo secular, as well a judges and other minors officials) - colonial administers were appointed rather than elected, and most were enjoys from Spain rather than native-born individuals
List 3 major details about Vasco Núñez de Balboa.
- a Spanish conquistador and explorer - was the head of the first stable settlement on the South American continent (1511) - was the first European to sight the eastern shores of the Pacific Ocean (1513)
List 4 major details about the Creek Confederacy.
- alliance of Native American groups living the Southeast - formed after the lethal spread of European diseases to permit economic and military cooperation among survivors - required that each population contributed to the welfare of all - required that differences were to be settled through athletic competition, a ballgame considered the ancestor of lacrosse, rather than warfare
Describe 4 major details about the Company of the West
- chartered by King Louis XIV's financial minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert - modeled after the highly successful Dutch West India Company - maximized profits to the Crown by revoking the land titles held by the Company of New France and overturning the political power of the Community of Habitants - made New France into a royal colony
List and describe 3 major details about the Community of Habitants of New France.
- created in 1642 by queen mother and French regent Anne of Austria following complaints filed by fur trade investors and Jesuit missionaries that the Company of New France was not governing effectively - gave significant political power to local officials in Canada by granting them a monopoly on the fur trade and the privilege of land grant land claims - accompanied by the formation of a council consisting of the governor, local director of the Jesuits, the colony's military commandant and 3 elected officials
Describe the 3 major aspects of the Franciscan's treatment of Native Americans.
- due to their highly ascetic and disciplined nature, were particularly offended by the Pueblo religion and lifestyle - embarked on wholesale effort to destroy every vestige of Native American religion, culture, and intimate social aspects (e.g. family structure) by imposing their foreign ideas - punished most the Pueblo's traditional practices as sinful or idolatrous
Describe three major details about Samuel de Champlain.
- french explorer who traced the St. Lawrence River inland to the Great Lakes - founded the city of Quebec - formed the French alliance with the Huron Indians
What were Holland's first serious claims to American territory?
- in 1609 when Dutch sea captain Henry Hudson sailed up the Hudson River, giving the Netherlands a claim to the area now occupied by New York - did not being until investors formed the Dutch West India Company in 1621
Despite the Native Americans's success in the Pueblo Revolt, list 2 reasons for why this only gave them temporary relief from the Spanish.
- in 1689, Spanish troops returned into the region and over the next several years waged a brutal war to recapture the territory - Santa Fe was recaptured in 1693, prompting Spanish settlers to begin returning to New Mexico
Despite the enormous inflow of wealth from the New World that brought Spain immersive power, describe the 2 negative side-effects of this rapid enrichment.
- inflation (first in Spain, and then across Europe) as the growth of the money supply outpaced the growth of European economics; too much money chasing too few goods Important Note* Between 1550 - 1600, prices doubled in much of Europe and continued to soar for another 50 years - social unrest as traditional landholding classes earned enormous profits from the sale of food and other necessities due to the rise in prices, while artisans, laborers, and landless peasants (the largest class of people in Europe) found the value of their labor constantly shrinking, reducing many to poverty
Describe the 4 major effects of the Spanish presence in the Southeast.
- introduced European diseases into densely populated towns in the Mississippi River region, which wiped out entire Native American civilizations - survivors forced to abandon their towns and modify their ways of life (e.g. Cherokees and Creeks formed village-based economics) - change in economy led to intergroup warfare - created formal confederacies (e.g. Creek Confederacy)
List 3 major facts about the Council of Valladolid.
- occurred in 1550 between former conquistador and encomendero turned priest Bartolome de Las Casas and scholar Juan Gines de Sepulveda regarding whether Indians were human beings (Las Casas argued that they were human beings while Sepulveda argued against this notion) and that Spain should focus on more humane colonization - Bartolome de Las Casas ended up winning the debate and his argument that Indians were human beings was accepted by the Catholic Church - Although Juan Gines de Sepulveda lost the argument, his views were embraced by conquistadores as justification for the continuing conquest and enslavement of the native population
List and describe four major facts about the Spanish Armada
- occurred in 1588 - King Phillip launched 132 warships carrying more than 3000 cannons and an invasion force of 30,0000 men - was considered an invincible fleet massing what was to be the largest amphibious force Europe had ever witnessed - ran into major difficulties along the way to invading England that ultimately led to Spain's defeat
How did the Dutch West India Company convince people to settle in New Netherland?
