PHI 101 Ethics

Freedom and Determinism

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With extentialism, every action is not ethical because it serves to maintain or to erode authenticity.

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Hard Determinist

First, as the hard determinist argues, assuming the truth of Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, we are talking of events on the subatomic level, whereas human actions occur on the macroscopic level of Newtonian physics.

Additional Existentialist Themes

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Challenges with Psychological Behaviorism

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Hard determinism faces a number of challenges:

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Topic 03: Existentialism

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Criticisms of Economic Determinism

1. Although many find it an attractive theory, it rests on a number of unproven assumptions, despite its claims to be scientific. As one former communist professor remarked, "Of course it is a beautiful theory; the problem is that it simply doesn't work!" 2. Economic determinism is one economic theory among many others; for example, John Maynard Keynes, Adam Smith, and others have set forth economic theories. As other theories demonstrate, determinism need not be a part of the theory. 3. Economics is only one among many influences which affects personal or social development. Others include our culture, language, religion, and education, to say nothing of scientific and technological advances. The invention of the Internet now allows many people to work from home. In many cases, there is reciprocity of influence in that economics influences some things and is influenced by other things; for example, venture capital can fuel new technological developments, which in turn creates new business that influences the lives of people and economics. 4. Human beings also influence economics as seen in the activities of entrepreneurs and the creation of new businesses and services.

The Choice to Accept Salvation

A supernatural being that would predestine some to eternal salvation and others to eternal damnation appears to contradict the understanding of God held by most Jews, Christians, and Muslims. Predestination denies, as seen in Calvin, that humans can do anything to merit salvation. Those who argue for predestination often argue that salvation is a gift, and God has the right to offer that gift to whomever God may please and deny it to others. But this view contradicts the commonly held belief that God is all-loving. If one of the attributes of God's nature is love, is it within God's power to contradict God's nature by refusing to offer the gift of salvation to all? On this view, some would elect to accept God's gift while others would elect to refuse it, but the choice remains with the individual.

Who Am I?

Alienation or estrangement—this feeling is a consequence of the sense of separation one has from life, from others around oneself, and even from one's own self. It is the feeling that one is a stranger to oneself and to the world. Hostility to to closed systems—the rejection of closed systems, whether religious or secular, which attempt to define oneself and one's place in the world. We can never escape ourselves and view knowledge as though it were something which exists separate and apart from oneself, for example Hegel's System. There is also a fear of intolerance on the part of those who claim to have the absolute truth, and who insist that others accept their absolute truth—a characteristic of fundamentalism.

The Question

Anguish, anxiety, fear, or dread—these manifest themselves in a free-floating way, meaning they are not directed toward any particular object. The realization of our own mortality, of our finiteness, and the uncertainty which attends it is one source of this dread; thus, death is another theme commonly encountered in existentialism.Absurdity is also a common theme. On a fundamental level, there is no explanation for my existence as a human being; I am simply thrown into existence at this place and time, but why now? And why here as opposed to some other place and time?

Overlap Among Themes

As you may have noted, there is a fair amount of overlap among these themes. The goal that our existence precedes our essence relates to living authentically wherein we create our own meaning in the world. And these in turn relate to alienation or estrangement, for the one who, by choice or by default, chooses to live an inauthentic life is alienated or estranged. And if we are to create meaning in our lives, we must also face the anguish, anxiety, fear, dread, and absurdity which confront us. We must also find this meaning for ourselves, as opposed to relying on some closed system to provide it for us.

Authenticity

Authenticity, or authentic existence—the idea that we must examine our life through questioning our purpose in life and accept the responsibility which attends our actions. One is more than a collection of facts, or what Sartre calls facticity. One's identity includes such things as our hopes, desires, aspirations, and intentions, or what Sartre calls our transcendence. One who refuses to accept oneself in terms of one's facticity and transcendence is living in "bad faith," which manifests itself in two forms. As concerns one's facticity, one may refuse to believe some basic facts about one's self. Regarding transcendence, one may refuse to acknowledge that one has the potential to exercise one's freedom to change.

Criticisms of Biological and Genetic Determinism

Biological and genetic determinism encounters the same problem as physical determinism in that it also fails to recognize the mental or spiritual aspect of the human organism. Richard Lewontin (b. 1929), an American evolutionary biologist, also offers a critique of biological determinism in Biology as Ideology: The Doctrine of DNA (1991). Lewontin argues that Darwinism has looked at the organism as being a passive recipient of environmental forces. To the contrary, Lewontin asserts that organisms are not only acted upon by the environment, but they also act upon the environment: the relationship is reciprocal. An organism's ability to act upon the environment also raises questions related to freedom. For example, is the organism's action on the environment strictly a matter of determinism, or is choice a factor? When some people are confronted with the issue of choice, they counter by saying I am what I am! This is expressive of the idea some people have that they are hard-wired to be lustful or gluttonous.

Existentialist and Ethics-Breisach

Breisach (1962) says that we can discern a few aspects of the existentialist orientation toward ethics: One must be willing to overcome one's own inertia that is present in the temptation not to exercise one's choice, but to simply adopt some view from an ethical system One must accept the challenge to live into one's uniqueness rather than to betray it for the sake of comfort or security One must recognize the demand to fulfill one's own potential by developing one's gifts and abilities, what Sartre calls "transcending oneself constantly." One must act out of what Kierkegaard calls one's "inwardness," out of personal involvement In addition to these aspects, the religious existentialists, including Berdyaev, Buber, Jaspers, Kierkegaard, Marcel, Tillich, and Unamuno, recognize that one must strive to attain "a true and living relation to God" (Breisach, 1962). From the standpoint of the religious existentialists, authentic existence can only be lived in relation to God.

Biological Determinism

Charles Darwin's Origin of Species (1859) sets forth his theory of natural selection, a biologically determined process which has nothing to do with freedom. Darwin observed a slight variation in traits among members of a species and noted that species tend to multiply exponentially over generations. This exponential growth combined with such things as predation, disease and limited resources, as well as inter-species competition for resources means that a struggle for survival occurs. Some of the natural traits possessed by certain members give them a competitive advantage over other members; for example, being able to move faster than other members makes them less subject to predation. As a consequence, these members are better able to survive and they leave more offspring, which tend to inherit the beneficial traits of their parents. These competitive advantages, or favorable conditions, are thus passed on more frequently than unfavorable conditions, that is, they are "naturally selected."

Topic 01: Determinism

Charlie dreams of one day becoming a famous musician. As a determinist, he believes his fate is in God's hands. Charlie only practices with his band once a month. However, he is not anxious about making his dream a reality through actions of his own because he believes there is nothing he can do to influence his fate. Charlie believes God already knows how he will live his life and how he will die. Determinism is the belief things are destined to happen in a single, predestined way. The term is not limited to the religious sphere, either. Other types of determinism include psychological, physical, genetic, historical, and economic. What is the difference between these different forms of determinism?

Review

Charlie's laissez-faire attitude toward his goals reveals he is a determinist. This school of thought argues an individual's fate is fixed, regardless of actions. Charlie might apply his deterministic views to other fields, including science, history, and economics. For example, he might believe in genetic determinism, the theory genes determine our evolutionary potential. If one of his parents is also musically talented, Charlie would chalk his skills up to pure genetics. This could act as another explanation behind his lack of drive and practice. He might also agree with Karl Marx's theory of economic determinism called dialectical determinism. This argues our character and actions are determined by social and economic conditions. By now you should be familiar with philosophical determinist theory as applied to the realms of science, history, economics, and philosophy.

Soft Determinism

Compatibilism, or soft determinism, which allows for the fact that humans can be the cause of their own actions, is the only position which is consistent with free will and choice. Compatibilism is consistent with hard determinism in that it also believes that all events are caused, but it differs by thinking that some of those causes may stem from our own will and ability to choose. For these reasons, compatibilism is the only view which is consistent with morality; compatibilism allows us to assign moral culpability, for it maintains that humans can act as free agents and, through the exercise of the will, determine their own actions.

An Ideal World Without Freedom to Act?

Critics also point to the denial of freedom and the idea that operant conditioning could be used to create an ideal society as problematic. Despite his publication of Walden II, a utopian novel based on operant conditioning, Skinner never developed a complete blueprint for a conditioned society. Furthermore, many have problems accepting the idea that an ideal society can be built by means of conditioning, for doesn't such a society reflect choice and the freedom to act? How can one construct an ideal society without having the freedom to do so?

Biolological Determinism

Darwin's Origin of Species 1859 An advance over Darwin, for it recognized the role of genetic material as well as the environment. Theory of Natural Selection: variation in traits among members of a species equip some for better survival rates; these leave more offspring which inherit the beneficial traits of the parents; these beneficial traits are in turn passed on to others. Richard Lewontin (1929-) argues that Darwin failed to realize that organisms are not only acted upon by the environment, but they also act on the environment - there is a reciprocity of action. Over extended periods of time, the species slowly evolves

David Hume

David Hume agrees that every event must have a cause, but as he points out, we cannot provide a rational justification for claiming that an event has a cause. To the contrary, we know causes and effects only through experience; our prediction of cause and effect rests upon prior experience, or as Hume says, "custom." Hume held that our actions follow from our character or disposition, yet acknowledges that they are caused, for if not caused they would be due to chance, and it would make no sense to hold one morally culpable for chance events.

Existentialism and Ethics

Existentialism is a call to a radical kind of freedom, for it holds that we are not governed by human nature or some given essence. Rather, we possess the freedom to create our own meaning in a meaningless world. The acceptance and the exercise of that freedom is a large part of what is meant by living authentically. Every action is therefore ethical in that it serves to maintain or to erode authenticity. Self-estrangement, or self-alienation, wherein one lives an inauthentic existence, is a crime against one's own self and is the worst thing that one can do. To live in bad faith is a form of evil. Values and moral frameworks, including rules and principles, are not to be blindly accepted. One must weigh values and rules in light of one's own subjectivity. As Sartre points out, given the commandment to "love your neighbor" is anything but clear in particular situations. We must ask what the commandment means, or how it is to be applied, in those situations.