- offered huge estates called patroonships to any company stockholder willing to bring 50 colonists to New Netherland at his own expense - in exchange, the patroons would enjoy near-feudal powers over their tenants
Describe the 3 aspects of the role that the church played in developing Spanish colonies.
- played a much bigger role following Las Casa's efforts in attempting to reform the encomienda system - were especially influential in the stark regions along Mexico's northern frontier where there were no gold mines or profitable plantations - in particular were led by the Franciscans in New Mexico
List the 3 ways in which the Company of New France shifted their initially flawed approach at generating settlers/support.
- reorganized the company in 1633 by dispatching Champlain with 3 ships of supplies, workmen, and soldiers to revitalize the colony - ignored the government's demands that it establish agricultural settlements and focused on the fur trade by setting up posts in Quebec, Montreal, etc. - became the primary outfitter and buyer from the coureurs de bois and amassed huge profits by reselling the furs in Europe
Describe the 3 major reasons for why the acquisition of Louisiana was a major accomplishment for France.
- rich-untapped source of furs - alternate shipping routes that would avoid the cold, stormy North Atlantic - a potential venture in agriculture, which could serve as a inexpensive source of supplies to support both the fur trade in Canada and France's sugar plantations in the Caribbean
Describe how Don Juan de Oñate acted against Ácoma Pueblo when they resisted his efforts to impose Spanish culture and religion on them.
- sent his troops to subdue the pueblo - ordered 800 indigenous peoples executed and made slaves of the 700 survivors (mostly women and children) - each male survivor over the age of 25 had one foot chopped off to prevent his escape from slavery - two Hopi Indians who were visiting Ácoma had their right hands cut off and were sent home as examples of the price of resistance
While European powers colonized North America, list the 3 different reactions by Native Americans.
- served as advisors and companions - used them as allies to accomplish their own economic, diplomatic, or military goals - overwhelmed by the onset of European diseases and shifting population pressures, withdrew into the interior
List reasons for why Spain's early successes in the New World stir up conflict with other emerging states in Europe.
- the massive flow of wealth made Spanish power a growing threat that had to be checked - continuing religious controversies that accompanied the Reformation Important Note* In particular, this tension mostly had to do with the conflict between Spain the England
List the two major reasons for why Queen Elizabeth I wanted to colonize the New World.
- to enrich England in as much wealth as possible - to act in revenge against Spain - England needed more space for expansion due to the scarcity of farmland and more room for traditional nobility and gentry (huge investors in manufacturing and trading ventures) to settle into
How did Spaniards force indigenous groups to join the encomienda system?
- under a law passed in 1512, any time Spaniards made first contact with an Indian group, the conquistadores were required to explain to them (in Spanish, of course) that they were subject of the Spanish king and to the Catholic Church, offering to absorb them peacefully - having satisfied the Requerimiento, the encomenderos gained the right to exploit the Native Americans for nine months each year
List the major details about the Pueblo Revolt.
- was a Native American rebellion by the Pueblos against Spanish authority in 1680 led by traditional leader Popé - a retaliation against a century of Spanish assaults on their culture and fundamental values - left 400 Spaniards dead as the rebels captured Santa Fe and drove the invaders from their land
List three major facts about Francisco Vasquez de Coronado.
- was a Spanish explorer who explored the American Southwest (1541) in search for seven cities that were rumored to glitter with gold - eventually crossed modern-day New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado, Oklahoma, and Kansas but never found "cities of gold" - located enormous sources of mineral wealth for Spain
List two reasons for why Hernan Cortez was able to succesfully conquer the Aztec Empire.
-smallpox and other European germs - Cortez, with the help of his translator and cultural adviser Doña Marina, made alliances with other indigenous groups resented the Aztec's power and their continuous demands for tribute
Describe the timeline of early French colonization of the New World.