Existentialist and Ethics

Existentialists agree that every act is an act of creation, for one is in the process of constructing oneself—some assembly required! We may not always be aware of these acts of creation. One who lives in authenticity freely chooses in full awareness and accepts the risk and responsibility for having done so. The inauthentic individual will blindly allow a set of rules or principles to make the choice. For this reason, some may look upon existentialism as promoting anarchy. But two things must be kept in mind: First, the existentialist recognizes that each decision is one which involves the creation of the self and is irreversible. This should go a long way toward precluding recklessness. Second, earlier schools of ethics have a sense of invention or creation about them which is not generally recognized. Consider Kant's categorical imperative: Act on that personal maxim you would desire become a universal law. In this manner, the existentialist reminds us that "the existing individual and his action must escape rigid systematization" (Breisach, 1962).

Existentialist Critique of Hard Determinism

Existentialists recognize the hard determinism witnessed in natural science, but like the compatibilist, they recognize that as agents we have the freedom to choose, and further reason that we must not only recognize that freedom but act upon it. All of the knowledge that we have at our disposal cannot force a decision. As Kierkegaard noted, we can deliberate over a choice for an extended period of time, but if deliberation is ever to cease, at some point we must will and must act on the basis of that will, or stated somewhat differently, we must choose and act on the basis of our choice.

Fatalism and Hard Determinism

Fatalism and hard determinism are alike in their denial of freedom and free will. For example, consider the child who was severely abused and mistreated by his drunken and enraged step-father. The hard determinist would hold that it makes no sense for us to hold such a person responsible; the causal chain of events leading up to the murder was sufficient to cause the young man to commit murder. If the events were sufficient to cause the murder, the young man had no choice in the matter, and apart from the freedom to choose, one cannot be held morally culpable for one's actions. Apart from freedom, it makes no sense to commend or to condemn an action.

Human Complexity

First, one could maintain that hard determinism fails to recognize the complexity of human beings, that we are more than a physical organism responding to stimuli, for we have a mind and we are capable of complex deliberation. Thus it may be the case that the mind itself is capable of causing events to occur, and in that sense, we may be said to be free. For example, as Hosper (1961) notes, we can aspire and will to change certain behaviors such that we stop smoking, lose weight, change to a more nutritious diet, and so on. The aspiration may stem from reasons beyond our control, but can we say that willfully acting on those aspirations is determined?

The Dialetic

For Hegel, the manner in which we view our world is determined by the period of history, society, and language into which we are born. We must recognize that we are part of the manifestation of "Spirit." Our character and actions are determined by our culture. The truth consists of the whole - the unity of all of our consciousness and the world. Truth is not static - it is "becoming" or developmental; it develops as our human mind and the "Self" develops. This process of development through conflict and confrontation is what Hegel calls the dialectic.

Genetic Determinism

Genetic determinism represents an advance over Darwin's theory of natural selection in that it gives a more complete picture of what actually transpires. Genetic determinism traces its roots to the Austrian evolutionary biologist, August Weismann. In the 1890's, Weismann theorized that genes are the crucial actors in the evolutionary struggle as opposed to organisms. As our understanding of genetics increased, genetic determinism came to recognize that both genes (DNA) and environmental conditions determine the form, or shape, as well as the behavioral traits of an organism.

Operation of Will

Given that we can be said to be the cause of our own actions through the operation of the will, it follows that we have some degree of freedom. Everything remains determined, and everything has a cause, but we are the cause of those actions we choose to will. Even so, the hard determinists have problems with this position, for they contend that there is a chain of causation which extends beyond the exercise of our will and choice.

No Freedom - Only Hard Determinism

Hard determinism is grounded in physical determinism - all events are the inevitable consequence of some prior cause or set of conditions. Our actions result from natural causes, the laws of nature, which are beyond our ability to control. Hard determinism is very different from fatalism. Fatalism maintains that events are inevitable regardless of what actions one takes, that it is beyond one's power to control or alter the future; for example, that one will die of self-inflicted gunshot wounds. Try as one might to avoid such a fate, the fatalist maintains that it is going to occur. In contrast, hard determinism holds that an event will happen only if antecedent conditions are fulfilled. Consider death by self-inflicted gunshot wounds: the hard determinist says that a set of conditions must be met if this is going to occur, that is, one must handle a gun, the gun must be loaded, the safety must be off, and so on. If one of these conditions is not met, then the event will not occur.

Hegel's Historical Determinism

Hegel's historical determinism is set forth in his Phenomenology of Spirit (1807). Hegel was more concerned with the question of determinism as it relates to a universal "Mind" or "Spirit," as opposed to individual freedom or determinism. Hegel took the position that consciousness and the world are not two distinctly separate things; rather they are inseparable, for there can be no world apart from consciousness. Hegel further reasoned that we must abandon the idea of a "self" as something which we possess, and recognize that the self is a part of the "Self," "Mind," or "Spirit," in which we all participate. Reality, according to Hegel, is a product of the cosmic 'Mind" or "Spirit," which is working its way through a series of stages of development, or forms of consciousness. These forms of consciousness develop from prior forms through improvement or opposition; they are slowly and inevitably working their way to some final end.