1) 1599: Pierre Chauvin and Dugua de Mons established a year-round trading post at Tadoussac 2) 1604: De Mons returned with Samuel de Champlain to establish New France 3) 1608: De Mons and Champlain established the city of Quebec and an enduring alliance with the Hurron Indians 4) 1610: King Henri IV was assassinated, setting off a wave of religious violence in France and destabilizing settlement in America Important Note* Over the next decade, French colonial authorities took little interest in overseas enterprises
Describe the timeline of the formation of New Netherlands.
1) 1626: the Dutch West India Company instructs official Peter Minuit to negotiate a lease for the entire land of Manhattan from the Manhates Indians, but the focus remained upriver as the company did nothing to attract settlers 2) 1629: Only 300 colonists had spread themselves from Manhattan Island upriver to Fort Orange 3) The situation began to change when the Dutch West India Company drew up a comprehensive business plan to convince people to settle in New Netherland.
Describe the timeline of Henry Hudson's journey to the New World.
1) Henry Hudson sailed up a large river that he hoped would be the rumored Northwest Passage 2) After realizing that he had not found a route to the Far East, he returned to Holland, reporting that the territory surrounding this river was lush, the Native Americans were friendly, and the profit was plentiful 3) At first, Hudson's employers did not share his enthusiasm; however, a fashion trend of broad-brimmed bear felt hats became an immensely popular fashion trend
Describe the dramatic contrast between how Native Americans in the encomienda were supposed to be treated versus the reality that they faced.
Expectation of the Encomenderos - expected to pay a tax to the Crown for each indigenous person he received - allowed to exploit indigenous labor for nine months a year - supposed to teach his workers the Catholic faith, Spanish language, and a "civilized" vocation Reality - frequently overworked their indigenous serfs - failed in their "civilizing" responsibilities Important Note* This stark contrast was highlighted in former encomendero turn priest, Bartolome de Las Casas's report to the Council of the Indies resulting in an appeal, the Leyes Nuevas (New Laws), issued in 1542
Who was Pierre Dugua de Mons?
French Protestant investor and adventurer who helped to found the French fur trade in Canada
What is Louisiana?
French colony south of New France; it included the entire area drained by the Mississippi River and all its tributary rivers
Due to social unrest within their impoverished populations caused by to the enormous inflow of wealth from the New World, what did European monarch view as an inviting solution to this problem?
Geographical expansion into the New World
List 3 major reasons for why King Phillip II of Spain launched the Spanish Armada.
He wanted to destroy England which would... - part of his religious battle against Protestantism - rid him of Elizabeth's ongoing harassment and number one competitor in the New World - demonstrate to the rest of Europe that Spain intended to exercise absolute authority over the Atlantic world
What are patroonships?
Huge grants of land given to any Dutch West India Company stockholder who, at his own expense, brought 50 colonists to New Netherland; the colonists became the tenants of the estate owner, or patroon
What are burghers?
In New Amsterdam, me who were not Dutch West India Company officials, but who governed civic affairs through their political influence
Describe the differences between the New Netherlands government model in theory versus in reality
In Theory: - The Dutch West India company was to be in charge of the government In Reality: - day-to-day affairs were run by an elite group of burghers who economic and political success in New Amsterdam gave them significant influence Important Note* Government came to be a persistent problem for the colony
Despite Spanish presence in the southeast region being fairly small, how were they quick to strike at Native American independence and culture given a sufficient incentive.
Incentive: The need to protect Spanish ships from French settlers Response: Led Spain to establish a series of military posts (e.g. Saint Augustine) and missions from the Gulf Coast of Florida to Georgia led by Jesuit and Franciscan missionaries
What is Ácoma Pueblo?
Indian community that resisted Spanish authority in 1598 and was subdued by the Spanish
Initially what did French colonization of the New World start out as?
It started in 1599 as a response from French Protestants to the increasingly discriminatory environment at home
By the end of the 17th century, how big was the Spanish Empire in the New World?
It stretched from New Mexico southward through Central America and much of South America into the Caribbean islands and northward again into Florida
What are coureurs de bois?