Criticism of Historical Determinism

Historical or cultural determinism suffers a number of criticisms. First, the existence of an absolute Mind or Spirit is conjectural and exceedingly difficult to prove. Could such a Mind or Spirit exist in disembodied form? Second, Hegel's theory of historical development competes with other theories of historical development, including that of Karl Marx. There is no way of demonstrating that such a theory accurately captures what is taking place in history. Third, even if we admit that humans are influenced by their era in history, culture, and language, this does not preclude the role of personal freedom.

Introduction

Howard has an innate talent for playing the piano. As a child, he took private lessons. In fact, practicing for hours was Howard's favorite activity. When it came time to go to college and choose a major, he studied law per his parents' request. Now he is a talented lawyer. He knows the job appeases his parents and provides him with a comfortable standard of living—so why is Howard feeling anxious and unhappy? Howard is unhappy because he is living in bad faith. Bad faith is an existentialist term referring to people denying their total freedom of will. As an existentialist, Howard knows he is responsible for creating meaning in what is otherwise a meaningless world. Before law school, he dreamed of becoming a piano virtuoso and had the skill to accomplish it. Howard is living un-authentically by failing to go down his true life path.

Review

Howard is denying his authenticity and living in bad faith by refusing to pursue his aspiration as a pianist. Therefore, Howard feels alienated from the world. On a daily basis, he confronts feelings of anguish, anxiety, fear, dread, and absurdity. Howard knows his current life path is not supplying the sense of meaning he seeks so desperately. The only way for Howard to restore happiness is to accept his musical gift and pursue music as a career. By doing so, Howard would live an authentic life that fulfills his true self. Are you living in bad faith? In what ways are you living an authentic life?

Free Will

If God, or a supernatural being, created the universe and everything in it, then God must also have created evil. Those who argue against this criticism, and against predestination, maintain that God created humankind with the ability to make choices, and that humankind chose to disobey God's law, or commandments, and evil entered the world as a consequence of our choices. St. Augustine (354 - 430) maintained the view that God, out of God's goodness, created us free because free actions are better than those which are not. Augustine further held the improper exercise of our freedom introduced evil into the world.

Immanuel Kant

Immanuel Kant recognized determinism and the principle of universal causation, but also maintained the necessity of freedom. Kant resolved this seemingly contradictory stance by arguing that determinism holds for every event and for every object of knowledge, but he maintained that we cannot conclude that it holds for every act of will or decision to act. Action and knowledge are two different things. Our own acts of will serve as the cause of our actions. Kant further held that it was impossible to examine our acts of will in terms of prior causes.

All Knowing?

In Western theology, especially as it is practiced in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, God, as the supernatural being, is ascribed certain attributes. These attributes include omnipresence, omnipotence, and omniscience, among others. Given that God possesses these attributes, it is argued that God knows all of our past, present, and future actions and all actions everywhere in the world and the universe. If God knows these actions, many conclude that God has caused these actions. This gives rise to the problem of predestination, for if God is all knowing, God knows what I have done, what I am currently doing, and what I will do in the future, and God has known these things forever. The question follows, if God knows all of my actions - past, present, and future—isn't my fate inevitable? If so, how could I be free?

Existentialism Denies Hard Determinism

In summary, existentialism denies hard determinism on the basis that human beings are moral agents who possess the ability to choose. Also, hard determinism is a closed system that would deny freedom. In that we have this ability to choose, we are not only free, but we are "condemned to be free;" we can choose not to choose, but one who does so has already chosen. And the one who chooses not to choose is guilty of "bad faith" and is lacking in authenticity. You have probably known people who consider themselves to be a victim of circumstances; such people simply acquiesce to things which affect them. Existentialism takes the opposite approach; despite crushing circumstances, the existentialist believes one can choose how one will respond.

Indeterminism

Indeterminism holds that universal causation may not always be the case, that not every event is the inevitable consequent of prior causes. In this respect, it appears that free will may be possible, for some human events might be uncaused. The work of Werner Heisenberg (1901 - 1976), a quantum physicist, revealed the impossibility of knowing both the location and the momentum of a sub-atomic particle. This came to be known as Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. Building on Heisenberg's work, Sir Arthur Eddington (1882 - 1944), a British astrophysicist, argued that determinism is false, that we cannot predict every event with certainty. Indeterminism in the subatomic world is now accepted by some quantum physicists. In that everything may not be determined, then human actions may not be subject to determinism.

Can one be a fatalist?

It is unlikely that anyone could live with a fatalistic attitude in all things, for doing so would fail to exercise any prudence or common sense at all. Why bother to exercise, to eat nutritious food, to have annual health checkups, and so on? Nothing you do or fail to do will make any difference whatsoever. It is more likely that one sometimes finds oneself wondering if fate might have played a role in some outcome.

Choice in Given Circumstances

John Paul Sartre (1905-1980) acknowledged a level of determinism, for we cannot choose where or when we are born, but he further maintained that we are free to choose within our circumstances. For instance, we may be born in very unusual circumstances, as handicapped, or learning impaired, but we are free to choose how we will respond to, or live with, such impairments. Sartre further acknowledges that we can choose not to choose, but he also reminds us that in doing so, we have already chosen! As Sartre puts it, we are "condemned to be free." Yes, desires, longings, and impulses may come into consideration, but these considerations do not determine our response, for we have the freedom to choose to act against the desire, longing, or impulse. I might desire to eat, but if I am dieting or fasting, I will not yield to that desire.

John Stuart Mill

John Stuart Mill holds that the human will is not determined by external constraints; to the contrary, the will determines itself. Yes, all of our actions are determined and are subject to causes, but these causes are under the control of our own will. As such, we can cause our own events and even cause changes within our own character. According Mill, freedom is simply the ability to act in accord with one's own character, desires, wishes, and aversions, and this ability rests within our own will.

Topic 02: Ethics and Freedom

Jose just got word he has terminal lung cancer. He has been a smoker his entire life and is not surprised by the news. In fact, Jose is relatively relaxed. He believes if he is fated to overcome cancer he will. Likewise, if he is fated to die from cancer, he has already accepted that potential outcome, too. Since he so strongly believes in fate, Jose refuses to undergo chemotherapy, which he has been told will have painful consequences. Jose's belief he cannot change his fate makes him a fatalist. He does not see the point in trying to get better when he knows his destiny will play out regardless of his actions.

Review

Jose's wife Maria is distraught after hearing her husband has lung cancer. She loves him and is upset he refuses to undergo chemotherapy. She believes the treatment will save his life. Maria thinks our actions influence our lives because people are essentially free. Unlike Jose, Maria is an indeterminist. Maria and Jose represent two battling points of view: determinism and indeterminism. While one theory argues humans are incapable of altering their predetermined life path, the other argues humans can play a role in shaping their destiny. Within these two main schools of thought, there are different levels of determinism, and a third option called compatibilism, which argues that freedom and determinism can coexist. To which theory do you prescribe? If you were in Jose's shoes, would you undergo treatment, or leave it up to fate?

Marx's Economic Determinism

Karl Marx (1818 - 1883) was strongly influenced by Hegel's philosophy, but he came to believe that Hegel had inverted the dialectic of history—ideas do not determine history; rather history, especially economic history, determines ideas. Marx combined Hegel's concept of dialectic as a historical force which is moving us toward "Absolute Knowledge" with a materialist conception of nature and science to come up with the idea of dialectical materialism. On this view, our characters and actions are not the inevitable outcome of history, for they are, to the contrary, determined by social and economic conditions as manifested through class struggle. These economic forces act upon us, and they strongly influence us and our actions. Marx viewed human history, especially economic history, as an inevitable evolutionary process leading from agrarian economics through a series of stages including monarchism, feudalism, industrialism, and capitalism, which will ultimately culminate in socialism. Under socialism, we will enter the era of a classless society.

Kierkegaard vs Hegel

Kierkegaard's attack on Hegel's System was relentless: "Each age has its own characteristic depravity. Ours is perhaps not pleasure and indulgence or sensuality, but rather a dissolute pantheistic contempt for the individual man" (Kierkegaard, 1941). Hegel's System is grounded in pantheism, in that everything, including humans, participates in the "Self," or in God,

Overview

Leslie is a recent college graduate with a degree in psychology. She is struggling to decide between going to graduate school and pursuing a teaching certification. She knows she has the power to shape her future based on each decision she makes. Leslie is afraid of making the wrong choice and irreparably heading down the wrong life path. Leslie believes that she must create meaning in her own life. We can glean from Leslie's behavior she believes in free will. Leslie believes everything has a cause, and she can be the cause of her own actions. In that sense, she is free to shape her own life. While the belief is liberating, it's also a source of anxiety, anguish, and fear for Leslie. She knows if she doesn't follow the correct path and live authentically, her life will have no meaning. Leslie's view is only one philosophy about how our lives unfold. The theory of determinism lies on the other side of the spectrum. It is the belief that there is only one possible outcome for our lives, which is set in stone from the day we are born. The philosophy of determinism can be applied in many spheres. In Origin of Species, English naturalist Charles Darwin proposed the philosophy of natural selection, which uses biology to explain which animals are more likely to survive. This question of whether our lives are predestined or pliable is one humans have been grappling with for centuries.

Summary

Leslie is anxious about choosing a career path. She knows her decision to choose graduate school or teaching is one that will shape her life forever. Leslie is surprised when her parents tell her not to worry. They advise her to choose the career path that feels right. They believe that God is watching out for her and already knows how her life will unfold. They argue Leslie's choices are not responsible for her fate. What life philosophy do Leslie's parents hold? Since they believe fate is out of her hands, they could be considered determinists or fatalists. Both theories are alike in that they deny the existence of free will. As a result, Leslie's parents do not hold their daughter accountable for her choices because they believe her path, or fate, is already set in stone by God. If, however, her parents believed both determinism and choice played a part in Leslie's life, they would be considered compatibilists. Leslie's beliefs couldn't be more different than those of her parents. She is an existentialist because she believes that she makes her own meaning in life through personal choices.