Literally, "runners of the woods"; independent French fur traders who lived among the Indians and sold furs to the French
Despite the creation of the patroonship system, what did New Netherland's development truly rely on?
Many poorer migrants who were drawn by unofficial promises of land ownership and economic betterment
Who were the first Europeans to contact the mound builder societies and other Indian groups in the Southeast?
Members of Spanish exploring expeditions under future-conquistadores Ponce de León and Hernando de Soto
What are serfs?
Peasants who were bound to a particular estate but, unlike slaves, were not the personal property of the estate owner and received traditional feudal protections
Why was Spain in an enviable position when it came to New World colonization following Columbus's entry into the Americas?
Pope Alexander VI decreed that all new lands found in the New World discovered by Columbus would belong exclusively to Spain, granting that nation a monopoly on exploration (at least in the eyes of Roman Catholics) Important Note* Over the next several decades Spanish monarchs recruited hardened veterans of the Reconquista to lead their New World colonization efforts
What is ascetic?
Practicing severe abstinence or self-denial from worldly pleasures; generally in pursuit of spiritual awareness
Describe the significance of the location of Roanoke Island.
Queen Elizabeth wanted Raleigh to located farther south on the border of Spanish Florida, where an English base would facilitate raids on Philip's treasure fleets Important Note* Raleigh ended up choosing an island off the coast of present-day North Caroline and decided to call the land Virginia, in honor of the virgin Queen Elizabeth I
What is feudal?
Relating to a system in which landowners held broad powers over peasants or tenant farmers, providing protection in exchange for loyalty and labor
What is inflation?
Rising prices that occur when the supply of currency or credit grows faster than the available supply of goods and services
What is the cabildo secular?
Secular municipal council that provided local government in Spain's New World empire
In Spain, how did the labor system work and compare to the one used in New Spain?
Spain - work was directed by feudal landlords, encomenderos, whose military service to the king entitled them to harness the labor Spanish peasants New Spain - Native Americans took the place of peasants in the encomienda system - were supposed to be taught the Catholic faith, Spanish language, and a "civilized" vocation
What is Santa Fe?
Spanish colonial town established in 1609; eventually the capital of the province of New Mexico
Why was France unable to compete with Spain's New World projects?
Spanish power constantly prevented them from maintaining any long-term success. Example: When a force of French Protestants established a colony in Florida in 1564, Spanish authorities sent an army to root them out
What are conquistadores?
Spanish soldiers who conquered Native American civilizations in the New World
What are gentry?
The class of English landowners ranking just below the nobility
What is Saint Augustine?
The first colonial city in the present-day United States; located in Florida and founded for Spain in 1565 by Pedro Menendez de Aviles following the arrival of French Protestants in 1564, which led to increased Spanish vigilance
What is the Netherlands/Holland/Dutch?
The first tow terms, often used interchangeably, refer to the low-lying area in western Europe on the coast north of France and Belgium; the Dutch are the inhabitants of the Netherlands
What is the Northwest Passage?
The much-hoped-for water route from Europe to Asia through North America; the object of much European exploration throughout the colonial era
Unable to penetrate Spain's defenses in the south, where did the French concentrate their efforts?
farther north in the Northeast
Besides England, what other European country presented one of the most serious threats to Spain's New World monopoly?
the newly independent Netherlands
What was one major source of corruption and unrest that stemmed from Spain's colonial empire.
the shortage of labor, which led to the exploitation of indigenous populations under the encomienda system, which had been adapted from traditional institutions used in Spain
List three major ways that Queen Elizabeth I took action against Spain.
(1) supporting the Dutch in their rebellion against Spanish control in the Netherlands (2) authorizing privateer Francis Drake to attack Spanish ships (3) attempting to colonize in North America with Roanoke Island
List 3 major details about Don Juan de Oñate.
- A particularly brutal Spanish conquistador who led an expedition to the Rio Grande region of New Mexico - conquered and claimed New Mexico for Spain in the 1590s - when some Pueblos resisted his efforts to impose Spanish culture and religion on them (in particular Ácoma Pueblo), he acted with great violence against them
Initially how did the Company of New France attempt to drum up interest?