Skinner's Physical Phenomenon

Many find Skinner's entirely physical view of humans to be unrealistic and unacceptable. Grahm further notes that Carl Hempel, a German-American philosopher, abandoned behaviorism as he "came to believe that it is a mistake to imagine that human behavior can be understood exclusively in non-mental behavioristic terms." In Skinner's view, everything can be reduced to physical phenomena. Grahm (2010), a professor at the Neuroscience Institute, further points out that psychology and philosophy have come to realize that "the explanation of behavior cannot omit a creature's representation of its world." That is, behavior cannot be understood apart from mental processes.

Morality and Moral Culpability

Morality and moral culpability only make sense if one is free to exercise one's will such that one chooses one's own actions. There is no morality apart from freedom. The study of ethics and morality presumes freedom. Fatalism denies us freedom on the basis that some future event is inevitable; regardless of the circumstances, the event will come to pass. Hard determinism also denies the existence of freedom on the basis that everything is the inevitable consequence of some sufficient cause. Indeterminism ends up denying us freedom, for if events and actions are undetermined, human choice and free will cannot be said to have caused the events, and apart from human choice and free will, praise or blame, reward or punishment makes no sense at all.

A Matter of Circumstance or Fate?

On occasion, though, a story comes along that really makes one wonder. On March 6, 2002, the BBC reported a story entitled "Finnish Twins Joined in Death" that reported that seventy year old twin brothers were killed two hours apart on the same highway. The story reports, "The first of the twins died when he was hit by a lorry while riding his bike in Raahe....About two hours later, his brother crossed the same road on his bicycle and was also hit and killed by a lorry. He died just 1.5 km from the spot where his brother was killed....Police in Raahe say that it is unlikely that the second man knew that his brother had already been killed, as they had not yet informed the family of the accident" (BBC News, 2002). Was this a matter of circumstance or a matter of fate?

Psychological Determinism

One's personal development is influenced by repressed early childhood experiences which result from unresolved conflicts; if not dealt with, the repressed material can result in various mental disturbances including anxiety, depression, and neurosis.

Species Change

Over an extended period of time in relatively stable environments, the character of the species slowly changes or evolves. Over millions of years, such change accrues that a portion of the ancestor species is recognized as a new species (Lennox, 2010).

Physical Determinism

Physical determinism is grounded in the laws of physics. This view was popularized by Sir Isaac Newton (1642 - 1727) following his discovery of the law of gravitation and the laws of mechanics. Newton's discovery was aided by the prior work of Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler. The law of gravity applies to every object in the universe. As everything is physical, all physical processes, everything that occurs, including human behavior, is subject to the laws of nature. Thus, Newton maintained that freedom is an illusion. As a consequence of the discovery of the laws of physics, people began to wonder if other aspects of reality were also subject to fixed laws—for example, social conditions and progress, economics, and psychology. Pierre Simon Laplace (1749 - 1827), a French astronomer and mathematician, argued as follows: An intellect which at any given moment knew all the forces that animate Nature and the mutual positions of the beings that comprise it, if this intellect were vast enough to submit its data to analysis, could condense into a single formula the movement of the greatest bodies of the universe and that of the lightest atom: for such an intellect nothing could be uncertain; and the future just like the past would be present before our eyes (Stewart, 1997). Ultimately this view became known as "Laplacian Determinism," and accordingly, the intellect was named "Laplace's Demon." On this view, given the current state of the universe and the laws of nature, one can predict the continued unfolding of the universe. All of our future actions are already determined.

Predestination Debate

Predestination has been criticized on several counts. The debate over predestination has persisted for centuries and is still prevalent in some circles today. The doctrine is not widely held among Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Criticisms include:

Criticisms of Freudian Psychology

Psychoanalysis has been criticized for its lack of empirical verification. The theory remains unsubstantiated and is often cited for its failure to meet Karl Popper's falsifiability test. Karl Popper (1902 - 1994), an Austrian-born Professor of Logic and Scientific Method at the London School of Economics, maintained that a theory must be capable of falsification if it were a scientific theory. If not, it was only a pseudo-theory. Falsification of a theory means that it must be logically possible for some state of affairs to refute the theory. On this view, a theory is sound if it resists attempts to falsify through observation or experiment. In the case of psychoanalytic theory, the objections are accounted for in terms of the theory; thus, nothing seems to count against it. For this reason, it is seen as pseudo-scientific.

Psychological Determinism - Psychological Behaviorism

Psychological behaviorism originated with the work of Ivan Pavlov (1849 - 1936), a Russian psychologist who discovered that a dog can be conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell if the bell is rung whenever the dog is given food. Pavlov named this response a "conditioned reflex." Conditioning is the process of inducing a conditioned reflex. Pavlov came to believe that all animals not only could be conditioned, but are in fact conditioned through external forces.