- At first awarded licences to a group of the king's favorites to establish plantations in Canada, but the venture failed to attract much interest
Give two examples of when Indian assistance was critical to European success in the New World.
- Aztec conquest (1519) - Incan conquest (1531)
Describe 4 examples of how gold and silver became the main goal of Spain's conquistadors and royal officials.
- Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire for its gold - used enslaved local Indians for labor in extracting precious metals out of the ground and from so called "heathen temples" - Between 1554 - 1660, Native Americans and later African slaves extracted over 7 million pounds of silver from Spanish-controlled areas - Silver and gold made Spain the richest nation in Europe
List 2 major details about Robert Cavelier Sieur de La Salle.
- French explorer who followed the Mississippi River from present-day Illinois to the Gulf of Mexico in 1683 - claimed the new territory for Louis XIV of France, naming it Louisiana in his honor
List the five major Spanish explorers/conquistadors (other than Columbus) who allowed Spain to reach its Golden Age during the Age of Exploration.
- Hernan Cortés - Juan Ponce de León - Hernando de Soto - Francisco Vásquez de Coronado - Francisco Pizarro - Vasco Núñez de Balboa
List 3 examples of how the presence of many Europeans presented both challenges and opportunities for Native Americans.
- In areas where a single European power was asserting dominance, indigenous people could often do little but bear up under relentless encounters and religious pressures - Other times, they encountered facilitated friendship, intermarriage, and the formation of complex composite societies - In areas where two or more European powers were contesting for control, indigenous people could take advantage of their pivotal position and play one side against the other in seeking their own ends
Describe 2 examples of why European rulers promoted expansion into the New World.
- Popes: Eager to enlist political allies against Protestants, popes used land grants in the New World as rewards to faithful monarchs - English Monarchs: King Henry VII and Queen Elizabeth I, constantly fearful of being outflanked by Catholic adversaries, promoted the development of a powerful English navy and geographical exploration as defensive measures.
Describe the two major reasons for why the Spanish lost the Spanish Armada.
- Queen Elizabeth's skilled pirate captains on small, maneuverable British defense ships (e.g. Sir Francis Drake and his fleet) harassed Spanish ships - a storm blowing down from the North Sea scattered the Spanish fleet
By the 17th and 18th centuries, list the four European countries that vied for control of the Americas and for domination of the transatlantic trade.
- Spain - France - England - Holland
List the major effects of Oñate's actions.
- Spanish Crown removed Oñate from title - Spanish Crown placed surviving indigenous peoples under joint military and religious protection - some members of Oñate's company remained, founding the town of Santa Fe in 1609 and setting up ranches throughout the region
Describe the 2 major effects of the Spanish Armada
- Though Spanish power remained great for some time to come, the Armada ended Spain's official monopoly over New World colonization - ended Spain's control over Holland, putting another trade-hungry Protestant colonizing power into play in the Age of Exploration
Describe the historical timeline of tension between Spain and England.
1) When King Henry VIII divorced his Spanish wife, Catherine of Aragon, Henry left the Catholic Church and began permitting Protestant reforms in England 2) Firmly wedded to the Catholic Church politically and religiously, Spain was aggressive in denouncing England. 3) Concerned primarily with domestic issues, Henry attempted to steer away from confrontations with Spain and other staunchly Catholic countries. However, Henry did move to bring Ireland under his control through colonization and land confiscation and encouraged generations of military adventures Important Note* These adventurers would shape and advance later ventures in North America 4) During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, she decided to take action against Spain by (1) supporting the Dutch in their rebellion against Spanish control in the Netherlands, (2) authorizing privateer Francis Drake to attack Spanish ships, and (3) attempting to colonize in North America with Roanoke Island 5) 1585: Elizabeth openly sends an army of 6,000 soldiers to aid the Dutch rebels. In the meantime, Phillip was supporting various Catholic plots within England as well as in Scotland and Ireland (e.g. Mary Queen of Scots), to subvert Elizabeth's authority 6) 1586: Privateer Francis Drake intensified his campaign by attacking Spanish settlements in the Caribbean; war between Spain and England was on the horizon
When did Queen Elizabeth I authorize privateer Francis Drake to attack Spanish ships?
1577
Describe Queen Elizabeth's first attempt at New World colonization
1578: Elizabeth granted Sir Humphrey Gilbert permission to settle 200 colonists south of the St. Lawrence River in modern-day Newfoundland; the effort turned out to be a disaster and Gilbert himself died at sea while trying to return to England Important Note* Soon thereafter, Gilbert's half-brother, Sir Walter Raleigh, took over the colonizing effort
When did the Oñate Expedition begin?
1598
When did Richelieu reorganize the Company of New France?
1633
When did the French Crown begin to seriously intervene with New France?
1663
When was the Pueblo Revolt?
1680
What is the Requerimiento?
A Spanish colonial law requiring conquistadores to inform Indians that they were subject to Spanish authority and offer to absorb them peacefully
Who was Hernan Cortes?
A Spanish conquistador who conquered the Aztecs in 1519 and claimed Mexico for Spain
Who was Juan Ponce de Leon?
A Spanish explorer who in 1513 and again in 1521 led expeditions to Florida; led Panfilo de Narvaez to embark on a colonizing mission to Florida in 1527
Who was Hernando de Soto?
A Spanish explorer who in 1541 discovers the Mississippi River and expanded Spanish control into the mound builder's territory in present-day Louisiana and Mississippi
What is New Sweden?
A colony of Swedish fur traders within New Netherlands that was formed in 1638
What is the Company of New France?
A company established by Cardinal Richelieu in 1627 to bring order to the running of France's North American enterprises
What is an encomendero?
A landowner/proprietor in the encomienda system, Spain's system of bonded labor in which Native Americans were assigned to Spanish plantation and mine owners in exchange for a tax payment and an agreement to "civilize" and convert them to Catholicism
What is a privateer?
A ship captain who owned his own boat, hired his own crew, and was authorized by his government to attack and capture enemy ships
List the two reasons why the the mound builder societies and other Indian groups in the Southeast were treated much differently by the Spaniards then other indigenous groups.
Although the Spaniards were impressed by their residential and ceremonial centers they... - had no gold - could not easily be enslaved
Who is Sir Walter Raleigh?
An English courtier, soldier, and aventurer who attempted to establish the Virginia Colony
Who was Francis Drake?
An English privateer who in 1577 was authorized by Queen Elizabeth I to attack Spanish ships
What is the Leyes Nuevas de 1542 (New Laws of 1542)?
An appeal signed by King Charles I of Spain, issued in 1542, and inspired by Bartolome de Las Casa's report to the Council of Indies regarding corruption within the encomienda system; turned Indian relations in New Spain over to the church and priests were assigned to enforce the laws. Important Note* As Las Casas discovered, however colonists often ignored even these slim protections.
What is Roanoke Island?
An island off North Carolina that Sir Walter Raleigh sought to colonize beginning in 1585; advertised by Raleigh as an "American Eden"
Describe the demographics of New Netherland.
Attracted an extremely diverse population, include: - German and French Protestants - free and enslaved Africans - Catholics - Jews Muslims Important Note* The Dutch even encouraged Swedish fur traders to create their own colony, New Sweden, within New Netherland's boundaries in 1638
In order to capitalize on this "brown" gold, what did the Dutch decide to do?
Build Fort Orange on the Hudson River and an export station on Manhattan Island in 1614
How were the mound builder societies and other Indian groups in the Southeast treated much differently by the Spaniards then other indigenous groups?
Conquistadores moved on without attempting to force Spanish rule or the Catholic religion on these groups.
Explain the significance of New Spain's overall government system in society.
Created a complicated caste system as transplanted Europeans (also known as Peninsulares) and their native-born offspring (Creoles, Mestizos, Mulattoes) were sorted by racial categories and afforded rights and duties accordingly.
What is the Dutch West India Company?
Dutch investment company formed in 1621 to develop colonies for the Netherlands in North America
What is Fort Orange?
Dutch trading post established near present-day Albany, New York, in 1614