B.F. Skinner and Psychological Behaviorism

Psychological behaviorism received its fullest expression in the work of B. F. Skinner (1904 - 1990), an American psychologist and social philosopher. Skinner maintained that humans have no soul, psyche, or mind, and viewed such notions as outmoded and superstitious. According to Skinner, humans are entirely biological and physical; all human behavior is the result of years of conditioning at the hands of one's social and cultural environment. In his view, all human actions are determined, and freedom is another illusion which must be dispelled. Once we rid ourselves of this illusion, we will be able to create a utopian society and be rid of war, poverty, violence, and cruelty. All of this was to be achieved through operant conditioning, which employs the use of rewards and punishments for the sake of reinforcing or extinguishing learning.

Psychological Determinism - Freudian Psychology

Psychological determinism stems from Sigmund Freud's (1856 - 1939) work in psychology and psychoanalysis. Freud maintained that human behavior is determined by irrational desires that are for the most part unconscious. One's personal development is influenced by early childhood experiences. In childhood, we repress experiences which result from unresolved conflicts; if not dealt with, the repressed material can result in various mental disturbances including anxiety, depression, and neurosis. Freudian psychoanalysis employs the method of free association, wherein the patient tells the therapist what comes to mind when the therapist raises certain topics. Free association is viewed as a means whereby the patient can unlock repressed material, thereby bringing it to the level of consciousness where it can be appropriately processed.

Science and Determinism

Scientific determinism is the view that every event in the universe is determined in accordance with the laws of nature. Stated somewhat differently, every event is the inevitable consequence of some sufficient cause; that is, if certain conditions are met, then a certain event will take place. For example, if oxygen, a combustible material, and an open flame are in immediate proximity, then the combustible material will burst into flame. In this case, the oxygen, combustible material and the open flame are called necessary conditions. The absence of any one of these necessary conditions assures that the combustible material does not catch fire. The set of necessary conditions are the sufficient cause of the combustible material catching fire. We will examine two types of scientific determinism: 1) physical science and physical determinism, and 2) biological and genetic determinism.

Wishful Thinking

Second, hard determinists point out that indeterminism may simply be a matter of wishful thinking, that the preponderance of evidence points to universal causation. In response, the indeterminist could argue that the hard determinist's insistence upon universal causation may stem from the desire to abdicate their own moral responsibility, for charges of wishful thinking and desire can cut both ways.

The Role of Morality in Lives

Second, one can challenge the hard determinist's insistence that morality does not exist by pointing to the fact that morality plays a large role in our lives - from all appearances we are free and we do hold people morally culpable for their actions. Therefore, hard determinism must be flawed. In response, the hard determinist would confront us with the fact of universal causation, and further reason that morality and moral culpability are illusions that should be discarded. Terms such as "bad" or "good" are not based on personal merit or fault, for our actions result from inevitable causes that are beyond our control. Such terms are of no use unless they serve to alter one's patterns of behavior through cultural reinforcement.

Freedom and Soft Determinism

Soft determinism, or compatibilism, as it is often called, maintains that human freedom and determinism are compatible positions. The compatibilist accepts the fact of universal causation but further maintains that some of this causation stems from our ability to exercise our minds or wills. On this view, an action is said to be free if it flows from one's character; we are agents capable of causing our own actions. Three noted philosophers hold this position - John Stuart Mill, David Hume, and Immanuel Kant.

Predestination

The doctrine of predestination arose during the Protestant Reformation when the question of how one is to be saved from eternal damnation was being debated. If one is to be saved from eternal damnation, then one must be justified, or enter into a right relation with God. Although the Catholic Church had always stressed justification by faith, the era prior to the Reformation was corrupt as witnessed by the sale of indulgences. Many also believed that one could earn their salvation through good works. Martin Luther (1483 - 1546), a German priest, held that salvation comes through faith alone; it is a gift of God's grace. John Calvin (1509 - 1564) agreed with Luther, but further held that there was nothing which one could do of one's self to merit salvation. Calvin further argued in the Institutes of the Christian Religion for the doctrine of election, whereby God has elected some to eternal salvation and others to eternal damnation: "God's eternal decree, by which He compacted with himself what he willed to become of each man. For all are not created in equal condition; rather, eternal life is foreordained for some, eternal damnation for others" (Inst. III, 21, 5).

Proof of a Supernatural Being

The doctrine presupposes the existence of God, or a supernatural being. It is generally agreed that the existence of a supernatural being is beyond the realm of proof. But further, supposing we were able to prove the existence of God, or a supernatural being, one would still have the problem of proving that the Being possesses the attributes of omnipresence, omniscience, and omnipotence, that this Being is the creator of the universe, and that the universe has been programmed or predestined to unfold in a given manner.

Existentialist Themes

The number of existentialist themes which serve to identify existentialism varies from one author to another. Some identify ten, others seven, and others six. Major themes include: Existence precedes essence—on this view, the idea of human nature is flawed. Human beings are not governed by human nature or some essence; rather, they are conscious individuals who must develop their own sense of self through the choices they make. As such, humans must live in an awareness of the mystery of human existence and create their own meaning in a world devoid of meaning. We must beware of shutting ourselves off from growth, of choosing to live life as a spectator. As the old saying goes, "This is not a dress rehearsal!"

Physical Determinism

The theory that everything is physical. All physical processes, everything that occurs, including human behavior, is subject to the laws of nature.

Economic Determinism

The view that our characters and actions are not the inevitable outcome of history, but determined by social and economic conditions as manifested through class struggle.

Genetic Determinism

Theorizes that both genes (DNA) and environmental conditions determine the form, or shape, as well as the behavioral traits of an organism.

Historical Determinism

Theory that there are a series of stages of development that develop from prior forms through improvement or opposition, inevitably working their way to some final end.

Defining Themes of Existentialism

There is no simple definition for existentialism, for it encompasses a number of themes touched on by several existentialist philosophers and authors. Soren Kierkegaard (1813 - 1855), a Danish philosopher, is generally credited with being the "father" of existentialism. Kierkegaard reacted to Hegel's System, which holds that the self is a part of the "Self," "Mind," or "Spirit," in which we all participate. "Mind" or "Spirit" is working its way through a series of stages of development, or forms of consciousness. These stages of development emerge from prior stages through improvement or opposition, and they are slowly and inevitably working their way to "Absolute Knowledge." Baldwin (1995), a British philosopher, notes: "'Existentialism is a loose term for the reaction, led by Kierkegaard, against the abstract rationalism of Hegel's philosophy. As against Hegel's conception of 'absolute consciousness' within which all oppositions are supposedly reconciled, Kierkegaard insisted on the irreducibility of the subjective, personal dimension of human life."

Does Indeterminism Solve Anything?

Third, and perhaps strongest, hard determinists and compatibilists both argue that indeterminism does not really solve anything. The indeterminism of quantum physics, which some allege allows for human freedom, does not really seem to solve anything. After all, if a human action takes place of its own accord, if it is not grounded in human choice and will, then how can one be held morally culpable and be punished for something that he or she did not cause? Conversely, how could one be praised and rewarded for something which did not stem from one's own volition? From this view, indeterminism disallows human freedom.

What Do Freedom and Choice Really Mean?

Third, it may be argued that the hard determinist is inappropriately using words such as "freedom" and "choice." In the hard determinist's view, we are not really free unless we can determine when and where we are born, into what cultural circumstances we are born, and the nature of our "original character." Hospers (1961) points out that if we are "free" to change these circumstances and our original character, we would have had to exist before coming into existence, and that is not only impossible, it is also illogical and self-contradictory. Freedom does not mean the absence of all constraints; it rather means the ability to make choices within a set of constraints. By analogy, a train is only free to move so long as it is constrained within the tracks; if the train derails, it is no longer free to move but must be moved and placed back on the tracks.

Existentialism states that we are not governed by human nature or some given essence

True

With existentialism, we possess the freedom to create our own meaning in a meaningless world

True

Criticisms of Physical Determinism

Two major criticisms have been levied against physical determinism. First, the assumption that everything in the universe is physical is open to question, for most people hold that humans are not only physical, but also mental or spiritual entities. Physical laws may not apply to mental or spiritual entities, so freedom may still be possible. Second, the work of Werner Heisenberg (1901 - 1976) in modern day quantum physics has demonstrated the impossibility of knowing both the location and the momentum of subatomic particles. Physical determinism seems to apply in the realm of Newtonian physics, but not in the realm of quantum physics, and many believe this leaves open the possibility of human freedom.

Can Everything be Conditioned?

We cannot deny that conditioning is a part of our lives, for we either see it or experience it in such things as smoking cessation and weight loss clinics. But it does not follow that everything is conditioned or that conditioning should be used in all situations.

Critiquing Indeterminism

William James (1842 - 1910), an American psychologist and philosopher, was a strong proponent of indeterminism. James believed the fact that humans showed remorse for some of their actions served as evidence for freedom, for if everything is the inevitable consequence of some prior cause, why should humans experience any remorse? James also felt the need to recognize human creativity and spontaneity, which would also require the exercise of free choice. Indeterminism faces some serious challenges:

No Freedom - Only Fatalism

You may recall watching a movie or a television show in which two strangers meet under exceptional circumstances, only to meet by chance encounter again. After they strike up a conversation, they find that they share many of the same interests. They begin dating, are married, and later claim that fate brought them together. Fate is given a role in many such love stories. With a little thought, we may argue it was solely circumstantial and dismiss the notion of fate.

Fatalism

is the view that regardless of one's circumstances, no matter how free they may appear to be, events are predetermined such that one's end is inevitable; the forces at work are unalterable and will unfold of necessity. In fatalism, deliberation and action are of no avail, for the end is inevitably fixed. This view is illustrated by what came to be known as the "idle argument": If it is fated for you to recover from this illness, you will recover whether you call in a doctor or not; similarly, if it is fated for you not to recover from this illness, you will not recover whether you call in a doctor or not; and either your recovery or non-recovery is fated; therefore, there is no point in calling in a doctor (Weatherford, 1995). In that the consequence is fated, one's action or inaction makes no difference at all. Given one particular consequence is inevitable regardless of one's deliberation or actions, fatalism rules out the possibility of any freedom.